ABSTRACT

Urea was discovered in urine by Rouelle in 1773 and first synthesized from
ammonia and cyanic acid by Woehler in 1820. This was first synthesis of an
organic compound from an inorganic compound and it dealt deathblow to the vital-
force theory.

In 1870, Urea was produced by heating ammonium carbamate in a sealed tube.

Urea is in many ways the most convenient form for fixed nitrogen. It has the
highest nitrogen content available in a solid fertilizer (46 %).It is easy to produce
as prills or granules and easily transported in bulk or bags with no explosive
hazard. It leaves no salt residue after use on crops. Its specific gravity is 1.335,
decomposes on boiling and is fairly soluble in water.

1
 Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 MANUFACTURE OF UREA

Urea is an important nitrogenous fertilizer. Its utilization is increasing steadily, it
being the preferred nitrogen fertilizer worldwide. It is used in solid fertilizer, liquid
fertilizer, formaldehyde resins and adhesives.
Rouelle first discovered urea in urine in 1773. His discovery was followed by the
synthesis of urea from ammonia and cyanic acid by Woehler in 1828. This is
considered to be the first synthesis of an organic compound from an inorganic

2
compound. In 1870, Bassarow produced urea by heating ammonium carbamate in a
sealed tube in what was the first synthesis of urea by dehydration. The chemical
formula of, NH2CONH2, indicates that urea can be considered to be the amide of
carbamic acid NH2COOH, or the diamide of carbonic acid CO(OH)2.
Fertilizer is generally defined as “any material, organic or inorganic, natural or
synthetic, which supplies one or more of the chemical elements required for the
plant growth”. The main aim of the fertilizer industry is to provide the primary and
secondary nutrients which are required in macro quantities. Primary nutrients are
normally supplied through chemical fertilizers. They are chemical compounds
containing one or more of the primary nutrients and are generally produced by
chemical reactions. Whatever may be the chemical compounds, its most important
ingredient for plant growth is the nutrient content. The primary nutrients are
Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium. However, their concentration in a chemical
fertilizer is expressed as a percentage of total nitrogen (N), available phosphate
(P2O5) and soluble K2O. The grade of a fertilizer is expressed as a set of three
numbers in the order of percent N, P 2O5 and K2O. If a nutrient is missing in a
fertilizer, it is represented by a zero. The principal raw materials required for this
purpose are NH3 & CO2.Two reactions are involved in the manufacture of urea.
First, ammonium carbamate is formed under pressure by reaction between CO 2 &
NH3. pressure by reaction between CO2 & NH3.

CO2 + 2NH3 → NH2COONH4 ∆H= -37.4kcal

This highly exothermic reaction is followed by an endothermic decomposition of the

ammonium carbamate.
NH2COONH4 ↔ NH2CONH2 + H2O ∆H= + 6.3kcal

3
1.2 PROPERTIES OF UREA :

Urea can be considered the amide of carbamic acid or the diamide of carbonic acid.
At room tem Urea is colorless , odorless and tasteless. Soluble in water, it
hydrolyses very slowly to ammonium carbamate and eventually decomposes to
ammonia and carbon dioxide. This reaction is the basis for the use of urea as
fertilizer.
Table 1.1 Properties of Urea
PROPERTIES VALUE
Melting Point (C) 135
Index of Refraction 1.484, 1.602
Density (gm/cm3) 1.3230
Crystalline Form Tetragonal, Needles or Prisms
Free Energy of formation(298 K) -197.150 (J/ mole)
Heat of fusion 251 (J/gm)
Heat of solution in water 243 (J/gm)
Heat of Crystallization (70% con) 460(J/gm)
Bulk Density 0.74(gm/cm3)
Specific Heat (at 273 K) 50
Specific Heat (at 323 K) 1.661

1.3 USES OF UREA

About 56 % of Urea manufactured is used in solid fertilizer.

About 31 % of Urea manufactured is used in liquid fertilizer.

4
Urea-formaldehyde resins have large use as a plywood adhesive.
Melamine-formaldehyde resins are used as dinnerware & for making extra hard surfaces.

1.4 PROCESS TECHNOLOGY

Although there are several processes currently used for the manufacture of urea,
the underlying principle for all the processes is same. The two main reactions
involved are:

CO2 + 2NH3 ↔ NH2COONH4 ∆H= -37.4kcal/gm mol

NH2COONH4 ↔ NH2CONH2 + H2O ∆H= + 6.3kcal/gm mol

Undesirable side reaction taking place is:

2NH2CONH2 ↔ NH2CONHCONH2 + NH3

(Biuret)

Both 1st & 2nd reactions are equilibrium reactions. The 1st reaction almost goes to
completion at 185-190 oC & 180-200 atms. The 2nd reaction (decomposition reaction) is
slow and determines the rate of the reaction. Unconverted CO 2 & NH3, along with
undecomposed carbamate, must be recovered and re-used. This is a troublesome step.
The synthesis is further complicated by the formation of a dimer called biuret,
NH2CONHCONH2, which must be kept low because it adversely affects the growth of
some plants.

1.5 PROCESS IN GENERAL

5
Ammonia & CO2 are compressed separately and fed to the high pressure (180
atms) autoclave as shown in fig-1.1 which must be water cooled due to the highly
exothermic nature of the reaction. A mixture of urea, ammonium carbamate, H 2O
and unreacted ( NH3+CO2) is produced.
This liquid effluent is let down to 27 atms and fed to a special flash-evaporator
containing a gas-liquid separator and condenser. Unreacted NH3, CO2 & H2O are
thus removed & recycled. An aqueous solution of carbamate-urea is passed to the
atmospheric flash drum where further decomposition of carbamate takes place. The
off gases from this step can either be recycled or sent to NH 3 processes for making
chemical fertilizer.
The 80 % aqueous urea solution can be used as it is, or sent to a vacuum evaporator
to obtain molten urea containing less than 1 % water. The molten mass is then
sprayed into a prilling tower. To avoid formation of biuret and keep it less than 1
%, the temperature must be kept just above the melting point for processing times
of 12 seconds in this phase of the operation.
1.6 THE VARIABLES THAT AFFECT THE AUTOCLAVE
REACTIONS ARE
1. Temperature
Process temperature (185 oC) favours equilibrium yield at a given pressure (180
atm). The conversion of ammonium carbamate to urea gradually increases as the
temperature increases. However, after a particular temperature, depending upon the
pressure, the conversion suddenly drops with further increase in temperature. The
pressure corresponding to this temperature which is usually in the range of
175185oC, is known as the decomposition pressure which is about 180 atm.

