ABSTRACT

A WORLD OF FLUTE MUSIC: A LOOK AT THE IMPACT OF SIKU AND

SHAKUHACHI FLUTE TRADITIONS ON WESTERN CLASSICAL

REPERTOIRE

By

Lauren C. Redburn

May 2014

This study investigates the siku of Argentina, Peru and Bolivia and Venezuela;

and the shakuhachi of Japan and their effect on Western classical flute repertoire. By

exploring the histories, construction of the flutes, and the role each flute has in its society,

a better understanding of these flutes and the cultural aesthetic in which they work will be

achieved thus creating a higher level of authenticity when performing these pieces. The

pieces being surveyed are Flute 3.2.4. by Adriana Verdié and Nesting of Cranes by Wil

Offermans. Notes on technique of what the author found useful when playing these

pieces are found at the end of each chapter.

A WORLD OF FLUTE MUSIC: A LOOK AT THE IMPACT OF SIKU AND

SHAKUHACHI FLUTE TRADITIONS ON WESTERN CLASSICAL

REPERTOIRE

A PROJECT REPORT

Presented to the Bob Cole Conservatory of Music

California State University, Long Beach

In Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree

Master of Music

Concentration in Instrumental Performance

Committee Members:

John Barcellona, D.M.A. (Chair)

Ray Briggs, Ph.D.
Adriana Verdié, Ph.D.

College Designee:

Carolyn Bremer, Ph.D.

By Lauren C. Redburn

B.A., 2012, Montana State University

May 2014
 WE, THE UNDERSIGNED MEMBERS OF THE COMMITTEE,

HAVE APPROVED THIS PROJECT REPORT

A WORLD OF FLUTE MUSIC: A LOOK AT THE IMPACT OF SIKU AND

SHAKUHACHI FLUTE TRADITIONS ON WESTERN CLASSICAL

REPERTOIRE

By

Lauren C. Redburn

COMMITTEE MEMBERS

______________________________________________________________________
John Barcellona, D.M.A. (Chair) Bob Cole Conservatory of Music

_______________________________________________________________________
Ray Briggs, Ph.D. Bob Cole Conservatory of Music

________________________________________________________________________
Adriana Verdié, Ph.D. Bob Cole Conservatory of Music

ACCEPTED AND APPROVED ON BEHALF OF THE UNIVERSITY

________________________________________________________________________
Carolyn Bremer, Ph.D.
Director, Bob Cole Conservatory of Music

California State University, Long Beach

May 2014
 WE, THE UNDERSIGNED MEMBERS OF THE COMMITTEE,

HAVE APPROVED THIS PROJECT REPORT

A WORLD OF FLUTE MUSIC: A LOOK AT THE IMPACT OF SIKU AND

SHAKUHACHI FLUTE TRADITIONS ON WESTERN CLASSICAL

REPERTOIRE

By

Lauren C. Redburn

COMMITTEE MEMBERS

______________________________________________________________________
John Barcellona, D.M.A. (Chair) Bob Cole Conservatory of Music

_______________________________________________________________________
Ray Briggs, Ph.D. Bob Cole Conservatory of Music

________________________________________________________________________
Adriana Verdié, Ph.D. Bob Cole Conservatory of Music

ACCEPTED AND APPROVED ON BEHALF OF THE UNIVERSITY

________________________________________________________________________
Carolyn Bremer, Ph.D.
Director, Bob Cole Conservatory of Music

California State University, Long Beach

May 2014
 Copyright © 2014

Lauren C. Redburn
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

First, I would like to thank the talented and dedicated professors at the Bob Cole

Conservatory of music for guiding me these last two years. I would especially like to

thank my committee members, Dr. Adriana Verdié, Dr. Ray Briggs, and Dr. John

Barcellona. All of you have helped shape my journey and through many drafts and edits

of my project report, we came up with a paper that I am proud to call mine. Another big

thank you to Dr. Alicia Doyle, who, with so much on her plate, still to finds time for all

the students at the conservatory and helped guide us through the difficult process of

finishing our project reports.

I would also like to thank my friends and family who have given me so much

encouragement along the way. They not only encouraged me to pursue a master’s

degree, but helped me along the way when things got difficult.

