WE LL TES TiNG
The Nuts and Bolts of Well Testing
During a field’s exploration and appraisal phases and throughout its productive
testing hardware has been developed over the years. Yet the demands made on
Marc Vella Well testing is a dynamic process. At its sim-
Melbourne, Australia plest, a test discovers if a formation can flow
and permits sampling of the produced fluid.
Tony Veneruso Analysis can yield further information like
Melun, France the extent of formation damage near the
borehole, reservoir permeability and hetero-
Pierre Lefoll geneity, and initial productivity index. For
Terry McEvoy this, engineers induce pressure transients by
Alex Reiss changing the rate that formation fluids enter
Montrouge, France the borehole and recording the resulting
downhole pressure versus time. Transient
tests can also reveal the reservoir’s areal
extent and vertical layering (see “Testing
Design and Analysis,” page 28).
Testing hardware has to perform a range
of tasks. First, the formation being tested
must flow. If the well has not already been
completed, it needs to be temporarily com-
pleted—that is, to have a packer set above
the test zone to isolate it from the wellbore
fluid’s hydrostatic pressure.
To induce pressure transients, the engi-
neer needs to control the well. The easiest
method is surface shut-in. But during pres-
sure buildup, the column of fluid between
the point of shut-in and the formation has to
be compressed by inflowing formation
14
fluid—the so-called wellbore storage effect.
Data analysis usually requires that pressure
be recorded until wellbore storage no
longer dominates.
When the wellbore volume is large (as in
deep or horizontal wells) or the wellbore
fluids highly compressible (as in gas wells),
the wellbore storage effect can last a pro-
hibitively long time. One way to minimize
wellbore storage places a test valve down-
hole, as close as possible to the formation.
Pressure gauges must be located below this
test valve.
Data gathering is not an exclusively
downhole activity. On surface, after the
fluid has been controlled and separated,
flow rate can be measured. Taking a sample
of the produced fluid is also important.
Detailed analysis of samples not only sheds
light on the composition of the produced
fluid but also offers insight into the reservoir
itself. The dynamic performance of a reser-
voir is both a function of the formation and
the formation fluid.
This article reviews the complex array of
testing hardware now available. It examines
how highly accurate pressure data is gath-
ered downhole and how, on surface, flow
rate is safely measured and samples are cap-
tured (next page).
Oilfield Review
 Gas
Water
Three-phase Oil
Surge tank separator

Choke
manifold

Flow head

Burner

Pressure Data

Flow Rate
Sample Information

life, well testing remains a vital activity. Increasingly sophisticated

testing hardware remain unchanged.

Downhole Hardware
nTesting a cased
well. A test valve
Openhole Testing—The first tests were con- and pressure gauges
ducted in open hole with the tools con- downhole are com-
veyed into the well on drillpipe—openhole bined with surface
drillstem tests (DSTs). While the earliest DST separation and flow
measurement equip-
hardware dates back to the Johnston tools of ment to gather for-
the 1920s (see “The Birth of Downhole Test mation drawdown
Hardware,” page 21), the modern era of and buildup pressure
testing really started in the 1950s. Then, Reverse circulation valve and flow rate data.
Samples of formation
multiflow evaluation tools were introduced, fluid are taken at
making possible repeated flow and shut-in Downhole test valve surface for analysis.
cycles rather than the single flow and
buildup offered before.
Today, multiflow evaluation tools are still
used in the majority of openhole DSTs. If
Packer
hydrocarbons are detected in either cores or
Pressure Data
cuttings during drilling or indicated by logs,
a DST may be used to rapidly assess the
production potential of the formation.
Drilling information or a wireline caliper log
are used to locate a suitable packer seat—a
section of openhole that is in gauge and
Formation
In this article, COMPUTEST (Centralized Acquisition
System), CQG (Combinable Quartz Gauge), DataLatch,
being tested
IRIS (Intelligent Remote Implementation System), MDT
(Modular Formation Dynamics Tester) and SPG (Sapphire
Pressure Gauge) are marks of Schlumberger. Pressure recorder
For their help in preparing this article, thanks to: Gavin
Clark, Schlumberger International Coordination, Hous-
ton, Texas, USA; Adrian Douglas, Schlumberger Logelco
Inc., Cairo, Egypt; Wolfgang Herrmann, Services Tech-
niques Schlumberger, Montrouge, France; and Yoshinobu
Jinzaki, Schlumberger K.K., Fuchinobe, Japan.