6
 Figure 1.1 % Conversion vs Temperature Curve

2. Pressure
The main reaction is sufficiently slow at atmospheric pressure. However, it starts almost
instantaneously at pressure of the order of 100 atm and temperature of 423
K. There is reduction in volume in the overall reaction and so high pressure favors
the forward reaction. This pressure is selected according to the temperature to be
maintained & NH3:CO2 ratio.

7
 Figure 1.2 %Conversion vs Pressure Curve

3. Concentration
Higher the concentration of the reactants, higher will be the forward reaction
according to the law of mass action. CO2 being the limitimg reagent higher
NH3:CO2 ratio favors conversion. Since, dehydration of carbamate results in urea
production, lesser H2O: CO2 ratio favors conversion. Water intake to the reactor
should therefore be minimum.
4. Residence time
Since, urea reaction is slow and takes about 20 mins to attain equilibrium,
sufficient time is to be provided to get higher conversion. Reactor is designed to
accommodate this with respect to the other parameters of temperature, pressure and
concentration.

8
5. Biuret formation
A problem faced during manufacture of urea is the formation of biuret during the
production of urea. It is not a desirable substance because it adversely affects the
growth of some plants. Its content in urea should not be more than 1.5 % by
weight.
2NH2CONH2 ↔ NH2CONHCONH2 + NH3
(Biuret)

9
 Chapter 2
Methods of
Manufacture of Urea

The urea synthesis reactor always contains unreacted carbamate & more or less
practical problem of separating the unreacted material from the urea solution & of
reutilizing this unreacted material. Depending upon the method of reutilization of

10
the unreacted material, the commercial urea synthesis processes are divided into
the following main categories:

1. Conventional process
2. Stamicarbon CO2 – stripping process
3. Snamprogetti Ammonia and self stripping processes
4. Isobaric double recycle process
5. ACES process

2.1 Conventional Processes

1. Once through Process
In this process non converted ammonia was neutralized with acid such as
nitric acid to produce ammonium salt such as ammonium nitrate as co products
of urea production. In this way, a relatively simple urea process scheme was
realized. The main disadvantages of this process are the large quantity of
ammonia salt formed as co product and the limited amount of overall carbon
dioxide conversion that can be achieved.
2. Conventional Recycle Process
Here all of the non converted ammonia and carbon dioxide were recycled to
the urea reactor. In first generation of this process the recirculation of non
converted NH3 and CO2 was performed in two stage. The first recirculation was
operated at medium pressure (18-25 bar); the second at low pressure (2-5 bar). The
first recirculation comprises at least a decomposition heater, in which carbamate
decompose into gaseous NH3 and CO2, and while excess NH3 evaporate
simultaneously. The off gas from this first decomposition step was subjected to
rectification, from which relatively pure ammonia at the top and a bottom product
consisting of an aqueous ammonium carbamate solution were obtained. Both

11
products are recycled separately to the urea reactor. In these processes, all non
converted CO2 was recycled as associated water recycle. Because of the
detrimental effect of water on reaction conversion, achieving a minimum CO2
recycle so achieve maximum CO2 conversion was more important than achieving
a low NH3 recycle. All conventional processes therefore typically operate at high
NH3:CO2 ratios (45mol/mol) to maximize CO2 conversion per pass. Although
some of these conventional processes partly equipped with ingenious heat
exchanging net works have survived until now. Their importance decreased rapidly
as the so-called stripping process was developed.

2.2 Stamicarbon CO2 – stripping process

In this process to achieve maximum urea yield per pass through the
reactor at the stipulated optimum pressure of 140 bar, an NH3:CO2 molar ratio
of 3:1 is applied. The greater part of the unconverted carbamate is decomposed
in the stripper, where ammonia and carbon dioxide are stripped off. This
stripping action is effected by countercurrent contact between the urea solution
and fresh carbon dioxide at synthesis pressure. Low ammonia and carbon
dioxide concentration in the stripped urea solution are obtained. Such that the
recycle from the low pressure recirculation stage is minimized. These low
concentration of both ammonia and carbon dioxide in the stripper effluent can be
obtained at relatively low temperatures of the urea solution because carbon
dioxide is only sparingly soluble under such conditions.
Condensation of ammonia and carbon dioxide gases, leaving the stripper,
occurs in the high pressure carbamate condenser as synthesis pressure. As a
result, the heat liberated from ammonium carbamate formation is at a high
temperature. This heat is used for the production of 4.5bar steam for use in the
urea plant itself. The condensation in the high pressure carbamate condenser is

12
not effected completely. Remaining gases are condensed in the reactor and
provide the heat required for the dehydration of carbamate, as well as for heating
the mixture to its equilibrium temperature. In recent improvement to this
process, the condensation of off gas from the stripper is carried out in a pre
reactor, where sufficient residence time for the liquid phase is provided. As a
result of urea and water formation in condensing zone, the condensation
temperature is increased, thus enabling the production of steam at higher
pressure level.
The feed carbon dioxide, invariably originating from an associated
ammonia plant, always contains hydrogen. To avoid the formation of explosive
hydrogen-oxygen mixture in the tail gas of the plant, hydrogen is catalytically
removed from the CO2 feed. Apart from the air required for this purpose,
additional air is supplied to the fresh CO2 input stream. This extra potion of
oxygen is needed to maintain a corrosion-resistance layer on the stainless steel in
the synthesis section. Before the inert gases, mainly oxygen and nitrogen, are
purged from the synthesis section, they are washed with carbamate solution from
the low pressure recirculation stage in the high pressure scrubber to obtain a low
ammonia concentration in the subsequently purged gas. Further washing of the
off gas is performed in a low pressure absorber to obtain a purge gas that is
practically ammonia free. Only one low pressure recirculation stage is required
due to the low ammonia and carbon dioxide in the stripped urea solution.
Because of the ideal ratio between ammonia and carbon dioxide in the recovered
gases in this section, water dilution of the resultant ammonium carbamate is at a
minimum despite the low pressure (about 4 bar). As a result of efficiency of the
stripper, the quantities of ammonium carbamate for recycle to thesynthesis
section are also minimized, and no separate ammonia recycle is required.