I would like to thank all of my flute teachers and professors who have gotten me

to where I am today, especially to Renee Westlake who has always been there to give

advice and a hug when I needed it. And a huge thank you to Dr. John Barcellona. You

encouraged me to attend the Bob Cole Conservatory and I have learned more from you

than I ever thought possible during my two years here. I would not have made it without

such a wonderful group of people helping mold my career as a flutist.

iii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS............................................................................................ iii

LIST OF TABLES....................................................................................................... v

LIST OF FIGURES...................................................................................................... vi

CHAPTER

1. INTRODUCTION............................................................................................ 1

2. PANPIPES AND THE HIGHLANDS OF SOUTH AMERICA..................... 4

Background information............................................................................ 4
Flute 3.2.4.................................................................................................. 9
Notes on Technique.................................................................................... 11
Conclusion.................................................................................................. 14

3. THE SHAKUHACHI OF JAPAN................................................................... 15

Background information............................................................................ 15
Nesting of Cranes....................................................................................... 18
Notes on Technique.................................................................................... 19
Conclusion.................................................................................................. 21

4. CONCLUSIONS.............................................................................................. 22

APPENDICES.............................................................................................................. 24

A. FIGURES......................................................................................................... 25

B. TABLES........................................................................................................... 31

C. LAUREN REDBURN GRADUATE RECITAL PROGRAM........................ 34

BIBLIOGRAPHY........................................................................................................ 36

iv
 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE Page

1. Historic Tuning of Panpipes.............................................................................. 32

2. Table of Siku Family Names Within Documented Andean Tradition.............. 33

v
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURES Page

1. Hocket............................................................................................................... 26

2. Replica of ancient ceramic panpipes................................................................. 26

3. Bone panpipes................................................................................................... 27

4. Replica of ancient hand-carved wooden panpipes............................................ 27

5. Modern day Peruvian panpipes......................................................................... 28

6. Hocketing style from the double unit siku........................................................ 9

7. Measures 11-12, Movement III. Flute 3.2.4.................................................... 10

8. Measures 32-33, Movement I. Flute 3.2.4....................................................... 11

9. Representation of "kah" syllable. Flute 3.2.4.................................................... 11

10. Notation of tone color changes. Flute 3.2.4................................................... 12

11. Flute "duet" at the beginning of the third movement. Flute 3.2.4................... 13

12. Fuke shakuhachi front and back view............................................................. 28

13. Evolution of the shakuhachi mouthpiece........................................................ 29

14. Shakuhachi notation........................................................................................ 30

15. Notation of pitch bending. Nesting of Cranes................................................ 20

vi
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Music is a global phenomenon. It has national and cultural roots that often

transcend borders. This paper explores two different regions of the world and compares

their ethnic flute traditions and the impact they have on Western classical flute technique

and repertoire, while taking a deeper look into the performance practice necessary to

emulate these cultures in solo flute music. By researching the musical history of both

regions and how it affects modern Western flute music, a better understanding of the

performance practice for each instrument can be found. This will lead to a broader,

richer repertoire for Western classical flute performers and concertgoers.

The geographical areas that will be explored are the highlands of South America

and Japan. The flutes being surveyed are the siku of southern Peru, Bolivia, Argentina,

and Venezuela and the shakuhachi of Japan. These regions were chosen based on their

musical diversity from each other as well as their similarity of having the flute as a major

instrument in the region. The music of South America is vastly different from the music

of Japan. However, both regions have a type of flute that is a highly influential

instrument in their music.

The pieces that will be studied are Flute 3.2.4. (1995) composed by Adriana

Verdié (b.1958) from Argentina and Nesting of Cranes (1999) by Wil Offermans

(b.1957) for Japan. Although these pieces are not yet recognized as standard among flute

repertoire, they are important to understanding the ways music works without borders. A
1
simple search in the flute repertoire finds that world music is a small category. These

pieces were chosen because they stood out from the rest of the repertoire as representing

their ethnicities while still maintaining the necessity of being composed for the Western

classical flute.

The focus of this paper is to better learn the history and style of non-Western

flutes in order to properly portray them on a modern Boehm system flute. Modern

flutists are familiar with the playing styles of several Western eras. One would not play

Bach the same way s/he would play Stravinsky. However, many flutists today lack the

ability to emulate the sounds of other cultural flutes on the Western classical flute. By

gaining a better understanding of these flutes and the cultural aesthetic in which they

work, a higher level of authenticity might be achieved. Today’s flutists need to expand

the vocabulary of their primary instrument in order to play all of the repertoire that is

available. Students spend years perfecting the style and performance practice of Bach,

Mozart, and many other well-known composers. In addition, they should also spend time

developing knowledge of other cultures' musical practice.

Although there has been research done on the ethnic flutes covered in this paper,

little research has been done on the ways that a Western flutists might draw from non-

Western ways of playing the flute. Non-classical flute techniques have been incorporated

into various styles of music with little subject matter available for students to study. By

studying the scores available, finding books on the instruments, and interviewing one of

the composers (Dr. Adriana Verdié), conclusion can be drawn as to how one might

portray not only the siku but also the shakuhachi on a Boehm system flute.