April 1992 15
looks capable of facilitating a good seal. nTesting with a
The test string is designed so that the packer downhole valve
controlled by
is opposite its seat when the perforated annular pressure.
anchor is at the bottom of the well. As the tool is run
The packer is traditionally a solid unit of into the well,
rubber that expands when some of the hydrostatic pres-
sure is transmitted
weight of the string is set down onto the into the nitrogen
anchor. The test valve is also opened and chamber via a
closed by setting down and picking up on compensating pis-
the string. Therefore, to ensure that pipe ton. Once the Downhole test valve
manipulation does not unset the packer, a packer is set, pres-
sure ports close Ball valve operator
tool above it hydraulically maintains the and the hydraulic
downward force. The packer can be unset reference pressure
only by an extended pull for several min- is trapped within
Annular pressure
utes. After the test has been completed and the tool. Thereafter,
the nitrogen cham-
the test string pulled out of hole, drilling ber cannot be
continues and the process can be repeated affected by any
on subsequent hydrocarbon shows. changes in annu- Spring
If drilling is not halted when a potential lar pressure. When
hydrocarbon-bearing zone is encountered, pressure is applied
in the annulus,
an alternative test method is to wait until the there is a pressure
well is drilled to total depth and then use differential push-
straddle packers to isolate the zone of inter- ing down on a
est. The recent introduction of inflatable sleeve above a
spring. When this Nitrogen
packers has made it possible to more effec- differential
tively isolate and test individual zones pin- exceeds the force Compensating piston
pointed using wireline logs. of the spring, it
compresses and
Cased-Hole Testing—The primary selling the sleeve moves Pressure trapped at
down opening the original annular
point of the early test tools was the avoid- test valve. When hydrostatic
ance of unnecessary casing costs. This has the annular pres-
now largely been supplanted by the need sure is bled off, the
for more data over a longer duration. Open- test valve closes.
hole DSTs gather important early informa-
Annular hydrostatic
tion, but in many cases reservoir engineers pressure
need greater detail.
The extent of reservoir investigated is
often proportional to test duration. A key
factor governing the length of time an open- Test valve closed Test valve open
hole test can be conducted is wellbore sta-
bility. At some point the well may cave in larly offshore, cased-hole testing has all but and through its improved safety also found
on top of the packer and stick the string replaced traditional openhole DSTs. application on land and fixed platforms.
downhole. Clearly, the hazards of wellbore On land and from fixed platforms, open- The downhole valve of the pressure con-
stability are eliminated by testing after cas- hole DST tools function effectively in cased trolled test string opens when pressure
ing has been set. In many sectors, particu- wells by using a different type of packer that above a certain threshold—usually 1000 to
grips the casing rather than relying on bot- 1500 psi—is applied on the annulus and
1. Joseph J, Ehlig-Economides CA and Kuchuk F: “The tomhole support. But as offshore drilling closes when this pressure is bled off. It uses
Role of Downhole Flow and Pressure Measurements increased, floating rigs became common, the same annular pressure threshold, regard-
in Reservoir Testing,” paper SPE 18379, presented at
the SPE European Petroleum Conference, London, and vessel heave could accidently cycle tra- less of depth, hydrostatic pressure and tem-
England, October 16-19, 1988. ditional weight-set tools and even unset the perature. To do this, a chamber in the tool is
Meunier D, Wittmann MJ and Stewart G: “Interpreta- packer. Also, offshore developments tend to precharged at surface with nitrogen. A com-
tion of Pressure Buildup Test Using In-Situ Measure-
ment of Afterflow,” Journal of Petroleum Technology employ deviated wells, and the higher the pensating piston ensures that the nitrogen
37 (January 1985): 143-152. well angle, the harder reciprocal tools are to acquires hydrostatic pressure as the tool is
Haws GW and Knight BL: “State-of-the-Art Simultane- control. New testing technology was run in hole.
ous Downhole Flow Rate and Pressure Measurement
Equipment,” paper SPE 20595, presented at the 65th
required to ensure safe operations. Although these systems rapidly gained
SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, New In the 1970s, cased-hole testing systems wide acceptance, it soon became apparent
Orleans, Louisiana, USA, September 23-26, 1990. were introduced that exploit annular pres- that in a number of cases significant advan-
sure to control and activate downhole tools.
These eliminate the need for further pipe
manipulation during the test once the
packer is set. The new hardware increased
the number of tests made from floating rigs

16 Oilfield Review
tages would accrue if wireline tools or
coiled tubing could be run inside the test
string, through the downhole test valve, to
the producing zone. This became possible
in the late 1970s when fullbore pressure-
controlled test equipment was introduced
with a minimum inside diameter of 21/4 in.
throughout the string (previous page).
Thus, test strings now offer the benefits of
downhole shut-in while retaining access to
the perforations for standard wireline-con-
veyed equipment with an outside diameter
up to 2 in. This makes possible operations
like perforating, downhole sampling and
placing/recovering gauges during testing. It
also clears the way for downhole flow rate
measurement during the drawdown using
production logging tools. Flow measure-
ment during testing is proving to be valu-
able when testing layered reservoirs and
horizontal wells. 1 Analysis of downhole
flow during drawdown is also helping to
reduce test duration. A further advantage of
a fullbore string is that the larger diameter
minimizes plugging and reduces restriction
to flow, crucial when large-volume stimula-
tion is performed through the test string.
In addition to downhole shut-in, reverse
circulation is an important phase of testing
operations. This requires communication
between the inside of the test string and the
annulus just above the test valve. Mud can
then be pumped down the annulus to flush
out formation fluid left in the string. Open-
ing a reverse circulation valve also allows
the string to be pulled dry—fluid drains out
of the tubing downhole as the test string is
pulled out of the well.
Openhole DST strings and the first pres-
sure-controlled testers usually included cir-
culation valves activated by dropping a bar
or rupturing pressure disks, usable only
once and not recloseable. Another advance
associated with fullbore strings was the
introduction of circulation valves that could
be opened and closed repeatedly. These can
be used to place fluids inside the string,
above the test valve.
For example, to control the rate at which
formation fluid starts flowing once the test
valve is opened, a column of fluid with a
carefully controlled hydrostatic pressure is
often put inside the string—called the cush-
ion. This can be conveniently circulated
into place using a multiple-operation circu-
lation valve. The valves are also used to
remove flammable wellbore fluids before
pulling the string and perform well cleanup
operations where heavy fluid preventing
flow is circulated out of the well (below).
Further refinement comes with the use of
tubing-conveyed perforation (TCP) guns
along with a pressure-operated test string.
This significantly cuts the rig time—and
therefore the cost—needed to shoot and test,
particularly for long intervals. But the main
advantage is that perforation can be carried
out underbalanced—when the hydrostatic
pressure of fluid above the zone of interest
prior to firing the guns is less than the antici-
pated formation pressure. This minimizes
invasion of the formation by wellbore fluid
that normally occurs when wireline perfora-
tion guns are used. The initial surge of for-
mation fluid after firing TCP guns also

nReverse circulation. Produced fluids sometimes create too high a hydrostatic pressure to flow to surface, killing the well—often the
case where invaded mud or spent stimulation fluid are produced with the reservoir fluids. The multiple-operation circulation valve
enables these heavy fluids to be reversed out and replaced by a lighter one—usually diesel oil or fluid-energized nitrogen. In this
way the formation can be cleaned out, allowing it to flow freely.

Circulating Circulating
valve valve Circulating
(closed) (open) valve
(closed)
Test valve Test valve Test valve
(closed) (open) (closed) Test valve
(open)

Packer

1. Packer set, 2. Open test valve. 3. Hydrostatic 4. Close test valve, 5. Spot light fluid 6. Close circulation
ready to open Formation flows. pressure of open circulating like diesel oil or valve, reopen test
test valve and formation fluid valve. Reverse nitrogen-energized valve and allow
flow formation. and rathole mud circulate formation fluid by pumping well to flow.
kills the flow. fluid out of the test it down the test Repeat stages
string by pumping string ensuring 2 to 5 until the
mud down none enters formation flows
the annulus. the annulus. without killing itself.

