Buddhist philosophy: Four principles, Implication in education

Buddhist philosophy of occupies an important place in the history of Indian

philosophical tradition. Buddhist philosophy is based on the life and philosophy of Gautama
Buddha. This philosophy is the result of post Vedic philosophical thought which reject some
of the beliefs of Hindu philosophy. However, there are many similarities between Buddhist
and Hindu philosophy. For example the concept of karma, the cycle of life and death or the
sansar chakra and the concept of Moksha, Nirvana or Salvation etc.
The first complete biography of the Buddha in Pāli is the Nidānakathā, which serves
as an introduction to the Jātaka verses found in the fifth Pāli Nikāya. In Sanskrit, the most
popular biographies of the Buddha are the Buddhacarita attributed to the Indian poet
Aśvaghoṣa (second century C.E), the Mahāvastu, and the Lalitavistara, both composed in the
first century C.E.
Gautama was born into a noble family. The Buddha’s parents were King Śuddhodana
and Queen Māyā. He was a member of the Śakya clan and his name was Siddhartha
Gautama. Even though he was born in Lumbinī while his mother was traveling to her parents’
home, he spent the first twenty-nine years of his life in the royal capital, Kapilavastu, in the
Nepalese region of Terai, close to the Indian border. Prince Siddhartha enjoyed all types of
luxuries and sensual pleasures during his youth. Unsatisfied with this type of life, he had a
crisis when he realized that everything was ephemeral and that his existence was subject to
old age, sickness, and death. After seeing the serene joy of a monk and out of compassion for
all living beings, he renounced his promising future as prince in order to start a long quest for
a higher purpose, nirvāṇa, which entails the cessation of old age, sickness and death.
Gautama abandoned his wife Yaśodharā immediately after she gave birth to Rāhula, the
Buddha’s only son.
Buddha tried different spiritual paths for six years. First, he practiced yogic
meditation. After experiencing the states of concentration called base of nothingness and base
of neither-perception-nor-non-perception, he realized that these lofty states did not lead to
nirvana. Then the Buddha began to practice breathing exercises and fasting. The deterioration
of his health led the Buddha to conclude that extreme asceticism was equally ineffective in
attaining nirvana. He thus resumed eating solid food; after recovering his health, he began to
practice a more moderate spiritual path, the middle path, which avoids the extremes of
sensual self-indulgence and self-mortification. Soon after, the Buddha experienced
enlightenment, or awakening, under a bodhi-tree. First he was inclined to inaction rather than
to teaching what he had discovered. However, he changed his mind later and out of
compassion for all living beings, he decided to start a successful teaching career that lasted
forty-five years.
The fundamental ethical and spiritual point behind the Buddha’s life is that
impermanent, conditioned, and contingent things such as wealth, social position, power,
sensual pleasures, and even lofty meditative states, cannot generate a state of ultimate
happiness. In order to overcome the profound existential dissatisfaction that all ephemeral
and contingent things eventually generate, one needs to follow a comprehensive path of
ethical and mental training conducive to the state of ultimate happiness called nirvana.
Shortly after the Buddha’s death five hundred disciples gathered to compile his
teachings. Ānanda, recited the first part of the Buddhist canon (principles), the Sūtra Piṭaka,
which contains discourses in dialogue form between the Buddha, his disciples, and his
contemporaries on a variety of doctrinal and spiritual questions. Another disciple, Upāli,
recited the second part of the Buddhist canon, the Vinaya Piṭaka, which also contains sutras,
but primarily addresses the rules that govern a monastic community. The third part of the
Buddhist canon or Abhidharma Piṭaka, was not recited at that moment. The Sūtra Piṭaka is
older than the Vinaya Piṭaka, and the Abhidharma Piṭaka represents scholastic developments
originated at least two centuries after the other two parts of the canon.
Buddhist philosophy is basically involved with the pain and problems of human life
and with the exploration of means for the solution of these problems. This philosophy has not
laid much importance on the problems or discussions about metaphysical principles.