2
 Chapter 2 covers the music of the pan pipes of South America, but more

specifically the siku. An overview of the history and how the instrument is made is

presented as well as notes on technique for the piece Flute 3.2.4. Chapter 3 offers a look

at the Japanese shakuhachi, its history, and notes on technique to play Nesting of Cranes.

3
 CHAPTER 2

PANPIPES AND THE HIGHLANDS OF SOUTH AMERICA

Background Information

The panpipe is a simple instrument that consists of a series of vertical tubes,

without finger holes, placed next to each other in gradual lengths. Records of panpipes

have existed all over the world since ancient Greek and Roman times. From Roman

stone carvings to Islamic art murals and Incan ceramic art, the popularity of this simple

instrument is seen throughout the world. Today, however, many people think of the

Andean mountains as being the center for panpipe music. In the central Andes, panpipes

are classified into two groups: single unit instruments known as antara in Quechua, and

double unit instruments known as siku in Aymara. The terms “single unit” and “double

unit"1 actually refer to how the instrument is played. Although constructed the same, the

single unit antara is a solo instrument while the double unit siku is to be played in hocket

with other members. Hocketing is simply defined as two or more players interlocking

pitches to create a single melody or part.2 (Figure 1 employs what a hocketing technique

might look like.) Because the many pre-Columbian names for these instruments are not

known, they must be referred to by names “officially” given to them after Columbian

colonization in the Quechua and Aymara names.

1
Dale Olsen, Music of El Dorado (Tampa: University Press of Florida, 2002), 87-
88.
2
Thomas Turino, “Music in Latin America,” Excursions in World Music, 6th ed.,
ed. Timothy Rommen (Boston: Pearson Education, 2012), 299.
4
 Panpipes from ancient civilizations have been made from many materials

including ceramic, stone, wood, silver, and even occasionally, gold. Ceramic and stone

panpipes were very difficult to make and are, therefore, rare (see figure 2). It is much

easier to find these flutes made out of bone or wood (see figures 3 and 4 respectively). It

is believed that an Incan warrior, upon conquering his enemy, would make a drum out of

their skin and a panpipe out of their bones.3 Today, however, these types of panpipes are

made out of reeds or bamboo-like plants (see figure 5). It took many generations for the

instrument to evolve into the modern, wooden panpipes of today. There are two types of

ancient panpipes found in south coastal Peru. Some were described as “slightly conical

(almost bulbous) near the proximal (top) end, becoming narrower and cylindrical at the

distal end, and also tapering slightly at the embouchure hole.”4 The second type was

described as cylindrical with a slight taper at the embouchure hole. The changes in shape

of panpipes are seen painted on pottery made by the people of the time, although specific

identification of each flute is difficult because of inadequate documentation.

There are several theories as to how ancient panpipes were made. One

archaeologist, Jorge Muelle (1939), suggested that the ancient Peruvian panpipes were

made using molds to ensure each panpipe was precisely in tune with the rest with a

predetermined tuning. Other scholars claim the panpipes were hand modeled after a

template, while a third group of scholars believe the pipes were tuned after they were

made by tapering the embouchure holes.5 It is possible that all of these ideas are correct,

but concrete evidence has yet to be found for any theory. The scales these are tuned to do

3
Olsen, 87-88.
4
Ibid., 64.
5
Olsen, 64.

5
not fit modern-day western tonality (see table 1), but it does show the difference between

cultures: those who play single unit pipes (everyone plays the melody together) and

those cultures who play double unit pipes (those who play the melody in hocket). The

single unit cultures have pipes that are tuned to octaves and, when spread out over many

octaves, are more forgiving of intonation. These cultures also have art depicting solo

performers with drummers in the background. The cultures that played in hocket had

tunings of fourths, fifths, and octaves, with pipes of similar sizes in one ensemble.6

Because the piece Flute 3.2.4. by Adriana Verdié is written to emulate siku hocketing

style, the siku will be focused on rather than the antara.

The double unit panpipes, or siku, are common among the Aymara people of

southern Peru and Bolivia. The Aymara made their pipes from similar materials as the

Quechua, but with a few differences. They used cane, ceramic, and occasionally silver

and gold. These instruments are thought to be interlocking halves of one instrument.

They must be played in hocket (only in modern-day nightclubs and popular performance

groups like Inti-Illimani are they played as a solo instrument).7

The Aymara people, as well as most double unit panpipe cultures, have only two

parts per melody (there are several performers on each part in the larger ensembles). The

two flutes are called ira and arka or male and female (this is misleading, however,

because panpipes are generally all played by men only). The ira is the male-oriented

dominant sound which begins the melody and, in ancient times, had six pipes. This is

6
Ibid., 70.
7
Malena Kuss, ed., Performing Beliefs: Indigenous Peoples of South America,
Central America, and Mexico. Vol. 1 of Music in Latin America and the Caribbean, an
Encyclopedic History (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2004), 277.