April 1992 17
 RIH Open/ Open/ Open Spot Open test Open reversing flushes out charge debris and crushed for-
close close circulating acid valve, pump valve, reverse mation from the perforation channel.2
test valve test valve valve, acid, close out Increased sophistication in testing
reverse test valve demands additional tools, for example an
out
extra shut-in valve that, as a safety precau-
Annular pressure tion, can cut wireline, a single-shot revers-
2500 psi applied to ing valve and a downhole sampler. Like the
4000 open one-shot reversing fullbore test valve, and often the multiple-
Annular pressure
applied to open Annular pressure Cushion and valve and reverse operation reversing valve, all these tools are
test valve released to close formation fluid out string contents annular-pressure operated, creating the
test valve reversed out
2000 need for a complex sequence of distinguish-
able pressure pulses (left ).
The annular pressure has to supply not
0
only a discrete signal to one of a number of
Tubing pressure tools, but also the power to operate it. For
Test valve closed, pressure example, opening the single-shot reversing
Pressure test After acid is spotted,
4000 string against applied to tubing to open valve at the end of a test can typically
the circulation valve
test valve circulation valve is closed require 2000 to 3000 psi above the hydro-
static pressure. This creates significantly
Psi

Test valve opened, Test valve opened

2000 the well flowed high pressures in the annulus, and great care
and acid injected into
and tubing pressure the formation has to be taken not to exceed the collapse
increased at surface pressure of the tubing—in which pressure is
deliberately kept to a minimum to encour-
0 age the formation flow—nor the burst pres-
Pressure below test valve
sure of the casing.
There is a limit to the number of discrete
8000 When the reversing valve annular pressure signals that can be safely
Initial was opened, pressure was employed to command and power down-
hydrostatic seen briefly below the test hole equipment. A recent development—the
Acid valve
Second job (IRIS) Intelligent Remote Implementation Sys-
6000 First flow Final hydrostatic tem dual-valve tool—addresses this by
flow employing much lower annular pressure
First Second variations as command signals to the down-
shut-in shut-in
4000 hole tools. The signals are analyzed by the
tool’s controller, which uses electronics to
control the downhole test valve and circu-
lating valve. Batteries power the electronics;
2000 annular hydrostatic pressure supplies the
energy to operate the valves.
Whereas a traditional pressure-operated
0 tool might require commands of up to 3000
Time psi above hydrostatic, IRIS responds to
pulses of about one-tenth of that, making it
nKeeping track of pressures during a test. Three pressure-controlled tools immune to casing and tubing limits. The
are used in this test that also includes an acid stimulation job. The test low-intensity coded pulses of at least 250
valve requires 1500 psi applied annular pressure to open it and closes psi are sent down the annulus using rig mud
when this pressure is bled off. The multiple-operation reversing valve is
opened by tubing pressure and closed by pumping through the tool into pumps. The key recognition factor for the
the annulus at sufficient rate to create a pressure drop. This pressure differ- IRIS system’s pressure sensor is the shape of
ential is harnessed to mechanically reseal the annulus from the tubing. The the pressure pulse. A threshold pressure has
one-shot reversing valve is opened at the end of the job by 2500 psi annu- to be achieved, sustained and bled off
lar pressure.
within specific time and pressure variation
constraints. The duration that a plateau
pressure is sustained distinguishes one com-
mand from another (next page, top left ).3
In the tool, a microprocessor reads the
coded pressure pulses, compares them to
preset operating instructions and opens or
closes solenoid valves to direct hydraulic
fluid from chambers at annular hydrostatic
pressure into chambers at atmospheric pres-
sure. This fluid movement is used to operate
the tool’s valves—closing them with a high

18 Oilfield Review
 dt1 dt2 TCP guns fired using annular pressure
TCP guns fired using drop bar
± 100 psi 1200
tolerance
1000 TCP guns

Applied annular pressure

fire
800 Drop bar
TCP guns fire
Main flow Test valve closes
∆p

250 psi 600 period

Test valve opens
± 100 psi
tolerance 400
3 min 3 min
maximum maximum
200
3 min 30 sec – 3 min
minimum maximum
0
∆p Test valve opens Time Disable Circulating
sequential mode sequential valve
Commands dt1 dt2 min enabled mode opens
Close circulating valve 0.5
Open circulating valve 1.0 nAnnular pressure pulses needed to control the IRIS dual valve
Close test valve 2.0 tool in conjunction with either pressure- or drop-bar-operated
Open test valve 2.5 TCP strings.

nFeeling the pulses. Pressure pulses controlling the IRIS dual

valve have to build up to a preset value within a given length of
time, be maintained within a preset tolerance and then bled off
within a set period of time. The duration the pressure is main-
tained is a key factor distinguishing one signal from another.
The pulses are generated using the rig’s mud pumps and stan-
dard drillers’ controls.

intensity force driven by the differential Command inputs Hydrostatic

pressure rather than by just the force of a pressure
spring, as in conventional systems. Because
clean hydraulic fluid is operating the tools Low-level Prejob Hydrostatic
rather than mud, reliability is also annular programming oil chamber Circulating
enhanced (right ). pressure pulse valve
Since the tool functions through electro- p Control
valves
hydraulics, its mechanical construction is
simplified. The 20-ft [6-m] IRIS dual valve t Power
tool replaces conventional fullbore test Intelligent section
strings measuring some 40-ft [12-m] long. controller
Elimination of pressurized nitrogen cham- Power
bers also removes a potential safety hazard. section
The equipment is compatible with conven- Control
tional pressure operated test equipment. It valves
can also be used in conjunction with Job history
TCP—either drop bar or pressure activated files Atmospheric oil chamber
(top, right ).
Pressure sensor Electronics Hydraulics Testing
Although the valves can be opened or valve
closed by sets of double pulses, an alterna-
tive is to use what is called sequential nCycling the IRIS dual valve tool. Low-pressure pulses in the annulus are interpreted
mode. Once the tool has been opened by a by a downhole controller to activate servo valves that direct the the flow of hydraulic
fluid. This fluid, moving from one chamber at hydrostatic pressure into another at
single pressure pulse, 200 psi has to be atmospheric pressure, powers the opening and closing of the test and circulation valves.
maintained on the annulus to keep the test
valve open. It closes immediately if this
pressure is bled off. It also closes if pressure 2. Ayestaran L and Salsman A: “Testing and Perforation
is increased above a maximum. This is Join Forces,” Middle East Well Evaluation Review,
analogous to the mode of operation of pre- Special Supplement: Reservoir Testing, (January
1991): 46-59.
vious generation, pressure-operated tools.
3. Healy JC, Maratier JP and Fruge MW: “Testing Green
Reopening the test valve requires two Canyon Wells With a Pressure Pulse-Controlled DST
pulses of the correct duration (next page). System,” paper SPE 22720, presented at the 66th SPE
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Dallas,
Texas, USA, October 6-9, 1991.