13
 The urea solution coming from the recirculation stage contains about 75
wt% urea. This solution is concentrated in the evaporation section. If the process
is combined with a prilling tower for final product shaping, the final moisture
content of urea from the evaporation section is 0.25 wt%. If the process is
combined with a granular unit, the final moisture content may wary from 1 to 5
wt%, depending on granulation requirements. Higher moisture content can be
realized in a single stage evaporator; where as low moisture content are
economically achieved in a two stage evaporation section.
When urea with an extremely low biuret content is required ( at maximum
of 0.3 wt%) pure urea crystals are produced in a crystallization section. These
crystals are separated from the mother liquor by combination of sieve bends and
centrifuges and are melted prior to final shaping in a prilling tower or
granulation unit.
The process condensate emanating from water evaporation from the
evaporation or crystallization sections contains ammonia and urea. Before this
process condensate is purged, urea is hydrolyzed into ammonia and carbon
dioxide, which are stripped off with steam and return to urea synthesis via the
recirculation section. This process condensate treatment section can produce
water with high purity, thus transforming this “waste water” treatment into the
production unit of a valuable process condensate, suitable for, e.g., cooling tower
or boiler feed water makeup. Since the introduction of the Stamicarbon CO2
stripping process, some 125 units have been built according to this process all
over the world.
2.3 Snamprogetti Ammonia and self stripping processes

In the first generation of NH3 and self strip ping processes, ammonia was used
as stripping agent. Because of the extreme solubility of ammonia in the urea

14
containing synthesis fluid, the stripper effluent contained rather large amount s
of dissolved ammonia, causing ammonia overload in down stream section of the
plant. Later versions of the process abandoned the idea of using ammonia as
stripping agent; stripping was achieved only by supply of heat. Even without
using ammonia as a stripping agent, the NH3:CO2 ratio in the stripper effluent is
relatively high. So the recirculation section of the plant requires an
ammoniacarbomate separation section
The process uses a vertical layout in the synthesis section. Recycle within
the synthesis section, from the stripper via the high pressure carbamate
condenser, through the carbamate separator back to the reactor, is maintained by
using an ammonia-driven liquidliquid ejector. In the reactor, which is operated at
150 bars, NH3:CO2 molar feed ratio of 3.5 is applied. The stripper is of the
falling film type. Since stripping is achieved thermally, relatively high
temperatures (200-210 C) are required to obtain a reasonable stripping
efficiency. Because of this high temperature, stainless steel is not suitable as a
construction material for the stripper from a corrosion point of view; titanium
and bimetallic zircornium – stainless steel tubes have been used
Off gas from the stripper is condensed in a kettle type boiler. At the tube
side of this condenser the off gas is absorbed in recycled liquid carbamate from
the medium pressure recovery section. The heat of absorption is removed
through the tubes, which are cooled by the production of low pressure steam at
the shell side. The steam produced is used effectively in the back end of the
process.
In the medium pressure decomposition and recirculation section , typically
operated at 18 bar, the urea solution from the high pressure stripper is subjected
to the decomposition of carbamate and evaporation of ammonia. The off gas
from this medium pressure decomposer is rectified. Liquid ammonia reflux is

15
applied to the top of this rectifier; in this way a top product consisting of pure
gaseous ammonia and a bottom product of liquid ammonium carbamate are
obtained. The pure ammonia off gas is condensed and recycled to the synthesis
section. To prevent solidification of ammonium carbamate in the rectifier, some
water is added to the bottom section of the column to dilute the ammonium
carbamate below its crystallization point. The liquid ammonium carbamate-
water mixture obtained in this way is also recycled to the synthesis section. The
purge gas of the ammonia condenser is treated in a scrubber prior to being
purged to the atmosphere.
The urea solution from the medium pressure decomposer is subjected to a
second low pressure decomposition step. Here further decomposition of
ammonium carbamate is achieved, so that a substantially carbamate –free
aqueous urea solution is obtained. Off gas from this low pressure decomposer is
condensed and recycled as an aqueous ammonium carbamate solution to the
synthesis section via the medium pressure recovery section. Concentrating the
urea water mixture obtained from the low pressure decomposer is preformed in a
single or double evaporator depending on the requirement of the finishing
section. Typically, if prilling is chosen as the final shaping procedure, a two
stage evaporator is required, whereas in the case of a fluidized bed granulator a
single evaporation step is sufficient to achieve the required final moisture
content of the urea melt. In some versions of the process, heat exchange is
applied between the off gas from the medium pressure decomposer and the
aqueous urea solution to the evaporation section. In this way, the consumption of
low pressure steam by the process is reduced.
The process condensate obtained from the evaporation section is
subjected to a desorption hydrolysis operation to recover the urea and
ammonia contained in the process condensate.

16
 2.4 ACES Process

ACES (Advanced Process for Cost and Energy Saving) process has been
developed by Toyo Engineering Corporation. Its synthesis section consist of the
reactor, stripper, two parallel carbamate condensers and a scrubber all operated at
175 bar.
The reactor is operated at 1900C and an NH 3:CO2 molar feed ratio of 4:1.
Liquid ammonia is fed directly to the reactor, whereas gaseous carbon dioxide
after compression is introduced into the bottom of the stripper as a stripping aid.
The synthesis mixture from the reactor, consisting of urea, unconverted
ammonium carbamate, excess ammonia, and water, is fed to the top of the
stripper.

17
 Chapter 3
Process Description

3.1 Main component of the process

Reactor

18
 The reactor is operated at 180 °C and 175 bar. NH 3:CO 2 molar feed ratio to
the reactor is 4:1. One pass conversion rate of CO2 to urea is about 68%. NH3 is
directly fed to the reactor. Following reaction occurs inside the reactor.

NH2COONH4 + heat ↔ NH2CONH2 + H2O ∆H = -117 kJ/mol

2NH3 + CO2 ↔ NH2COONH4 + heat ∆H = +15.5 kJ/mol

Stripper

Carbon dioxide is introduced into the bottom of the stripper as a stripping aid.
The synthesis mixture from the reactor, consisting of urea, unconverted ammonium
carbamate, excess ammonia, and water, is fed to the top of the stripper. Medium
pressure steam is supplied to the stripper. The stripper has two functions. Its upper
part is equipped with trays where excess ammonia is partly separated from the
stripper feed by direct countercurrent contact of the feed solution with the gas
coming from the lower part of the stripper. This pre stripping in the top is said to
be required to achieve effective CO2 stripping in the lower part. In the lower part
of the stripper (a falling film heater), ammonium carbamate is decomposed and the
resulting CO 2 and NH3 as well as the excess NH3 are evaporated by CO2
stripping and steam heating. The overhead gaseous mixture from the top of the
stripper is introduced into the carbamate condenser.

Following reaction occurs inside the stripper.