6
also called the leader panpipe. The arka is the female sub-dominant which complements

the leader by filling in the extra notes.8 This panpipe has seven tubes. The Aymara

people believed this to be more than just a dominant/sub-dominant relationship. It

reflected their beliefs on community. The modern-day Westerner might feel the male

over female power is sexist, but the Aymara people see it as the community's inability to

work with only one gender. The panpipes are reflective of this belief. Every ensemble

must have both parts in order to work. It not only fosters community, but if one gender

(or one type of panpipe) is without the other, the community (or ensemble) fails.9 The

panpipes, like the genders of the community, are two parts of one whole.

Double unit panpipes can be made in one of two ways: either single rows of

closed tubes, or double rows. In the double row panpipes, the second row produces a

nearly inaudible pitch an octave higher than the first row. This second row is always

parallel to the first and can be either closed or open at the bottom. Because the flutist’s

air only needs to pass over this second row (not go directly into the tube), whether the

tubes are open or closed at the bottom does not affect their ability to make sound.10 This

produces the characteristic timbre of the instrument.

Siku ensembles, called sikuri, are often constructed in the same manner across

countries, although size of the ensemble can change. There are generally three types of

siku (soprano, alto, and tenor) in each ensemble, and occasionally there exists a bass. In

some, smaller sikuri, there is one player per type of siku, while in the larger ones, there

8
Kuss, 104.
9
Turino, 299.
10
Olsen, 91.

7
can be several members with the same type (the middle voices generally have more

performers). When one member of the group plays the first melody, a second answers,

usually in fifths, then the third in another harmony, and the fourth in yet another.

There are a large range of religious, ceremonial, and secular ensembles, each

known by different names. Because the ensembles are so vast, there are many different

dialects describing similar instruments. See table 2 for an idea of all the different names

sikus are called across Peru and Bolivia. As the names from each tradition differ, so do

the scales used.11 Each tradition has their own tuning and although they may be in tune

with each other, they might not be in tune with another group from a different tradition.

Dale Olsen states that “because the panpipe is essentially an indigenous tradition, equal

diversity and complexity must have existed in pre-Columbian times.”12 Today these

types of ensembles are found mostly around Lake Titicaca and in Lima, Peru (although,

smaller ensembles are known for traveling throughout the world, raising awareness of

their music). Today, panpipes can be heard on streets all around the world. The

traditions remain strong in Peru and Bolivia, with people holding on to their past.

Flute 3.2.4.

Growing up in Argentina, Bob Cole Conservatory of Music Professor Adriana

Verdié was surrounded by this music. When asked to write a piece for solo flute, her

mind was "filled with the sound of the Musica Andina (music of the Andes) and the vivid

image of the sicus (panpipes) players of the Altiplano."13 The piece has three movements

11
Olsen, 94.
12
Ibid., 94.
13
Adriana Verdié, Flute 3.2.4., score, 1995, composer's private collection.

8
which are to be played without stopping in between. "Each movement is restricted to a

specific melodic interval as the generator of the pitch system, and as a base of

mathematical calculations to determine formal proportions, metrical relationships and

rhythmic organization."14

The first movement is based on a rhythmic elaboration of thirds (and its

compliment sixths). This movement creates a conversation between two siku players

(acted out by one flutist). In this movement, the hocketing style from the double unit

siku is prominent as the performer sees two lines of music written on one staff (although

present in all movements, it is most prominent here).

FIGURE 6. Hocketing style from the double unit siku.

Dr. Verdié wants the performer to be cognizant of the way siku performers rely on

each other to create the melody as no single instrument holds all the pitches needed for

the piece. This is to be imitated in this movement by the single flute performer.

The second movement is based on three different scales that combine seconds and

sevenths. The main focus of this movement is the slower dance-like rhythms and the

timbral shades the flute can provide that echo those of the siku. This includes pitch

bending as well as alternate fingerings that give an airy tone quality to the flute.

14
Ibid.
9
 The third and final movement completes the "interval spectra" by using fourths

and fifths as its main themes.15 In this movement, rhythmic as well as melodic motifs

from the first movement are brought back and reorganized to fit the intervals needed for

the movement. This is most noticeable in measures 11 and 12 that are reminiscent of

measures 32 and 33 in the first movement.