April 1992 19
 Time, hr
Testing in Permanent Completions—All test
Run in hole 21.00 Psi equipment described so far is for use in tem-
Set Packer 05.00 0 1000 2000 3000 porary completions. Testing in permanently
Test packer/annulus to 400 psi 01.40 completed wells falls into two categories.
The first is a variation of temporary comple-
Test tubing against test valve to 300 psi 08.57
tion tests. The second occurs during the pro-
Pressure annulus to 700 psi to start 09.12 ductive life of a well.
downhole annulus recorder
If a test will last longer than a few days, is
Open CV using N2 open command 09.38 likely to encounter high temperatures and
November 5, 1991

Displace tubing with N2 09.40 pressures or if company safety policy dic-

N2 close CV (using single pulse) tates, a permanent rather than retrievable
10.47
packer is preferred. A production wellhead
Send double pulse to open TV. 11.04
Pressure annulus to keep TV in SM is also usually used rather than a temporary
flow head. The rest of the hardware is usu-
Open well at surface, flow well/clean
up. Annulus pressure builds up due to 11.20 ally the same as that previously described.
temperature expansion from flowing well. The second category occurs later in a
Pressure is bled off at surface to keep CV well’s life. Today, this mostly involves shut-
in SM pressure range 250-800 psi ting in the well at surface or simply chang-
Change choke at surface 16.50 ing the choke size, and therefore flow rate.
Change choke at surface (shut in) 20.00 However, in some cases downhole shut-in
is achieved using valves that are run into a
November 6, 1991

well on wireline and hung in nipples in the

Open well at surface
Shut in well at surface
November 7, 1991
07.04 production tubing. Valves are opened or
closed using either wireline manipulation or
downhole battery power. These downhole
17.10
valves were developed for exactly the same
reason as DST valves: reservoir engineers
wanted to minimize interference from well-
bore storage effects.

Open well at surface 07.55 Wireline-operated valves are opened and

closed by reciprocating the monoconductor
cable. Pressure is read out at surface (next
Change choke at surface 17.58 page, middle ). Some tools can perform pro-
duction logging during the flow period.
A battery-operated valve can be hung off
00.00 and left in the well. After a preset flow
Shut in well at surface
period, it closes permanently for a buildup.
Bleed down annulus to SM. Close TV, This type of valve is generally used for long-
below TV pressure builds up while 05.00 term tests, with buildup lasting
tubing bleeds down weeks—often as part of interference tests
Pressure up annulus to open TV using SM. where pressure is monitored during draw-
Repeat several SM operations to open/ down from an adjacent well.
05.55
November 8, 1991

close TV
While well is open in SM, pressure up 07.15 Collecting Downhole Data
annulus to check SM overpressure Pressure Gauges—No matter how efficiently
shutdown works. TV shuts and disables the mechanical aspects of a test have been
SM simultaneously executed, whether using an openhole or
Open circulating valve on a dry string 07.55 cased-hole DST string, it will have failed if
pressure data are inadequate for analysis.
Close CV (two pulses) 13.44 During tests, pressure and temperature
Open TV (two pulses) 13.55 data are measured and stored in downhole
recorders that comprise three sections:
Disable SM,TV is ‘locked’ open using
single short pulse 13.56 gauges, power source and memory. In gen-
eral, two to four recorders are used for
Unseat packer, circulate through string redundancy and to enable comparison of
below packer with TV open 14.05

nIRIS dual-valve tool in action. Pressure

Key Downhole annular pressure details from a test carried out by AGIP in
CV – Circulating valve Below test valve pressure the Adriatic Sea, offshore Italy. The time
TV – Test valve Tubing pressure axis is not to scale.
SM – Sequential mode Surface annular pressure