NH2COONH4 + heat ↔ 2NH3 + CO2 ∆H = +117 kJ/mol

NH3(l) → NH3(g)

Carbamate Condenser

19
 Carbamate condenser is fed with overhead gaseous mixture from the top of
the stripper, In this unit the gaseous mixture is condensed and absorbed by the
carbamate solution coming from the medium pressure recovery stage. Heat
liberated in the high pressure carbamate condenser is used to generate low pressure
steam. The gas and liquid from the carbamate condensers are recycled to the
reactor by gravity flow.

2NH3 + CO2 ↔ NH2COONH4 + heat ∆H = -117 kJ/mol

NH3(g) → NH3(l)

Scrubber

In the scrubber Ammonia and Carbon Dioxide coming from the reactor are
absorbed to ammonia and ammonium carbamate solution which is going to
Carbamate Condenser.

Medium Pressure Decomposer

The urea solution from the stripper, with a typical NH3 content of 15 wt%, is
purified further in the medium pressure decomposer operating at 17.5 bars. No
external heat supply.

NH2COONH4 + heat ↔ 2NH3 + CO2 ∆H = +117 kJ/mol

NH3(l) → NH3(g)
Low Pressure Decomposer

After the medium pressure decomposer, further purification of urea solution

occurs inside the low pressure decomposer which is operating at 2.5 bar. External

20
heat supply is available. All ammonia and ammonium carbamate are removed by
the Low Pressure Decomposer.

NH2COONH4 + heat ↔ 2NH3 + CO2 ∆H = +117 kJ/mol

NH3(l) → NH3(g)

Medium Pressure Absorber

In medium pressure absorber ammonia and carbon dioxide separated from

the urea solution in medium pressure decomposer are recovered. Condensation
heat in the medium pressure absorber is transferred directly to the aqueous urea
solution feed in the final concentration section.

2NH3 + CO2 ↔ NH2COONH4 + heat

Low Pressure Absorber

In low pressure absorber ammonia and carbon dioxide separated from the
urea solution in low pressure decomposer are recovered. Heat release from that
reaction is used to produce steam at 2 bar. This steam is used for evaporation
process of lower and upper separator.

2NH3 + CO2 ↔ NH2COONH4 + heat ∆H = -117 kJ/mol

Flash Separator

This unit is operated at 1.0 bar and 110 °C. Here by reducing the pressure, let
water to evaporate and concentrate the urea solution.
H2O(l) → H2O(g)

Lower Separator

21
 This is a calendria type evaporator. This is operated at 0.55 bar vacuum
pressure and at 110 °C Here the purified urea solution is further concentrated and
required heat is taken from 2 bar pressure steam produced in low pressure
absorber.

Upper Separator

This is evaporative type separator. This is operated at 0.55 bar vacuum

pressure and at 112 °C Urea solution coming from the lower separator is further
concentrated. Output from that unit has 99.2% pure urea. After that urea solution is
sent to granulation section.

Granulation Plant

The Urea Granulation process consists of following three

sections.

• granulation section

• recycle and product cooling section

• dust removal and recovery section

Figure
3.1 Granulation Plant

Aqueous urea solution from urea plant is fed to the granulator to enlarge
recycle particles in the granulator. In the granulator, the granules are dried and
cooled simultaneously. The granulator is operated at 110-115oC and at slightly
negative pressure. Enlarged urea particles are cooled to about 90ºC in the
aftercooler inside the granulator to be transported to the recycle section.

22
 The discharged granules are separated into three sizes, product, small and
large size by the screen. Product size granules are further cooled below 60ºC in the
product cooler to be sent to the urea storage or bagging facility. Large size granules
are crushed by the crusher. The rushed particles and smaller size particles from the
screen are recycled to the granulator as seed.Urea dust contained in the exhaust air
from the granulator and the product cooler is scrubbed in the dust scrubber by
contacting counter currently with aqueous urea solution. The urea dust content in
the exit air of the bag filter is 30 mg/m3 or less. Urea recovered in the bag filter,
approximately 2.5-3.5 % of production rate, is recycled to the urea granulator.

Figure 3.2 Spout-Fluid Bed Granulator

Typical product quality

Total Nitrogen 46.3wt%

Biuret 0.7wt%

Moisture 0.25wt%

Formaldehyde 0.45wt%

Size (2-4mm) 95wt%

Hardness 3.5kg at 3mm

23
Figure 3.3 Various sizes of granules

24
 Chapter 4

Material Balance

MATERIAL BALANCE

Selected capacity : 4,50,000 tons/year

25
No. of working days: 300
Daily production : 4,50,000/300 = 1500 tons/day
Urea 62,500kg/hr of 98 % purity

Composition of the final product :

Urea : 98 % (61,250kg/hr)

Biuret : 1% (625kg/hr)

Water : 1% (625kg/hr)

Assumption : Overall conversion to urea is assumed to be 95 %.

MAIN REACTIONS:

1) CO2 + 2NH3 ==== NH2COONH4

(44) (17) (78)
2) NH2COONH4 ==== NH2CONH2 + H2O
(60) (18)
3)CO2 + 2NH3 ==== NH2CONH2 + H2O (Overall reaction)

Side reaction:
4) 2NH2CONH2 ==== NH2CONHCONH2 + NH3
(103)
625kg/hr of Biuret produced by = (120/103)*625 = 728kg/hr of urea
(reaction 4)
So, urea produced by reaction (2) = 61250 + 728 = 61978kg/hr
61978kg/hr of urea produced by = (34/60)*61978 = 35,120kg/hr NH3
Similarly, CO2 reacted in reaction (1) = (44/60)*61978 = 45,45kg/hr

26
Assuming 95 % conversion we get
NH3 actually required = 35120/0.95 = 36,968kg/hr
CO2 actually required = 45450/0.95 =
47,842kg/hr Now, considering reaction (4)
If reaction (3) is 100 % complete then,
Urea produced = (60/44)*47842 = 65,239kg/hr
But, for 95 % conversion
Urea produced = 0.95*65,239 = 61,977kg/hr
Therefore, Urea converted to Biuret & NH3 = 61,977 – 61,250 = 727kg/hr
So, from reaction (4)
Biuret produced = (103/120)*727 = 624kg/hr
Water produced in reaction (2) = (18/60)*61978 = 18,593kg/hr

At reactor’s exit (Urea = 34 %)

Flow rate of stream = 61,250/0.34 = 1,80,147kg/hr

NH3 reacted in reaction (1) = (34/60)*61977 = 35,120kg/hr
NH3 produced in reaction (4) = (17/120)*727 = 103kg/hr
So, NH3 unreacted = 36968 – 35120 + 103 = 1951kg/hr
CO2 reacted in reaction (1) = (44/60)*61977 = 45450kg/hr
Therefore, CO2 unreacted = 47842 – 45450 = 2392kg/hr

Now,
Flow rate of stream at reactor’s exit – (flow rate of urea+CO2+NH3+water+biuret) =
Flow rate of carbamate
1,80,147- (61,250 + 2392 + 1951 +18,593 + 624) = 95,337kg/hr
4.1 REACTOR

27
 - Fig 4.1 Flow of material across reactor

Table 4.1 reactor

4.2 STRIPPER

28
 Fig4.2 Flow of material across stripper
Since, no reaction takes place in the stripper & only carbamate gets recycled back
to the reactor. Therefore, the amount of ammonia ,carbon-di-oxide ,water & biuret
in the outlet stream of stripper will be same as it was in the inlet stream.