FIGURE 7: Measures 11-12, Movement III

FIGURE 8: Measures 32-33, Movement I

Although this piece has a modern take on music from the Andes, it still keeps

much of the tradition alive with its use of hocketing and its lively, driving rhythms.

Notes on Technique

The first movement of this piece begins with a simple quarter note/eighth note

figure that is later expanded upon as the "second player" joins in the performance. It is
15
Verdié.
10
important to note that these quarter notes are to be played in a very specific manner:

begin with a "kah" syllable, crescendo quickly in the quarter note, and cut off the air with

a tongue stopped "t." Although written as quarter notes, they are to be played as follows:

FIGURE 9: Representation of "kah" syllable.

In an interview with the author, Dr. Verdié described this as the sound the air

would make in the pipe of a siku as the air hit the bottom and bounced back out of the

tube.16 A rich, woody tone is preferable here while still maintaining the sweeter quality

of which the siku is capable. This can be accomplished by adjusting the embouchure so

the air hits the strike edge of the embouchure hole differently, creating a woody tone

quality. Measures 17-18 begin a very difficult trilled passage. In this section, it is

important to always keep the trill moving while adding the melody notes as requested.

The trill should be kept pianissimo, while the melody notes are forte in order to more

easily distinguish them from the trills. The performer must create the illusion of two

flutists.

The slower second movement focuses on tone colors. The movement begins with

an expressive pitch bend. This is followed by a measure where the tone color for the note

B-flat is changed within each eighth note.

16
Adriana Verdié, interview by author, Long Beach, CA, January 30, 2014.
11
FIGURE 10: Notation of tone color changes.

The first B-flats are to be played with the normal fingering, however, each of the

smaller, diamond-shaped B-flats have a different suggested fingering. It is important to

play with tone colors here, but keep the pitch the same. The suggested fingerings will

give the flute the airy, woody quality the siku is capable of having. Measures 22-23 and

again in 26-27 show the hocketing style of playing for which the siku is known. This

movement also features a trilled section. Again, it is important to keep these trills going

and only release them to play the upper melody notes.

The third movement closes the piece with another “duet” of parts. It is important

to bring out the low C’s in the first five measures, while delicately adding the melody

over top.

FIGURE 11: Flute "duet" at the beginning of the third movement.

12
 Dr. Verdié suggests a heavy diaphragm accent with the syllable of “kah” for the

low C’s. She then recommends the lighter “tah” for the following melody eighth notes

which are to be played piano. Each time the melody is played, it should be played in this

style. This movement also experiments with multiphonics. The first one is in measure

65. To create the specific notes required, it takes a very controlled air flow as well as

adjusting the embouchure and experimenting with vowel shapes inside the mouth. Not

all the notes may speak, but it is important to give the illusion that they are all there.

Conclusion

Siku music focuses on the relationship between the players. When there is only

one player, as in Flute 3.2.4., this relationship still needs to be present. The performer

should be aware of the two voices that run throughout the piece and distinguish them

from each other. Creating the style necessary to allude to the Musica Andina takes

practice and concentration. Many of the techniques used can seem too harsh for the

Western classical flute; however, they are necessary in emulating the siku and its music.

13
 CHAPTER 3

THE SHAKUHACHI OF JAPAN

Background Information

The shakuhachi is a bamboo vertical "notched" flute. It was introduced to Japan

around the seventh century A. D. Some sources agree that it originated in China, and

developed in Japan, however, there is no hard evidence of where it originated.17 Some

speculate that it is actually a form of flute from ancient Egypt called a sabi.18 There are

great similarities between these instruments that would be difficult to over look; however,

it bears its greatest resemblance to the Chinese version. Although it is unclear where it

originated, its popularity in Japan and its importance to Japanese culture and music are

quite evident. Many believe that its delicate, mellow sound appealed to the people

because, up until the shakuhachi's introduction, the Japanese people only had a hichiriki

as their flute-like instrument. The hichiriki is described as having "gruesome dronings

and wailings" for its sound.19 The shakuhachi currently has a dual existence, both as a

traditional instrument of Japanese "classical" music (both solo and ensemble work) and
17
Tsukitani Tsuneko, “The Shakuhachi and its Music,” in The Ashgate Research
Companion to Japanese Music, ed. Alison Tokita and David W. Hughes, trans. Charles
Rowe (Surry, United Kingdom: Ashgate Publishing, 2008), 145.
18
William P. Malm, Japanese Music and Musical Instruments (Rutland, VT:
Charles E. Tuttle, 1964), 151.
19
Sir Francis Piggott, The Music and Musical Instruments of Japan (New York:
Da Capo Press, 1971), 31.