20 Oilfield Review
results. More recently, pressure data can
also be read at surface using a wireline link.
When testing was in its infancy in the
1930s, only mechanical pressure gauges
were available. Then in the 1970s, elec-
tronic gauges were introduced. The first of
these employed strain gauge sensors which
perform adequately for most testing applica-
tions. However, the need for better resolu-
tion and stability gave the impetus for the
development of quartz gauges (see “Gauges
Through the Ages,” page 23).4
1. Installing the 2. Installing the
mandrel actuator and
gauge
The Birth of Downhole Test Hardware
In the 1920s and 1930s, E.C. and M.O. Johnston
in Texas, USA, pioneered the modern approach to
well testing. The two brothers developed a packer
system that allowed temporary isolation of poten-
tial producing formations from the rest of the well.
The Johnston system comprised a conical
packer (allegedly first made from discarded drive
belts) and a downhole spring-controlled poppet
valve (right). This was run in hole on drillpipe with
the poppet valve closed and the drillpipe empty.
The zone to be tested at the bottom of the well
was drilled using a smaller diameter bit than in
the rest of the open hole, creating a rathole. The
tapered packer was pushed into the top of this
rathole like a cork. This expanded the packer,
April 1992
The cost of these gauges increases from
the least expensive mechanical to most
expensive quartz gauges. In most cases,
quality of data improves with cost. When
deciding which gauge to deploy, the engi-
neer has to know how measurement error
may affect the subsequent data analysis.5
The two key measures of gauge perfor-
mance are stability and resolution. Gauge
stability is indicated by its drift—the change
in output value over time that is not a func-
tion of the measured pressure. Resolution is
3. Flowing the well 4. Shut-in
nAn original advertisement for the John-
ston tester, dated 1927.
the smallest change in pressure that leads to
a measurable change in a gauge’s output
(expressed either as a percentage of full
scale or as psi). The performance of some of
the available gauges is summarized in
“Comparison of Pressure Gauge Perfor-
mance,” next page.6
Because of their relatively low accuracy
and resolution, use of mechanical gauges is
gradually diminishing, particularly when
advanced analysis techniques are employed.
(continued on page 24 )
nDownhole testing in a permanently
completed well. First with the well shut-in
at surface, a mandrel is run into the well
and set in a tubing nipple. Second, a pres-
sure gauge and actuator assembly are
lowered into the well and then locked into
the mandrel. The surface valve is opened
and the well flows. Finally, by pulling on
the slickline, the well can be closed. Pres-
sure below the closure is ported to the
gauge above the actuator. Slacking off on
the slickline allows the tool to reopen. It
can be cycled nine times.
4. Kamal MM: “Expected Developments in Transient
Testing,” paper SPE 20593, presented at the 65th SPE
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, New
Orleans, Louisiana, USA, September 23-26, 1990.
5. Veneruso AF, Ehlig-Economides C and Petitjean L:
“Pressure Gauge Specification Considerations in Prac-
tical Well Testing,” paper 22752, presented at the 66th
SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition,
Dallas, Texas, USA, October 6-9, 1991.
6. Streltsova TD: “Well Testing in Heterogeneous Forma-
tions,” An Exxon Monograph, New York, New York,
USA: John Wiley & Sons, 1988: 32-34.
sealing off the hydrostatic pressure above, and
opened the downhole valve to allow the formation
fluids to flow through the drillstring. The key sell-
ing point of the Johnston system was that a well
need not be cased until its productivity was proven.
Initially, pressure and flow rate were measured
at surface. Bottomhole pressure was calculated
by estimating the hydrostatic pressure of the fluid
in the string and adding it to the surface pres-
sure. Later, mechanical pressure gauges were
placed in the tailpipe of the test string below the
packer more accurately measuring downhole
pressure variations.
21
Comparison of Pressure Gauge Performance Combinable quartz gauge

Sapphire strain gauge

Electrode
Vibrating
lens
Vacuum Sensing
Neutral fluid element

Sapphire Elastic
capsule membrane Quartz
Pressure Four-arm Standard quartz cylinder
gauge
Resonator
precision
Conventional strain gauge Electrical connections
active bridge
Bonded-wire sensor Temperature Pressure
sensor Resonator
– disk
Output Power
Vacuum Shear mode
End
+
Pressure cap
sensor Capacitance Pressure
Mechanical gauge gauge

Advantages • Reliable • Better resolution • Higher accuracy • Higher resolution • Higher resolution • Best dynamics
• Rugged • Fast response • Lower hysteresis • Lower power • Higher stability • Best stability
• Simple • Rugged and • Reliable and • Higher accuracy • Higher pressures
small rugged than standard
quartz gauge
Disadvantages • Poor resolution, • Medium stability, • Medium stability • Slower sampling • Very sensitive to • More electronics
accuracy, stability, resolution and • Temperature • Temperature and temperature
and dynamic accuracy sensitive vibration sensitive change
response • Pressure • Limited pressure
hysteresis range

Maximum 20,000 psi 20,000 psi 17,000 psi 15,000 psi 11,000 psi 15,000 psi
range 200°C 175°C 175°C 175°C 175°C 175°C

Resolution 0.05% of full scale 0.2 psi 0.1 psi 0.01 psi 0.001 psi 0.003 psi
(@ 15,000 psi; (@ 20,000 psi; (@ 10,000 psi; (@ 12,000 psi; (@ 15,000 psi;
1-sec sampling) 1-sec sampling) 10-sec sampling) 1-sec sampling) 1-sec sampling)

Accuracy 40 psi 15 psi 6 psi >12 psi ± [0.025% of ± [0.01 % of

reading + 0.5 psi] reading + 1 psi]

Drift ~10 psi 1st day < 3 psi 1st day, < 3 psi 1st day, ±1.4 psi/week ± 0.2 psi in 18 ± 0.2 psi in 7 days
1000 psi step then then then (10,000 psi; 150°C) days then then
@ 150°C ~10 psi/week <1.5 psi/week <1.4 psi/week < 0.1 psi/week < 0.1 psi/week
(gauge rating) (15,000 psi; 175°C) (10,000 psi; 150°C) (10,000 psi; 150°C) (5,000 psi; 120°C) (10,000 psi; 150°C)

Stabilization
time
5000 psi step 10 min 30 sec ~20 sec 8 min 6 min Always within 1 psi
10°C step
10 min 10 min 10 min 40 min 25 min 25 sec

Relative cost Low Medium Medium Medium High High

Notes Note 1 Note 2 Note 2 Note 1 Note 2 Note 2

Note 1: These are estimated figures based upon published literature and manufacturers’ commercial data.
Note 2: These figures are based upon Schlumberger laboratory and field test data.