Buddhist Epistemology:
While the Buddha’s view of the spiritual path is traditionally described as a middle
way between the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification, the Buddha’s
epistemology can be interpreted as a middle way between the extremes of dogmatism and
scepticism.
The extreme of dogmatism is primarily represented by Brahmanism. Brahmanism
emphasized the triple knowledge of the Vedas, and dogmatic faith in their content: “in regard
to the ancient Brahmanic hymns that have come down through oral transmission and in the
scriptural collections, the Brahmins come to the definite conclusion: ‘Only this is true,
anything else is wrong’ ”.
The extreme of scepticism is represented by some members of the Śramanic
movement, which consisted of numerous groups of spiritual seekers and wandering
philosophers. The Śramanic movement was extremely diverse in terms of doctrines and
practices. Most śramanas believed in free will as well as the efficacy of moral conduct and
spiritual practices in order to attain liberation from the cycle of reincarnations. However,
there was a minority of śramanas who denied the existence of the after-life, free will, and the
usefulness of ethical conduct and other spiritual practices. Probably as a reaction to these two
opposite standpoints, some śramanas adopted a sceptic attitude denying the possibility of
knowledge about such matters. Skeptics are described by the Buddha as replying questions by
evasion, and as engaging in verbal wriggling, in eel-wriggling (amarāvikkhepa): “I don’t say
it is like this. And I don’t say it is like that. And I don’t say it is otherwise. And I don’t say it
is not so. And I don’t say it is not not so”.
In contrast to Brahmanic dogmatism, the Buddha did not claim to be omniscient; in
fact, he proposed a critical attitude toward all sources of knowledge. Buddha challenges
Brahmins who accept Vedic scriptures out of faith (saddhā) and oral tradition (anussava); he
compares those who blindly follow scripture and tradition without having direct knowledge
of what they believe with “a file of blind men each in touch with the next: the first one does
not see, the middle one does not see, and the last one does not see.” The Buddha also warns
Brahmins against knowledge based on likeability or emotional inclination (ruci), reflection on
reasons (ākāraparivitakka), and consideration of theories (diṭṭhinijjhānakkhanti). These five
sources of knowledge may be either true or false; that is, they do not provide conclusive
grounds to claim dogmatically that “only this is true, anything else is wrong.”
Unlike the scepticism of some śramanas, the Buddha takes clear stances on ethical
and spiritual issues, and rejects neither the existence of right views nor the possibility of
knowing certain things as they are (yathābhūtaṃ). In order to counteract scepticism, the
Buddha advises “not go by oral tradition, by succession of disciples, by hearsay, by the
content of sacred scripture, by logical consistency, by inference, by reflection on reasons, by
consideration of theories, by appearance, by respect to a teacher.” Instead, the Buddha
recommends knowing things for oneself as the ultimate criterion to adjudicate between
conflicting claims of truth.
When personal experience is not available to someone, the Buddha proposes taking
into account what is praised or censored by the wise, as well as a method to calculate the
benefits of following certain opinions called the incontrovertible teaching
(apaṇṇakadhamma).
Personal experience, like any other means of knowledge is to be critically examined.
Personal experience is always tainted by affective and cognitive prejudices.
It is precisely because our experiences are affectively and cognitively conditioned that
the Buddha advocates a critical approach toward all sources of knowledge, including personal
experience. Even the lofty experiences derived from meditation are to be analyzed carefully
because they might lead to false opinions about the nature of the self, the world, and the after-
life. The epistemological ideal is to know things directly beyond mental constructions
(papañca), which presupposes the “tranquilization of all mental formations”
(sabbasaṅkhārasamatha).
Buddhism on Cosmology and Metaphysics
Buddhist philosophy believes in the existence of a universe with several realms,
where people are reborn and die again and again (saṃsāra) depending on their past actions
(karma) until they attain salvation (mokṣa). However, against the Brahmanic tendency to
understand karma as ritual action, Buddhism defines karma in terms of volition, or free will,
which is expressed through thoughts, words, and behavior.