14
as an instrument for meditative purposes. The shakuhachi is also becoming very popular

in modern music because it can easily be adapted to play in a Western tonality by use of

extended techniques.20

Beginning in the thirteenth century, the shakuhachi became a very important

instrument for the Fuke sect of Zen Buddhism. They practiced a form of meditation with

this flute called suizen (blowing meditation). These monks played on a fuke shakuhachi

(one of three types of shakuhachi this paper will explore, though there are several more).

It is believed that this version of the shakuhachi is the grandfather of the modern day

instrument. The fuke shakuhachi is made from madake bamboo, cut so that the wide root

end forms the bottom bell. Before the twentieth century, these instruments were made

from a single piece of bamboo, hollowed out. During the twentieth century, the making

of these changed for ease of transport and construction. The fuke shakuhachi were still

made from the root of the bamboo, but by beginning with a longer piece of bamboo (in

order to keep the final length the same) and cutting the middle section out, the top and

bottom fit together easier and made transport of this, now more compact, instrument

easier.21 These shakuhachi have five holes, four in front and one in back (see figure 12)

like the modern shakuhachi. The makers of these instruments always strive for it to be

21.5 inches.22 The best shakuhachi have measurements of 6, 5, 4, and 3 inches measured

between the nodes of the bamboo.23

20
Jay Keister, “The Shakuhachi as a Spiritual Tool: A Japanese Buddhist
Instrument in the West,” Asian Music 35, no. 2 (Spring-Summer 2004): 99.
21
Tsuneko, 152.
22
Tsuneko, 145.
23
Piggott, 152.

15
 The first shakuhachi arose in the late seventh to early eighth century as part of the

gagaku court orchestra. Although this instrument has all but disappeared, there are still a

few left in treasure houses and temples. Historically, the next shakuhachi to appear was

the hitoyogiri. It was popular in the late sixteenth to the seventeenth centuries with

people known as "beggar priests."24 It gets its name from the three Japanese words

meaning "one (hito) segment of bamboo (yo) cut (giri)." It was quite a bit shorter than its

descendant, the fuke shakuhachi, at around 13 inches. This type of shakuhachi had a new

blowing edge. Until then, the flutes always had a straight edge at the mouth piece to blow

the air across (see figure 13). The hitoyogiri began the tradition of a crescent-shaped

notch to help guide the air.

There are many other types of shakuhachi in the evolution of the instrument, all

ranging in number of finger holes and length, but they are all related to each other. Even

today, modern shakuhachi have been fitted with the modern Boehm system keys,

although these flutes are never used in classical Japanese music or meditation, only in

twentieth century music.

Shakuhachi music can be notated in two different ways. Japanese classical music

will be notated in the traditional way (see figure 14) while modern music will use the

staves of Western music notation. There is no known notation for the gagaku

shakuhachi; however, the notation in figure 8 is for the hitoyogiri. Each symbol

represents an extended technique or a different hole to be covered. Certain lines

represent the length or value of the note. In order to properly portray this older notation

for Western classical flute, Wil Offermans in Nesting of Cranes has to use very specific

notation on Western music notation.

24
Malm, 153.
16
 Nesting of Cranes

Nesting of Cranes is based on one of the most famous pieces for shakuhachi.

Tsuru-no-Sugomori ("cranes building a nest") is available in over ten different versions,

each representing the various traditions of Zen Buddhist temples. In an introduction to

the score by Heinz-Dieter Reese, he states "the title refers to the programmatic contents

of the piece, depicting the life of cranes which have been revered in Japan from time

immemorial as symbols of a long and happy life: a couple builds a nest, lays eggs,

hatches out little cranes and raise[s] them until they are independent; finally, the couple

dies."25 This particular version of Nesting of Cranes is based on the transcription of

Tsuru-no-Sugomori interpreted by Katsuya Yokomaya. The extended techniques used in

this piece are meant to imitate a shakuhachi imitating a crane (the crane is most audibly

found in the flutter tonguing throughout the piece while the shakuhachi is found in the

pitch bending and tone color changes).

Notes on Technique

The shakuhachi is an instrument which focuses on tone color, obtained by

covering holes in different combinations, varying speeds of airflow, and by tilting the

instrument and head up and down.26 A Western classical flutist must keep this in mind

when playing a piece that is meant to emulate the shakuhachi sound.

With its flexible sound (e.g. in dynamic, timbre, intonation and wind-"noise"), the
intense use of the breath, and its deep-rooted history, the shakuhachi has been
attracting the interest of many flutists around the world. Some of the sounds in
this traditional flute music may be regarded by Western flutists as "modern" or

25
Wil Offermans, Tsuru-no-Sugomori (Nesting of Cranes) (Frankfurt am Main:
Zimmermann, 1999), 1.
26
Akiko Shimada, “Cross-Cultural Music: Japanese Flutes and Their Influences
on Western Flute Music” Flutist Quarterly 34, no. 2 (Winter 2009): 28.