22 Oilfield Review
Gauges Through the Ages
Just as the downhole test valve has evolved since
its genesis in the 1930s, so pressure gauges
have advanced. Initially, there were clock-driven
mechanical gauges. Then electronic recorders
with strain gauges, capacitance transducers and
quartz gauges became available.
Most mechanical gauges use a Bourdon tube to
convert pressure variation into mechanical move-
ment. This movement is linked to a stylus that
scratches lines on a cylinder of coated brass
foil—similar to the first Edison phonograph. A
mechanical clock rotates the cylinder and thus
provides a pressure versus time chart. Although
primitive, mechanical gauges are still used and
have a resolution of 1 to 5 psi for a 10,000-psi
gauge (see “Comparison of Pressure Gauge Per-
formance,” previous page). Some of this inaccu-
racy is intrinsic to the tool, but some limits arise
from the laborious task of translating tiny mea-
surements on the chart into a pressure history.
Electronic gauges couple the pressure-sensing
element to a transducer that converts stress and
strain into some form of electrical signal. Just
about the simplest such technique employs
strain-sensitive resistors on a metal membrane.
As these undergo displacement, their geometry,
and therefore resistance, changes creating an
analog electrical signal. Advantages of the strain
gauge are many: they are simple, robust, small,
fast and reliable. However, resolution—and ulti-
mately stability—is limited by the physical char-
acteristics of the metal used for the strain gauge
to about 0.2 psi for a 15,000-psi gauge.
The limitation of the simple strain gauge is its
metal membrane. Metals are inherently made up
of loosely interlocking microscopic crystals that
cause the gauge never to return to exactly the
same state after being subjected to pressure—a
condition called hysteresis. To improve this
response, a better substrate was required.
This line of reasoning led to the development
of the recently introduced SPG Sapphire Pressure
Gauge. In this, a miniature capsule, or box, of
sapphire crystal is constructed with a vacuum
inside. To measure pressure, a strain gauge
bridge circuit is deposited as a thin film onto the
surface of the crystal. Its operation follows the
same principle as conventional strain gauges:
April 1992
pressure distorts and changes the resistivity of
the circuit on the sapphire’s surface and the elec-
trical signal is altered. Temperature is also mea-
sured using a thin-film sensor mounted on the
same crystal.
The SPG gauge’s resolution is similar to that of
conventional strain gauges (0.1 psi for a 10,000-
psi gauge), but its dynamic response and stability
are much improved. This is because rather than
having a membrane of interlocking and creeping
crystals, it comprises a single crystal which, when
pressure is reduced, returns to its original state.
Another family of sensors are capacitance
transducers. Typically, two plates separated by a
gap are coated with conductive material. As the
pressure changes, the distance between the two
plates and therefore the capacitance changes.
Difficulties with these gauges include measuring
the minute changes in capacitance and a sensi-
tivity to the environment. To achieve the desired
signal-to-noise ratio, the surface areas of the
plates have to be relatively large. This makes them
prone to transient variations under dynamic con-
ditions. Mechanical vibrations and metallurgical
effects can also upset the pressure reading. Fur-
thermore, the two plates’ position relative to
gravity can affect the minute distance between
them, making these gauges sensitive to orientation.
The most accurate pressure sensors use quartz
crystals. A correctly cut section of quartz has a
natural or resonant frequency of vibration—like a
tuning fork. As the quartz vibrates, there is a
detectable sinusoidal variation in electrical
charge on its surface. Pressure-induced stress
applied to the crystal causes the sine wave’s fre-
quency to vary in a very precise manner.
Unfortunately, the pressure sensitivity of the
resonator is low—about 1.5 Hz per psi—com-
pared with its temperature sensitivity—about 15
Hz per °C. To correct for this susceptibility to tem-
perature variations, two approaches have been
employed. In one, an accurate thermometer is
used to calibrate the pressure calculation. How-
ever, the thermal time lag between the quartz and
its thermometer compromises the measurement.
The other approach employs a second, refer-
ence quartz crystal that exhibits similar tempera-
ture behavior as the pressure transducer. By
installing it in a vacuum chamber isolated from
changes in pressure, it responds only to tempera-
ture. The frequency outputs of the two crystals
are then subtracted to give a beat frequency that
is mainly a function of the pressure.
However, this transducer also has problems
coping with changes in temperature because of a
thermal time lag between the two crystals. In
dynamic conditions, this type of gauge takes 30
minutes to an hour to reach equilibrium, creating
an error in the order of 1 to 10 psi for a 10,000-
psi gauge.
The latest development, therefore, has been to
measure temperature and pressure simultane-
ously within the same crystal in a single quartz
transducer. In the CQG Combinable Quartz
Gauge, two vibration modes at offset angles are
excited on a single quartz resonator plate. One
mode is particularly sensitive to temperature and
is used as a thermometer to correct the fre-
quency-temperature behavior of the other more
pressure-sensitive mode. Because this happens
on the same piece of quartz, there is no possibil-
ity of a temperature lag or discrepancy.
The CQG transducer consists of a quartz crystal
comprising a body and two end caps. The dual-
mode resonator is a plate inside the body in a
vacuum maintained by the end caps. Pressure
outside the transducer induces stress inside the
resonator, which changes resonant frequency.
Tests on the CQG gauges have shown it has an
accuracy of 1 psi over a range from atmospheric
pressure to 15,000 psi at temperatures 35°C to
175°C [95°F to 350 °F]. Response to changes in
temperature is extremely fast—less than a few
seconds—rather than the 30 minutes or so taken
by previous quartz gauges.1
1. Veneruso AF, Ehlig-Economides C and Petitjean L, refer-
ence 5.
23
 However, mechanical gauges are simple,
rugged and still the only instruments capa-
ble of withstanding bottomhole tempera-
tures in excess of 200 °C [415 °F].
Electronic strain gauges perform much
better than mechanical gauges but they are
affected by significant drift, particularly dur-
ing the first day downhole.
Another factor is how quickly a gauge sta-
bilizes after a rapid change in temperature
and pressure. The stabilization time is usu-
Shock absorber ally defined as the time needed to come
within 1 psi of the actual pressure. Standard
quartz gauges are very precise, but usually
take up to 30 minutes to stabilize after large
temperature or pressure changes—30°C or
1000 psi. The new CQG Combinable
Quartz Gauge stabilizes virtually instanta-
Gauge neously because it measures both the tem-
perature and pressure within the same
quartz crystal.
Finally, when TCP is to be employed, the
gauges have to be capable of withstanding
the explosive shock.
The power source of mechanical gauges
is clockwork. Most other types of gauge are
powered by batteries which must survive
the anticipated downhole temperature—few
currently exceed a working temperature of
175 °C [350°F].
The gauge memory stores the pressure
and temperature data and needs to be of
sufficient capacity to last the anticipated
duration of the test. Sometimes, data-com-
pression algorithms are employed to ensure
that valuable memory is conserved. A fur-
ther requirement is for the downhole
recorder to retain its memory after the bat-
teries are dead.
Another important element is packaging.
In the beginning, mechanical gauges were
installed in carriers below the downhole

Buffer tube nIndependent downhole

shut-in with surface pres-
sure readout. When used in
combination, the valve
assembly is run in hole with
the string above the test
valve. An actuator that Pressure
includes a pressure gauge gauge
assembly is run on mono-
conductor wireline and
latched into the valve
assembly. Once latched, a
flapper valve can be
Carrier accommodates opened and closed simply
up to six gauges by picking up and slacking
off on the wireline. Pressure
below the valve is continu-
nGauge carrier ously monitored by a sur-
face computer system that
communicates with the
gauge via the wireline. The Pressure
tool can be used for up to seal
12 preset flow and shut-in
cycles. After a preset num-
ber of manipulations, the
tool is released and
retrieved.