Table4.2 Flow of material across stripper

INPUT

MATERIAL FLOW RATE (Kg/hr) % MATERIAL FLOW RATE (Kg/hr) %

OUTPUT

Bottom product
NH3 1951 1.08 NH3 1951 2.30

CO2 2392 1.32 CO2 2392 2.82

CARBAMATE 95337 52.92 UREA 61250 72.22

29
 UREA 61250 34 WATER 18593
21.9
WATER 18593 10.32 BIURET 624 0.76

BIURET 624 0.36 Total 84810 1

00

Top product

Ammonium 95337
carbamate 100

TOTAL 180147 100

4.3MEDIUMP PRESSURE SEPARATOR

Fig 4.3 Flow of material across medium pressure separator

The amount of ammonia ,carbon-di-oxide ,water & biuret will remain constant as no
reaction is taking place.

30
50 % of ammonia & carbon-di-oxide are assumed to escape from the top of the
separator & rest goes with the bottom product. Amount of water & biuret remains
constant as no reaction takes place.

Table4.3 - Flow of material across medium pressure separator

31
 4.4 LOW PRESSURE
SESEPARATOR

Fig 4.4- Flow of material across low pressure separator

Remaining ammonia & carbon-di-oxide are assumed to escape from the top.

Table 4.4 - Flow of material across low pressure separator

32
Fig4.5 - Flow of material across vacuum evaporator

Let x & y be the mass fractions of Urea in feed (F) & product (P) resp.

x= 0.7611 (76.11 %) y=
0.9788 (97.88 % ) Making
urea balance:
F.x = P.y
80467*0.7611 = P*0.9788
P = 62574kg/hr
Overall material balance gives:

33
F=P+E
80467 = 62574 + E
E = 17893kg/hr

34
Table 4.5 Flow of material across vacuum evaporator

Fig 4.6- Flow of material across prilling tower

35
Let x & y be the mass fractions of Urea in feed (F) & product (P) resp.

x= 0.9788 (97.88 %) y=
0.9796 (97.96 %)

Making urea balance:

F.x = P.y
62574*0.9788 = P*0.9796
P = 62524kg/hr

Table 4.6- Flow of material across prilling tower

36
 Chapter 5
Energy Balance

37
ENERGY BALANCE

Assumption : Datum temperature = 0oC

5.1 REACTOR

Fig 5.1 - Energy flow across reactor

INLET STREAM

Material specific heat at 40oC

NH3 0.53 cal/gm oC = 2.219 kJ/kgoC CO2

0.22 cal/gm oC = 0.9211 kJ/kgoC specific heat

at 180oC

Carbamate 0.62 cal/gm oC = 2.596 kJ/kgoC

38
Heat input
Component mCp∆t
NH3 : 3.6968 x 104 x 2.219 x 40 = 0.328 x 107 kJ/hr

CO2 : 4.7843 x 104 x 0.9211 x 40=0.176 x 107 kJ/hr

Carbamate: 9.5336 x 104 x 2.24 x 180= 4.455 x kJ/hr

Heat input = 4.959 x 107 kJ/hr

∆HR = - 31.32kcal/gm mol

= -0.013 x 107 kJ/mol of Urea formed.

Amount of urea formed during the reaction = 1020.83 kmol/hr

∆HR = 1020.83 x 0.013 x 107 kJ/hr

= 13.27 x 107 kJ/hr

OUTLET STREAM
Material specific heat at 180oC mol fractions (x) Flow rate
( kmol/h
r)
o o
NH3 0.55 cal/gm C = 39.15 kJ/mol C 0.033 114.76
CO2 0.23 cal/gm oC = 42.37 kJ/mol oC 0.0158 54.36
Carbamate 0.62 cal/gm oC = 202.49 kJ/moloC 0.354 1222.3
Urea 0.4828 cal/gm oC=121.32 kJ/moloC 0.296 1020.83
Water 1 cal/gm oC = 75.37 kJ/moloC 0.299 1032.94
Biuret 183.8 kJ/moloC 0.002 6.07
Total =
3,451.3

39
Cp of mixture = ∑ xiCpi

So, Cp= 0.033 x 39.15 + 0.0158 x 42.37 + 0.296 x 121.32 + 0.354 x

202.49 + 0.002 x 183.8 + 0.299 x 75.37 = 132.46 kJ/moloC
So, heat carried by outlet stream = mCp∆t
= 3,451.3 x 132.46 x 180

= 8.229 x 107 kJ/hr

Heat input + ∆HR - Heat output = rate of accumulation

4.959 x 107 + 13.27 x 107 - 8.229 x 107 = rate of accumulation rate

of accumulation = 10 x 107 kJ/hr

Assumption : Cooling water at 25oC is used to remove heat from the reactor. The
outlet is steam at an absolute pressure of 4.5 bar (T s = 147.9 oC). So, heat gained
by cooling water = 10 x 107 kJ/hr mCp∆t + mλ = 10 x 107 kJ/hr or,
m (Cp∆t + λ ) = 10 x 107 m [ 4.187 x (147.9-25) + 2120.6 ] = 10 x 10 7
kJ/hr

( Here λ = 2120.6 kJ/kg& =4.187 kJ/kgoC)

m = 108 /2635.18
m = 37,948kg/hr
.