Moreover, saṃsāra refers primarily to a psychophysical process that takes place
within the physical universe. For instance, when Buddhism speaks about the end of the
world, it says that it cannot be reached by travelling through the physical universe, but only
by putting an end to suffering (saṃsāra), where “one is not born, does not age, does not die,
does not pass away, and is not reborn” Accordingly, salvation is not understood in world-
denying terms or as an escape from the physical universe, but rather as an inner
transformation that takes place within one’s own psychophysical organism.
According to Buddhist beliefs, the universe has not been created by an all-knowing,
all-powerful god that is the lord of the universe and father of all beings. Rather, the universe
evolves following certain cyclic patterns of contraction and expansion.
Similarly, the cosmic order, or Dharma, does not depend on the will of gods, and there are
many good deeds far more effective than ritual sacrifices offered to the gods.
The Four Noble Truths or Realities:
One the most common frameworks to explain the basic teachings of Buddhism is the
four noble truths (ariyasacca, Sanskrit āryasatya). The word sacca means both truth and
reality. The word ariya refers primarily to the ideal type of person the Buddhist path is
supposed to generate, a noble person in the ethical and spiritual sense. The four noble truths
are primarily four realities whose contemplation leads to sainthood or the state of the noble
ones (ariya). Other possible translations of ariyasacca are “ennobling truths” or “truths of the
noble ones.”
The Four Noble Truths comprise the essence of Buddha's teachings, though they leave
much left unexplained. They are: the truth of suffering, the truth of the cause of suffering,
the truth of the end of suffering, and the truth of the path that leads to the end of suffering.
More simply put, suffering exists; it has a cause; it has an end; and it has a cause to bring
about its end. The notion of suffering is not intended to convey a negative world view, but
rather, a pragmatic perspective that deals with the world as it is, and attempts to rectify it. The
concept of pleasure is not denied, but acknowledged as fleeting. Pursuit of pleasure can only
continue what is ultimately an unquenchable thirst. The same logic belies an understanding of
happiness. In the end, only aging, sickness, and death are certain and unavoidable. 
The Four Noble Truths are a contingency plan for dealing with the suffering humanity
faces – suffering of a physical kind, or of a mental nature. The First Truth identifies the
presence of suffering. The Second Truth, on the other hand, seeks to determine the cause of
suffering. In Buddhism, desire and ignorance lie at the root of suffering. By desire, Buddhists
refer to craving pleasure, material goods, and immortality, all of which are wants that can
never be satisfied. As a result, desiring them can only bring suffering. Ignorance, in
comparison, relates to not seeing the world as it actually is. Without the capacity for mental
concentration and insight, Buddhism explains, one's mind is left undeveloped, unable to grasp
the true nature of things. Vices, such as greed, envy, hatred and anger, derive from this
ignorance. 
The Third Noble Truth, the truth of the end of suffering, has dual meaning, suggesting
either the end of suffering in this life, on earth, or in the spiritual life, through achieving
Nirvana. When one has achieved Nirvana, which is a transcendent state free from suffering
and our worldly cycle of birth and rebirth, spiritual enlightenment has been reached. The
Fourth Noble truth charts the method for attaining the end of suffering, known to
Buddhists as the Noble Eightfold Path. The steps of the Noble Eightfold Path are Right
Understanding, Right Thought, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort,
Right Mindfulness and Right Concentration. Moreover, there are three themes into which the
Path is divided: good moral conduct (Understanding, Thought, Speech); meditation and
mental development (Action, Livelihood, Effort), and wisdom or insight (Mindfulness and
Concentration).
Buddhist Ethics:
Buddhist ethics includes more than lists of precepts and more than the section on
ethical training of the eightfold noble path. In fact, Buddhist ethics encompasses the entire
spiritual path, that is, bodily, verbal, and mental actions. The factors of the eightfold noble
path dealing with wisdom and concentration (right view, right intentions, rights effort, right
concentration, right mindfulness) relate to different types of mental actions. The term “right”
(sammā) in this context does not mean the opposite of “wrong,” but rather “perfect” or
“complete;” that is, it denotes the best or the most effective actions to attain liberation.