Sliding
sleeve
Flapper

Flowing Closed

24 Oilfield Review
valve and formation fluid flowed around
them. But in a fullbore test string, the gauges
must be mounted in such a way as to pre-
serve the 21/4-in. inside diameter while at
the same time not exceed 5-in. outside Wireline
diameter. To achieve this, most gauges running
tool
today are packaged with 11/4-in. maximum
outside diameter (previous page, above left ).
Test string
Surface Pressure Readout—The ability to
read the downhole pressure at surface dur-
ing the test has two virtues. First, the func- Latch
tionality of the downhole equipment can be Inductive
coupling
monitored. Second, it can be confirmed that housing
sufficient data have been acquired.
Surface pressure readout started with a Inductive
gauge suspended on electrical wireline usu- coupling
ally close to the perforations. Clearly, this
technique does not allow a downhole test
valve to be closed.
The mid-1970s saw the introduction of a
system capable of real-time surface readout
of pressure buildup during downhole shut-
Battery
in. Downhole pressure is ported through the Fullbore
test valve of a pressure-operated DST string multisensor
and measured by a gauge mounted above recorder
the valve. Pressure data are retrieved using Three pressure
an electrical wireline latch assembly. transducers
Next came independent pressure read- Annular pressure
out/shut-in devices used either in combina- port
tion with a downhole test valve or indepen- Formation pressure
dently in a tubing string ( previous page, port
below right). Tubing pressure
These surface readout techniques rely on port
having the wireline in the test string while Test valve Flow-control
the well is flowing which can complicate valve
procedures and take up valuable rig time.
The DataLatch system eliminates these dis-
advantages by combining a fullbore pres-
sure and temperature recorder system with
optional surface readout capabilities.
nKeeping your options open. The Data-
Latch system comprises two main compo-
Throughout the test, the system records nents: an inductive coupling section on
pressure above and below the downhole top and a fullbore, multisensor recorder
valve and in the annulus. But at any time, below. In this case, there is also a fullbore
flow-control valve below the recorder.
wireline may be used to interrogate the
recorder memory and reprogram it. The sys-
tem allows surface readout during pressure The ability to read and reprogram the
buildup and removal of the wireline prior to recorder offers the chance to alter data sam-
flow. Furthermore, the wireline can be run pling rates and temporarily shut the tool
at a relatively convenient time—during the down to save battery power.
buildup—and used to determine that the The recorder batteries have a maximum
design for the rest of the well test is appro- life expectancy of about 500 hours. To best
priate and to check that acquired data meets deploy its nonvolatile memory requires effi-
the test objectives. cient organization of data. An algorithm is
At the heart of this equipment is an inno- used to determine whether a new data point
vative connection that links wireline and differs enough to merit storage.
recorder, allowing two-way passage of elec-
tronic information. The link communicates
using electromagnetic induction and does
not require electrical contacts (above, right ).