40
5.2 STRIPPER

Fig 5.2- Energy flow across stripper

Total heat input = 8.229 x 107 kJ/hr

OUTLET STREAM
Liquid Material specific heat at [ 185oC] mol fractions(x) Flowrate
(kmol/hr)
o o
NH3 0.58 cal/gm C = 41.31 kJ/mol C 0.05 114.76
CO2 0.24 cal/gm oC = 44.22 kJ/mol oC 0.024 54.36
Urea 0.5385 cal/gm oC=135.3 kJ/moloC 0.46
1020.83
Water 1 cal/gm oC = 75.37 kJ/moloC 0.463
1032.94
Biuret =183.8 kJ/moloC 0.003 6.07
Total
2,228.96

41
Cp of mixture = ∑ xiCpi
So, Cp= 0.05 x 41.31 + 0.024 x 44.22 + 0.46 x 135.3 + 0.003 x 183.8
+ 0.463 x 75.37 = 100.81 kJ/moloC
So, heat carried by outlet stream = mCp∆t
= 2228.96 x 100.81 x 185

= 4.157 x 107 kJ/hr

1) Vapour stream : Ammonium carbamate

Material specific heat at [ 185oC] Flow rate

(kmol/hr)
Carbamate 0.62 cal/gm oC = 202.49 kJ/moloC 1222.3

For carbamate λ = 210 KJ/kg

So, heat carried by carbamate = m Cp∆t + mλ
= 1222.3 x 202.49 x 185 + 95336 x 210

= 6.581 x 107 kJ/hr

Here, steam at 24 atm is used (Ts = 221.8 oC).

λ of steam =1855.3 KJ/kg

Heat supplied by steam = Heat output – Heat input

= (6.581 + 4.157 – 8.229) x 107 kJ/hr

m λ = 2.509 x 10
7

kJ/hr m = 2.509 x 107 /1855.3

m = 13,523 kg/hr

42
 5.3 CARBAMATE CONDENSER

Fig 5.3- Energy flow across carbamate condenser

Energy balance mv λv = ms Cp ( Ts-25) + ms λs Putting the values we get :

95337 x 210 = ms [4.187 x (147.9 – 25) + 2120.6] [ where λs =2120.6 kJ/kg]

So, ms = 7,597.5kg/h

43
5.4 MEDIUM PRESSURE SEPARATOR

Fig 5.4- Energy flow across medium pressure separator

Heat input = 4.157 x 107 kJ/hr

1) Liquid

OUTLET STREAM
Material specific heat at [ 140oC] mol fractions (x) Flow rate

(kmol/hr)
NH3 0.54 cal/gm oC = 38.4 kJ/moloC 0.027 57.4

CO2 0.23 cal/gm oC = 42.37 kJ/mol oC 0.0127 27.182

Urea 0.493 cal/gm oC=123.84 kJ/moloC 0.476 1020.83

Water 1 cal/gm oC = 75.37 kJ/moloC 0.4815 1032.94

Biuret = 170.92 kJ/moloC 0.0028 6.07

Total 2144.42 Cp of
mixture = ∑ xiCpi

44
So,
Cp= 0.027 x 38.4 + 0.0127 x 42.37 + 0.476 x 123.84 + 0.0028 x 170.92 + 0.4815 x
75.37 kJ/moloC

= 97.29 kJ/moloC heat output =

2144.42 x 97.29 x 140 kJ/hr

= 2.921x 107 kJ/hr

2) For gases escaping from the top

Material λ at 140oC (KJ/KmoloC ) mol fractions (x) Flow rate

(kmol/h
r)
o 3
NH3 320 cal/gm C = 22.777 x 10 0.6785
57.35
CO2 110 cal/gm oC = 20.265 x 103 0.3215
27.182
Total
84.53

λ of mixture = ∑ xiλi
So, λ = (0.6785 x 22.777 + 0.321 x 20.265) x 103 kJ/moloC
= 21.969 x 103 kJ/mol

Material specific heat at [ 140oC] mol fractions (x) Flow rate

(kmol/hr)
o o
NH3 0.54 cal/gm C = 38.4 kJ/mol C 0.6785 57.35
CO2 0.23 cal/gm oC = 42.37 kJ/mol oC 0.3215 27.182
Total 84.53

Cp of mixture = ∑ xiCpi

45
So, Cp = 0.6785 x 38.4 + 0.321 x 42.37 kJ/moloC
= 39.676 kJ/moloC

Heat escaping from the top = m ( Cp∆t + λ )

= 84.53( 39.676 x 140 + 21.969 x 103 )

= 0.2327 x 107 kJ/hr

Assumption : Cooling water enters at 25oC & leaves at 50oC.

So , heat gained by cooling water = Heat input – heat output

= ( 4.157– 2.921 – 0.2327) x 107 kJ/hr

mCp∆t = 1.00 x 10 7 kJ/hr

m = 1.00 x 107 / ( 4.187 x 25)
m = 95,533.8 kg/hr

5.5 LOW PRESSURE SEPARATOR

46
Figure 5.5-Low Pressure Separator
Heat input = 2.921 x 107 kJ/hr
OUTLET STREAM

Liquid
Material specific heat at [ 136oC] mol fractions (x) Flow rate

Urea 0.429 cal/gm oC=107.76 kJ/moloC 0.496 1020.83

Water 1 cal/gm oC = 75.37 kJ/moloC 0.5 1032.94
Biuret 149 kJ/mol oC 0.004 6.07
Total 2059.8

Cp of mixture = ∑ xiCpi
Cp= 0.496 x 107.76 + 0.5 x 75.37 + 0.476 x 123.84 + 0.004 x 149 kJ/mol oC
=91.73 kJ/moloC

heat output = 2059.8 x 91.73 x 136

= 2.56 x 107 kJ/hr
1) For gases escaping from the top
Material λ at 140oC mol fractions (x) Flow rate

(kmol/hr)

NH3 260 cal/gm oC = 18.51 x 103 kJ/moloC 0.679 57.41

CO2 85 cal/gm oC = 15.66 x 103 kJ/mol oC 0.321 27.182

Total 84.59 λ
of mixture = ∑ xiλi
So, λ = (0.679 x 18.51 + 0.321 x 15.66) x 103 kJ/moloC
= 17.6 x 103 kJ/mol

47
 Material specific heat at [ 140oC] mol fractions(x) Flow rate
(kmol/hr)

NH3 0.52 cal/gm oC = 37.013 kJ/moloC 0.027 57.41

CO2 0.21 cal/gm oC = 38.69 kJ/mol oC 0.0127 27.182

Total 84.59
Cp of mixture = ∑ xiCpi
So, Cp = 0.679 x 37.013 + 0.321 x 38.69 kJ/moloC
= 37.55 kJ/moloC
Heat escaping from the top = m ( Cp∆t + λ )
= 84.59 ( 37.55 x 136 + 17.7 x 103)

= 0.193 x 107 kJ/hr

Assumption : Cooling water enters at 25oC & leaves at 50oC.