The most comprehensive formulation of early Buddhist ethics, is the list of ten dark or
unwholesome actions and their opposite, the ten bright or wholesome actions: three bodily
actions (abstaining from killing, stealing, sexual misconduct), four verbal actions (abstaining
from false, divisive, harsh, and useless speech), and three mental actions (abstaining from
covetousness, ill-will, and dogmatic views).
Buddhism defines action in terms of intention or choice (cetanā): having intended,
someone acts through body, speech, and mind. The roots of unwholesome (akusala) actions
are greed (lobha), aversion (dosa), and delusion (moha). Conversely, the roots of wholesome
actions are defined as the opposite mental states.
The fundamental moral law of the universe according to Buddhism is what is
popularly called the “law of karma”: good actions produce good consequences, and bad
actions lead to bad consequences. However, Contrary to what is accepted in contemporary
society, the Buddhist interpretation of karma does not refer to preordained fate. Karma refers
to good or bad actions a person takes during her lifetime. Good actions, which involve either
the absence of bad actions, or actual positive acts, such as generosity, righteousness, and
meditation, bring about happiness in the long run. Bad actions, such as lying, stealing or
killing, bring about unhappiness in the long run. The weight that actions carry is determined
by five conditions: frequent, repetitive action; determined, intentional action; action
performed without regret; action against extraordinary persons; and action toward those who
have helped one in the past. Finally, there is also neutral karma, which derives from acts such
as breathing, eating or sleeping. Neutral karma has no benefits or costs.
The cycle of Re-birth:
Karma plays out in the Buddhism cycle of rebirth. There are six separate planes into
which any living being can be reborn -- three fortunate realms, and three unfortunate realms.
Those with favourable, positive karma are reborn into one of the fortunate realms: the realm
of demigods, the realm of gods, and the realm of men. While the demigods and gods enjoy
gratification unknown to men, they also suffer unceasing jealousy and envy. The realm of
man is considered the highest realm of rebirth. Humanity lacks some of the extravagances of
the demigods and gods, but is also free from their relentless conflict. Similarly, while
inhabitants of the three unfortunate realms -- of animals, ghosts and hell -- suffer untold
suffering, the suffering of the realm of man is far less.
 The realm of man also offers one other aspect lacking in the other five planes, an
opportunity to achieve enlightenment, or Nirvana. Given the sheer number of living things, to
be born human is to Buddhists a precious chance at spiritual bliss, a rarity that one should not
forsake.

Educational implications of Buddhist philosophy:

The Buddhist system of education was the monastic system of education. The
monasteries or Viharas where Bhikshus were residing developed in to educational institutions
the Buddhist system. A network of such centres of education was started during the period
and the entire educational system was controlled and supervised by the Monks. There was
provision for both religious as well as secular type of education. Therefore, emphasise was
laid on personal conduct rather than external rites and ceremonies. The aim of education was
to prepare for a good life, a moral life. The whole discipline (education) had three important
aspects, namely: morality contemplation and wisdom.
The Buddhist system was Democratic in character. Buddhist system did not
distinguish between man and man on the basis of their caste. All castes were equally
admissible to Buddhist community and were treated equally.
Renunciation of family life what is the very basis of Buddhist system of education.
Once the pupils left their homes and joint the Bihar us for receiving education, they were
generally not allowed to go back to their homes even after the completion of their studies.
Having finished their education they were required to go about and preach Buddhism.
The Buddhist system of education was not based upon Vedic study even though
Hindu religion formed an important part of the courses of studies. Though the medium of
instruction was pali, the language of the common man, but the study of Sanskrit was not
completely ignored. Buddhism internationalised education. Reputed universities like Nalanda
attracted foreign scholars and Indian culture spread far and wide.