April 1992 25

Flow Measurement and Sampling on
Surface
On surface, the fluids produced during a
test are normally handled using temporary
equipment that has to safely and reliably
fulfill a wide range of operations:
•provide a means of quickly controlling the
pressure and shutting in the well
•separate produced fluid into its gas, oil
and water phases, allowing the con-
stituents to be metered, and record key
data like temperature and pressure
•allow samples to be taken
•dispose of the produced effluent in an
environmentally acceptable manner.
Pressure Control—Traditional safety philoso-
phy seeks to maintain a minimum of two
independent barriers between the surface
equipment and the formation. These may be
located at three levels: downhole, subsur-
face and surface. Downhole barriers include
the DST test valve itself or a special safety
valve used only in emergencies.
Subsurface barriers are not universally
employed on fixed rigs or onshore. In some
cases, particularly high-pressure gas wells,
an additional means of shutting in the well
is required—analogous to subsurface safety
valves used in permanent completions.
Any system deployed from a floating rig
must offer rapid detachment of the string in
the event of rough weather, loss of anchor
or failure of the rig’s dynamic positioning
system. To achieve this, a subsea safety
valve assembly is landed inside the seafloor
blowout preventers (BOPs). This provides a
seabed valve to close the drillstring and
allow disconnection. Once disconnected,
the remainder of the string below seabed
level hangs in a fluted hanger under the
BOP (right ).7
Surface shutoff is usually provided by a
flow control head which functions as a tem-
porary christmas tree. The flowhead com-
prises four valves, the master valve, swab
valve and two wing valves. The master
valve is attached to the top of the test string
which it isolates from the surface equip-
ment. The swab valve allows introduction of
wireline, slickline or coiled tubing. One
wing valve allows fluid to flow out of the
the well, the other allows kill fluid to be
pumped into the well (page 15).
The flowline valve is equipped with an
automatic shutoff system driven by surface
26
During test After disconnection
Winch
Rig’s cellar
deck Retainer
valve closed
Hydraulic hose
pressure keeps
subsea valve open
Lubricator valve
replaces lubricator
above the
flowhead Riser
Riser
disconnected
Riser disconnect
Retainer valve
BOP pipe
rams
Latch Rams closed
assembly
Subsea valve Subsea valve
closed
Fluted hanger
Seabed
nSubsea test tree while a well is flowing and after emergency disconnection. The sub-
sea safety valve is spaced out to position it below the BOP blind and shear rams. It
requires hydraulic pressure to hold it open and if this is interrupted, the valve automati-
cally closes. If the rig has to move off station, the control valve is closed. Then the
hydraulically-operated latch above the subsea safety valve disconnects the test string
and the BOP blind rams are closed. The normal riser-disconnect mechanism allows the
riser to be picked up with the top of the test string still inside.
If hydrocarbon flowed to surface during the test, there is a danger that after discon-
nection it will either contaminate the seawater or migrate up the riser test string annu-
lus. To prevent this, a retainer valve is located at the bottom of the disconnected part of
the test string. When this is closed, the hydrocarbons are trapped in the string.
pressure monitors. If surface pressure is usually variable, while the other incorpo-
exceeds a preset value or suddenly drops rates inserts with calibrated diameters called
(indicating a failure of some part of the flowbeans—it is important to know the exact
equipment at surface), the valve closes. diameter of the choke when making pressure
After the flow control head, comes the and flow rate measurements.
choke manifold that controls the produced The variable choke is used to gain quick
fluid, imposing a constant flow rate. A choke control. Once flow rate is stable, a flowbean
is simply a restriction to flow, and the choke is used for the rest of the flow period. The
manifold usually contains two such restric- aim is to impose critical flow across the
tions—flow can be directed via either or
through both in parallel. One of the chokes
Oilfield Review
choke. When this has been achieved,
changes in pressure and rate made down-
stream from the choke, do not affect down-
hole pressure and flow rate.
Separation and Flow Rate Measurement—To
accurately measure flow rate, the produced
fluid has to be separated into oil, gas and
water. Test separators tend to be adaptable,
capable of handling all types of output: gas,
gas condensate, light oil, heavy oil, foaming
oil, water and spent stimulation fluids like
acid. The possibility that hydrogen sulfide
can be produced by any exploration well
necessitates special equipment and
enhanced safety precautions.
Gas often requires heating prior to separa-
tion to help prevent hydrate formation.
Hydrate inhibition through chemical injec-
tion is also sometimes necessary. Some oils,
particularly viscous ones, require heating to
improve separability.
Once the phases have been separated,
their flow rates can be measured: liquid flow
rate, using flowmeters; gas flow rate, using
an orifice plate—where the absolute pres-
sure and the pressure drop across an orifice
are proportional to the mass flow rate.
Separated oil and condensate then pass
into either a gauge tank, which vents to
atmosphere via a flame arrestor, or, when
hydrogen sulfide is expected, a pressurized
surge tank. In these, volume can also be
measured to calibrate the flowmeters.
Because the pressure of the oil is further
reduced when it reaches this stage, addi-
tional gas can come out of solution, causing
shrinkage, which can also be measured at
the gauge or surge tanks.
Pressure, temperature and flow rate mea-
surement at surface can be combined with
downhole data using the COMPUTEST cen-
tralized acquisition system. This records all
the data, and at the same time calculates and
displays parameters in real time. Continuous
remote sensing with automatic alarms
reduces the exposure of personnel to risk
and improves safety, particularly during
high-pressure or harsh-environment testing.
The data gathered by the system can be vali-
dated while the test is in progress using inter-
pretation software, allowing the test proce-
dure to be optimized in light of experience.
April 1992
Sampling—Samples of gas, oil and water
are always taken at surface from the test
separator. Gas and liquid samples can then
be recombined in the proportions indicated
by the volumes of the separated phases
measured at the separator. When the result-
ing mixture is subjected to reservoir condi-
tions, it should be as close as possible to
what is actually in the formation.
Once the sample has been obtained, it is
the job of the PVT (pressure-volume-temper-
ature) laboratory to conduct a thorough
analysis. Resulting information can be split
into two categories: physical and composi-
tional. Physical information includes the
pressure-volume relationship, oil volume
factors (the volumes the oil occupies at
reservoir and standard conditions) and vis-
cosities. Compositional analysis includes
chemical breakdown of the complex com-
ponents in the sample. Water samples are
analyzed to determine whether they are
mud filtrate or formation water.8
This information is essential not only in
understanding the reservoir, but also in
designing surface production facilities and
maximizing recovery. For example, a crude
oil might form wax at surface or have a high
hydrogen sulfide content ; the process
equipment must be designed to take this
into consideration.
However, prior to the PVT analysis, which
may take weeks to deliver, some composi-
tional data can be estimated at the wellsite
during the test. Using gas chromatographic
analysis of the fluid composition and an
equation-of-state-based thermodynamic
model, a number of parameters can be esti-
mated, including bubblepoint at reservoir
conditions, reservoir fluid specific gravity
and volume factor at the bubblepoint and
reservoir fluid conditions as a function of
declining reservoir pressure.
If the flowing reservoir pressure is above
the bubblepoint pressure, a monophasic
downhole sample can be collected and
brought to surface in a sealed container. In
theory, this has been possible since the
introduction of the first openhole DST sys-
tems. In these, a double-seal system traps a
downhole formation fluid sample within the
tool and brings it to surface with the string.
Today, fullbore test systems all include tools
to take samples.
However, the quality of samples acquired
this way is greatly dependent on the reliabil-
ity of the seals within the chamber as they
are pulled out of hole. One does not know
whether a sample has been successfully
secured until the test string reaches the sur-
face. And if the sampler has failed, it is too
late to do anything about it.
Samples can also be taken during testing
using wireline-conveyed samplers run in
front of the perforations to to trap a single-
phase sample of the formation fluid. A fur-
ther method of obtaining formation fluid
samples comes through the use of wireline
tools during openhole logging (see “The
MDT Tool: A Wireline Testing Break-
through,” page 58).
Disposal —As environmental constraints
tighten, the acceptable disposal of produced
fluid presents an increasing challenge. In
general, gas and oil are burned. Onshore,
this usually occurs in flare pits. Offshore, the
primary concern is to avoid dropping oily or
carboniferous residue into the sea. At first,
offshore testing was hampered by the need
to dispose of oil which had to be stored off-
shore or offloaded into a tanker. Then in the
late 1960s, Flopetrol introduced the first flar-
ing system to safely and efficiently burn oil,
making possible economic offshore testing.
Within a typical burner, oil flows from the
separator into a chamber where it is atom-
ized by compressed air. The mixture is then
ignited. Water sprayed into the flame cre-
ates high turbulence, improves the effi-
ciency of the burning and prevents the for-
mation of carbon black.
Water is usually produced in relatively
small volumes that can be handled without
problems using the rig wastewater system.
—CF
7. Ollier JP, Imrie B and Talbott: “An Integrated
Approach to the Safety of Surface Well Testing on
Mobile Offshore Rigs,” paper SPE 23250, presented at
the First International Conference on Health, Safety
and Environment, The Hague, The Netherlands,
November 11-14, 1991.
8. Freyss H, Guieze P, Varotsis N, Khakoo A, Lestelle K
and Simper D: “PVT Analysis for Oil Reservoirs,” The
Technical Review 37, no.1 (January 1989): 4-15
27