So , heat gained by cooling water = Heat input – heat output

= ( 2.921– 2.56 – 0.193) x 107 kJ/hr

mCp∆t = .168 x 107 kJ/hr

m = .168 x 107 / ( 4.187 x 25)
m = 16049kg/hr

48
For product stream coming out of 1st evaporator:

Material specific heat at [ 85oC] mol fractions (x) Flow rate

(kmol/hr)
o o
Urea 0.435cal/gm C=109.28 kJ/mol C 0.75 1020.83
Water 1 cal/gm oC = 75.37 kJ/moloC 0.245 333.33
Biuret 149 kJ/moloC 0.005 6.06
Total 1360.223

Cp of mixture = ∑ xiCpi
So, Cp = 0.75 x 109.28 + 0.245 x 75.37 + 0.005 x 149 kJ/moloC

49
 =101.17 kJ/moloC

mCp∆t = 1360.223 x 101.17 x 85

= 1.86 x 107 kJ/hr

Heat balance
1st evaporator :

Heat input (feed) + Heat input by steam = heat carried by water vapour +
energy of the bottom product
Heat input (feed) + S1 λs1 = E1HE1 + energy of the bottom product

2.56 x107 + S1 x 2123.2 = 12,593 x 2614.97 + 1.86x 107

S1 = 12132.63kg/hr

2nd evaporator :
Heat input (feed) + Heat input by steam = heat carried by water vapour +
energy of the bottom product

Heat input (feed) + S2 λs2 = E2HE2 + energy of the bottom product

1.86 x 107 + S2 x 2123.2 = 5,300 x 2545.7 + 1065.8 x 96.84 x 133.4

S2 = 3825.217kg/hr

5.7 PRILLING TOWER

50
Fig 5.7 - Energy balance across prilling tower

Heat input = 1065.8 x 96.84 x 27 = 0.279 x 107 kJ/hr

OUTLET STREAM
Material specific heat at [ 30oC] mol fractions(x) Flow rate

Urea 0.3758 cal/gm oC=94.41 kJ/moloC 0.96 1020.83

Water 1 cal/gm oC = 75.37 kJ/moloC 0.034 36.11
Biuret 133.02 kJ/moloC 0.006 6.07
Total 1063.01

Cp of mixture = ∑ xiCpi
So, Cp = 0.96 x 94.41 + 0.034 x 75.37 + 0.006 x 133.02 kJ/moloC

= 93.99 kJ/moloC

51
Heat output = 1063.01 x 93.99 x 60
= 0.599 x 107 kJ/hr

Assuming, humidity of air at 25oC = 0.01

Heat carried away by air = heat input – heat output

(mCp∆t)dry air = ( 1.86– 0.599) x 107
m = 1.261x107 /(1.009 x 13)

m = 9.6134 x 105kg/hr
So,flow rate of air =961340kg/hr

52
 Chapter 6
Design of equipment

53
6.1 REACTOR DESIGN

Design parameters

Operating temperature = 1800 C

Operating Pressure = 154 atm
Design pressure = 169.4 atm

Reaction
2NH3 + CO2 NH2COONH4 -117 kJ/mol
NH2COONH4 NH2CONH2 + H2O +15.5 kJ/mol

Reactor for urea contains number of trays so that each tray behaves like a completely
plug flow reactor.
Due to number of trays above one another it achieves plug flow reactor.
Here second reaction is slow reaction so volume of rector will depend on this rection.
So, for Plug flow reactor Performance Equation is given as,

Now, Reaction Kinetics for the urea formation reaction:

54
 Where, k = k0*exp( - Eact/RT )

Ko=1.96*105 , R = 8.314 Joule/mol , T = 453K , Eact = 60 kJ/mol

Calculated value of k = 1.374 hr -1
Volume of Reactor = V

Now, = 286.20 m3/hr

XA = 0.65 per pass
K = 1.374
By putting these values we have
Volume of Reactor = 218.67 m3.
Assume diameter of reactor = 2.5 m.
Volume of reactor = 3.14 * ( D2/4 ) * Length of Reactor
218.67 = 3.14 * (2.5 * 2.5 / 4 ) * L Hence
Height of Reactor = 44.23 m.

THICKNESS OF SHELL

Data available :
Temperature inside the reactor = 180 oC

55
Pressure inside the reactor = 154 atm

Material of construction :
Low alloy carbon steel (Ref : Fertilizer manufacture- M E Pozin)
Material specification :
IS : 2002-1962 Grade 2B (Ref: B C Bhattacharya, Table-A1,Pg-261)

Allowable stress = 1.18 x 108 N/m2

Diameter of the reactor = 2.5 m
(Ref : Fertilizer manufacture- M E Pozin,Pg-263;for plants having capacity of
4,50,000 tons/yr)
Now, t = pDi/
(2fj – p)
[ Ref : Equipment design- M V Joshi,Pg-96 ] where, t = thickness of the shell ]
Di = internal diameter
J = joint efficiency
p = design pressure
f = permissible stress internal pressure = 154 atm = 1.56 x 107 N/m2
Design pressure p = (10 % extra)
= 1.1 x 1.56 x 107 N/m2
= 1.716 x 107 N/ m2 J = 1
[ For class 1 pressure vessels , BIS-2825] f =
1.18 Di = 2.5 m
So, t = 1.716 x 107 x 2.5 / (2 x 1.18 x 108 * 0.9 – 1.716 x 107 )

56
 = .22 m t = 220
mm thickness of shell = 220
mm.
HEAD DESIGN
ellipsoidal dished head th = pDV / 2fJ [ ref : Equipment design- M V
Joshi,Pg-106,Eq-5.24] where, p = internal design pressure
D = major axis of ellipse
V = stress intensification factor = ( 2 + k2)/4
k = major axis/minor axis
So, th = 1.716 x107 x 2.5 x 1.5 /(2 x 1.18 x108 x 0.9)
t = 0.273 m
t = 273 mm .