17
 "new." However, the shakuhachi player seems to concentrate on the breathing,
accepting the sound itself as a natural consequence.27

Tonguing does not exist for the shakuhachi. Instead the breath starts the sound

with a breath attack. Throughout this piece, Offermans uses a breath attack symbol (

) to illustrate when he wants this specific type of sound. The flutist must begin this note

with a heavy breath attack, using the syllable “sha” instead of the Western “tah”

tonguing. This is not a delicate "sha" and should be done with as much air as possible. A

shakuhachi player might even use their fingers as a way to get articulation known as

“finger-tonguing.” However, Offermans does not call for this effect in his score.

There are numerous vibrato techniques used in shakuhachi music, as well as

pitch-bending, glissandi, and portamenti. Besides the Western vibrato style, ikiyuri, the

vibrato for the shakuhachi can be performed with the head, creating pitch bending. Much

like a violin, the shakuhachi uses a slight difference in pitch to create its vibrato rather

than the intensity fluctuations of the Western classical flute. Nodding the head up and

down as well as moving the flute forwards and back will accomplish this affect. A

Western flutist must not be shy when attempting this technique. The pitch should be bent

very far for Offermans’s piece and a lot of head movement is necessary (he states that

nearly a minor third in necessary to properly play the piece).28 A mix of the two

techniques is most effective on a Western classical flute. The up and down movement is

called tateyuri while the circular, forwards and back movement is called mawashiyuri.

The effect of bending the pitch down by covering the embouchure hole with the lower lip

27
Offermans, 4.
28
Offermans, 4.

18
is called meri while bending up and uncovering is called kari. Below is an example of

Offermans’s notation for pitch bending.

FIGURE 15: Notation of pitch bending.

Offermans also introduces his own type of finger pitch bending. When indicated,

the flutist is to quickly uncover and cover the open holes of their Western flute, while still

keeping the keys down. This is another way to create pitch bending, but without the need

to move the head.29 A final technique Offermans presents to aid in shakuhachi vibrato on

the Western flute involves shaking the flute while playing. This is called takeyuri and

creates a very fast vibrato.

Offermans creates a very specific atmosphere in this piece. He wants the Western

classical flutist to emulate the sound of the shakuhachi as well as the style. The sound

should be breathy and airy. Offermans replaces many notes with alternate fingerings to

create an eerie, breathy tone. It is important to try to match the tone of the regularly

fingered notes surrounding these. However, not all notes in this piece require being

played breathily. The performer must use their judgment. When a shakuhachi is played

more forcefully, the tone brightens and becomes less airy than when it is played in

29
Offermans, 5.
19
meditative pieces. For the louder sections of Nesting of Cranes, the breathy tone quality

is not needed.

Conclusion

Because of the programmatic content of Nesting of Cranes, it is important to give

this piece a very thorough study before performing it. Offermans is very specific in what

he wants the flutist to play and when a certain effect should occur, however the performer

should study the sounds these animals and the instrument make. Understanding the way

a shakuhachi works is essential to comprehending exactly what effects Offermans is

writing. His score is full of notation that may be foreign to many flutists, but by

understanding the shakuhachi, this score becomes much easier to piece together.

20
 CHAPTER 4

CONCLUSIONS

When performing Western classical flute literature that is influenced by non-

Western styles, it is important to pay attention to specific techniques. A lot of advanced,

modern technique goes into performing music from other regions of the world on the

Western classical flute, even when that music is thousands of years old. To create the

sounds necessary to emulate ethnic flutes, the performer must be aware of what these

flutes sound like, as well as the technique that goes in to playing them. It is also

important to know the culture in which these instruments were crafted. Without this

information and context, the music will lack the authenticity needed to perform the pieces

based on the proper cultural aesthetic, and it will lack the ability to sound different than

any other classical piece.

Before a flutist begins a piece based on the music of an ethnic flute, they should

study the region, the style of the music, and how that specific instrument is meant to

sound. Each culture may have a different use for the instrument. The South American

siku is used in a social setting while the Japanese shakuhachi is often used as a meditative

device. The music for these flutes would not be played in the same manner.

While preparing to play Flute 3.2.4. and Nesting of Cranes, the author found it

helpful to not only understand the culture these flutes come from, but also to listen to as

many recording of these instruments as she could. A cultural understanding was found

21
by reading articles and books on the broader music of the regions as well as music

specifically composed for the instruments.