The conditions of admission to the Sangha or community of Bhikshus were very
simple. At the beginning of educational system, the ceremony of initiation formed an
essential part of Buddhist education. The first act of admission was called Prabbajja or the
preparatory ordination for education. After this ordination, at the age of eight the boy would
enter the monastery as a Sramana. Before admission to the order the boy had to take oath of
Three Refuges: Buddham sharanam gacchami, Dharmam saranam gacchami, Sangham
saranam gacchami. After completion of education of 12 years at the age of 20 years the
Sramana had to undergo the ritual ‘Upsampada’ and then he becomes permanent member of
‘Sangha’
Buddhism and the aims of Education:
 Development of personality
 Physical and intellectual development
 Religious and spiritual development
 Character building
 Promotion of social efficiency and happiness
 Presentation and spread of culture
Buddhism and Curriculum:
 Buddhist system advocated that the four noble truths should find place in the
curriculum. This four truths involve the study about the sansara or world system,
place of man in the world, changeability of the world, cause-effect relationship, nature
of pleasure and pain that man experience in this world as well as a study of Buddhist
philosophy.
 Knowledge about earning one’s livelihood honestly
 Study of Buddhist literature
 Study about the life of Mahatma Buddha
Besides the study of above mentioned subjects the following five typs of vidyas are
emphasized in the Buddhist monasteries or Viharas:
 Shabda vidya or learning of words, phonology and grammar
 Shilpa vidya or learning of arts and industries
 Chikitsa vidya or learning of medicines and human body
 Hetu vidya or logic and rhetoric
 Adhyatma vidya or Buddhist philosophy and comparative philosophy.
At the primary level of education the curriculum mainly consisted of the 3R’s.
However, higher education included study of religion, philosophy, logic, nature study, law,
medicine, military training, arts, crafts, entrepreneurship etc.
Buddhism and method of teaching:
Education system based on Buddhist philosophy emphasized the use of following
methods:
 Verbal methods or lecture and explanations given by the Adhyapakas
  Teaching small groups of five-six learners
 Discussion and explanation of difficult lessons by Adhyapakas
 Acquiring direct experiences
 Debate and logical methods
 Travelling, for acquiring practical experiences of theoretical knowledge
 Conferences of learners from different Sanghas for discussion, debate and exchange
of ideas
 Meditation
 Question –answer, discussion, logical arguments, tours, conferences etc arranged on
full moon day and first day of month
Buddhism and discipline:
Buddhist system of education advocates observance of strict discipline. According to
this philosophy education is not possible without self-control and humility. This philosophy
emphasises on meditation and abstinence as means of discipline. According to this
philosophy self-discipline is real discipline. Discipline should gradually grow in the minds of
pupils. But they should be monitored so that they don’t go along the wrong path.
Buddhism and teacher-pupil relationship and the role of the teacher:
The pupil and teacher relation in the Buddhist system of education was the same as
during the Vedic period. In this monistic system of education the pupil after his admission
placed himself under the supervision and guidance of the teacher. The main ideas of this
connection of teacher and pupil were taken from Brahmanic education. The pupil had to go to
bed later then his teacher and got up earlier. Early in the morning he had to give water, clay,
teeth cleanser etc to his teacher. He had to sweep and clean the room and also go for begging
with his teacher. But the pupil always had to keep a distance while following the teacher.
The teacher also had certain responsibilities towards his pupils. He had to treat the
pupil as his own son and also help him at the time of distress. The most sacred and Noble
duty of the teacher was to impart intellectual and spiritual education of a higher order to his
pupils. He was an ideal for his pupils as he possessed excellent moral character, self-
possession and spirituality. It is quite evident from the writings of Huen-Tsang that in the
Viharas like Nalanda there were profound scholars who put forth a living example before the
pupils. Thus, the pupil teacher relation was pious, cordial and intimate. The teacher was held
in high esteem and greatly respected and the only difference between the pupil and teacher
was merely spiritual superiority of the latter to the former.
Some strengths of Buddhist system of education:
 Education was organized and was provided in well organized centers or monasteries
and Viharas some of which rose to international fame.
 Buddhist education was Cosmopolitan and free from communal narrowness.
 Democratic ideals were followed.
 The curriculum and the methods of teaching were modern, democratic and secular.
 Total development of learners was emphasized. Buddhist education laid much
emphasis on the physical mental and spiritual development of the students.
 Both the teachers and students had to follow a disciplined life.
 Relationship between student and teacher was ideal.
 Buddhist education attracted international importance. It also developed cultural
exchange between India and other countries of the world.

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