Just as in any style or genre of music, from classical to jazz, from Johann

Sebastian Bach to Nat King Cole, performers must be true to style. Dedicated efforts

must be made in research, and preparation in order to give an in depth performance.

22
APPENDICES

23
APPENDIX A

FIGURES

24
 FIGURES

FIGURE 1. Hocket. Source: Wikipedia. "Hocket." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:

Hocket.png (accessed November 10, 2012).

FIGURE 2. Replica of ancient ceramic panpipes. Source: Alcasami Handmade Peru

Store. "Ancient Antara Nazca Ceramic Pan Flute: Peru." http://www.alcasami.com/
servlet/the-1156/alcasami-Ancient-antara-ceramic/Detail (accessed November 11, 2012).

25
FIGURE 3. Bone panpipes. Source: Oracle ThinkQuest Education Foundation.
“America's Photos.” http://library.thinkquest.org/C006206F/fotos_america_i.htm
(accessed November 11, 2012).

FIGURE 4. Replica of ancient hand-carved wooden panpipes. Source: “Xtreme Art

Tourist.” http://xtremearttourists1.blogspot.com/2010/07/south.html (accessed November
11, 2012).

26
FIGURE 5. Modern day Peruvian panpipes. Source: Wikipedia. "Andean Panflute."
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan_pipes (accessed November 11, 2012). Photo by Andrew
Dunn.

FIGURE 12. Fuke shakuhachi front and back view. Source: Carrotmusic. "Shakuhachi:
Japanese Traditional Instrument." http://www.carrotmusic.org/e-bay_html/xiaoq2.html
(accessed January 3, 2014).

27
FIGURE 13. Evolution of the shakuhachi mouthpiece. Source: Tempuku dôkô kai
(Tempuku Enthusiast's Society), ed. "Blowing edges for shakuhachi,hitoyogiri, tempuku,
dongxiao and tanteki." Photo by Riley Lee. In Tempuku, 86. Kagoshima, Japan:
Tempuku dôkôkai, 1986.

28
 A

A. Each symbol represents a different fingering or extended technique the shakuhachi is capable of.
B. A single horizontal line next to a symbol indicates that the note is to be lengthened by one beat.
C. A double horizontal line next to a symbol indicates that the note is to be lengthened by two beats.

FIGURE 14. Shakuhachi notation. Source: Riley Lee, photographer. "Examples of

Shakuhachi Notation." http://www.rileylee.net/shaku_notation.html (accessed January 3,
2014).

29
APPENDIX B

TABLES

30
TABLE 1. Historic Tuning of Panpipes: Parallel 4ths, 5ths, and Octaves
Suli E5
Contrasuli B4
Malta E4
Contramalta B3
Sanja E2
Contrasanja B2

31
TABLE 2. Table of Siku Family Names Within Documented Andean Traditions

Name of Region Soprano Alto Tenor Bass

Tradition

Aymara sikuri Conima, Peru suli malta sanja

bajosuli bajomalta bajosanja

contrasuli contramalta contrasanja

Aymara sikuri Peru chili (suli) malta (ankuta) sanja (bajo,

basto)

Aymara sikuri Rosaspata, Peru suli ankuta tayaka

sulfa ankuta duó tayaka duó

cantante barretón

Quechua sikuri Taquile, Peru auca (chuli) licu maltona mama

Aymara Huancané, Peru chili ankuta ayka

chiriwano

Quechua Paritía, Peru suli wala lama mama

ayarichi

Mestizo Peru ñaño (chili, cantante (chaupi, Bajo (bastón)

pusamoreno requinto) maltona)

Chipaya siku Bolivia sanja Taipi (malta)

Aymara sikuri Bolivia chehuli likhu malta taika

Aymara sikuri Bolivia chchulis licus malta taika

Aymara sikuri Bolivia chuki mahala tayca

Aymara sikuri Bolivia tuto chuli licu mahalta

Quechua antara Bolivia chilu iskay mamay Altu mamay

Source from Dale Olsen, Music of El Dorado. (Tampa: University Press of Florida,
2002), 95.

32
 APPENDIX C

LAUREN REDBURN GRADUATE RECITAL PROGRAM

33
 LAUREN REDBURN RECITAL PROGRAM

Nesting of Cranes .................................................................. Wil Offemrans

(1999)

Winter Sky ............................................................................. Joseph Turrin

(composed 1994)

Flute 3.2.4. ............................................................................. Adriana Verdie

(1995)

INTERMISSION

The Seventh Healing Song of John Joseph (Blue) ............... James DeMars
(1982)

In Ireland............................................................................... Hamilton Harty

(1918)

34
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35
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