6.2 EVAPORATOR DESIGN

Figure 6.1 Urea evaporator (climbing film long tube vertical evaporator)

57
Vapour space pressure = 0.23 atm

Vapour space temperature = 63.1 oC

BPR = 21.9 oC [Ref : Kirk Othmer,Encyclopedia of chemical
technology,Vol21]
Boiling point of liquid = 85 oC
For product stream coming out of 1st evaporator:

Table 6.1 –Evaporator Design Data

MATERIAL SPECIFIC MOLE FLOW RATE
HEAT FRACTION (kmol/hr)
AT 35
K(kg/kmol) 8
Urea 109.28 .75 1020.33
Water 75.37 .245 333.33
Biuret 149 .005 6.06

Cp of mixture = ∑ xiCpi
So, Cp = 0.75 x 109.28 + 0.245 x 75.37 + 0.005 x 149 kJ/mol oC
=101.17 kJ/moloC

mCp∆t = 1360.223 x 101.17 x 85

= 1.17 x 107 kJ/hr
Heat balance

Evaporator :

Heat input (feed) + Heat input by steam = heat carried by water vapour + energy of the
bottom product
Heat input (feed) + S1 λs1 = E1HE1 + energy of the bottom product
For steam at 147.165 oC, λs1 = 2123.2 kJ/kg
Putting the values we get
1.537 x107 + S1 x 2123.2 = 12,593 x 2614.97 + 1.17 x 107

58
S1 =13781kg/hr
Economy = 12593/13781
= .914

Now U1 value is obtained from perry’s handbook at 336.1 k , the value of U1 is 270
btu/hr.ft.F.
Multiply this value by 56783 gives the value of U1 in watt/m2. K
A1 = S1 λs1 / U1∆T1
∆T1 = (∆T)app – BPR1
= 147.165 – 63.1 – 21.9
= 62.165 oC
So, A1 = 13,781 x 2123.2 / 1533 x 62.165
= 307.03 m2

DESIGN :

Assuming :
Length = 6 m [ Ref: M V Joshi,Pg-220]
Tube OD = 1 inch [ Table-10,PHT,D Q Kern]
Minimum pitch = 1.25 x OD
= 1.25 x 25 = 31.25 mm [ Ref: M V Joshi,Pg-220]

Let pitch = 32 mm square pitch

Area = 307.03 m2
No. of tubes (N)
307.03 = П x 0.025 x 6 x N

N = 652
Db = d0 (Nt/K)1/N
=.025 ( 652/.249)1/2.2
=.883 m

Ddi = Db + .15

59
 = .883 +.15
Hence Ddi = 1.033
Standardizing D using Table B.4 , Page 271 BC Bhattacharya ,
Ddi = 1100 mm

WALL THICKNESS CALCULATION

Material of construction : Mild steel

Specification : IS 2002-1962 Grade-1
[Ref : B C bhattacharya,Pg-261,Appendix-A] f all
8 2
= 0.93 x 10 N/m
C = 0 mm
J = 0.85

t = pdDi/(2fj – p) + C [Ref : Equipment design- M V Joshi,Pg-96 ]

where, t = thickness of the shell

Di = internal diameter
J = joint efficiency
pd= design pressure f=
permissible stress
C=Corrosion allowance
pd = 1.1 x ps
ps = 4.5 ata
= 4.413 bar

pd = 4.854 x 105 N/m2

t = (4.854 x 105 x 1.1)/ (2 x 0.93 x 108 x 0.85 – 4.854 x 105)

= 3.3876 mm

Assuming, t std = 5 mm [ Ref: Pg-269, B C Bhattachrya]

Checking this thickness for critical buckling pressure:

60
Pc = critical external buckling pressure

Pc = [2.42E / (1-µ2)3/4 ] x [( t/Do)5/2/ { L/Do – 0.45 x (t/Do)1/2}]

[ Ref : M V Joshi ,eqn- 5.14,Pg-100]

6 2
E = 2 x 10 N/cm [ For mild steel]
µ = 0.30 [ Ref: B C bhattacharya , Pg-269,table-A-8] L = 6 m
Do = Di + 2 x t
= 1.5 + 2 x 0.005
= 1.51 m
Putting values in the above equation of Pc we get
Pc = 1.316kg/cm2
Taking factor of safety = 4
Pall = Pc/4 = 1.316/4 = 0.329kg/cm2

Which is less than 1kg/cm2

Hence, this thickness is not acceptable.

Again, taking tstd = 6 mm [Ref: B C Bhattacharya, Pg-269]

We get,
Pc = 2.072kg/cm2
Pall = 2.072 /4 = 0.518kg/cm2
Which is less than 1kg/cm2
Hence, this thickness is also not acceptable.

Again, taking tstd = 7 mm [Ref: B C Bhattacharya, Pg-269]

We get,
Pc = 3.0387kg/cm2
Pall = 3.0387 /4 = 0.75kg/cm2
Which is less than 1kg/cm2
Hence, this thickness is also not acceptable.

Again, taking tstd = 8 mm [Ref: B C Bhattacharya, Pg-269]

We get,

61
Pc = 4.234kg/cm2
Pall = 4.234 /4 = 1.05kg/cm2
Which is greater than 1kg/cm2

Hence, this thickness is acceptable.

So, tmin = 8 mm

62
 Chapter 7
Process Control
Diagram

63
7.1 Reactor

Figure 7.1-Reactor Block Diagram

64
7.2 Evaporator

Figure 7.2-Evaporator Block Diagram

65
 Chapter 8
Cost Estimation

66
8.1 EQUIPMENT COST

1) Reactor

Volume of Reactor = 218.67 m3.

Volume of standard reactor = 150.75 m3.
Cost of reactor of standard capacity = 20 lakh.

By 6/10th rule for reactor

CB = CA * (SB / SA)0.6
CB= 20 * (218.67 / 150.75)0.6
CB = 25 Lakh.

2.) Evaporator

Volume of evaporator = 5.7 m3 Volume

of standard evaporator = 8 m3
Cost of standard capacity evaporator = 8 lakh

By 6/10th rule for evaporator

CB = CA * (SB / SA)0.6
CB= 8 * (5.7 / 8)0.6
CB = 6.52 Lakh.

Similarly by applying 6/10th rule for all equipments

67
 Table 8.1-Cost of different equipments
Sr. No. Equipment No. of Cost of Total Cost
Equipment Equipment (Rs.)
(Rs.) (Lakhs)
(Lakhs)
1 Autoclave 1 25 25
(Reactor)
2 High 1 23 23
Pressure
Decompoer
3 Low 1 20 20
Pressure
Decompser
4 Gas 1 10 10
Separator
+ Oxidizing
Column
5 Vacuum 2 6.52 13.04
Evaporator
6 Refrigeratio 1 17 17
n system

7 Steam jet 3 3 9
ejector
8 Centrifuge 4 2 8
9 Melter 2 1.5 3
10 Air Blower 5 1 5
for O.C.
11 Ammonia 5 2.5 12.5
Condensor

68
12 Conveying 4 4 16
System

69
13 Liquid 1 10 10
Ammonia
Reservoir
14 Lift 1 14 14
15 Cooling 3 15 45
Tower
16 Cooling 6 2 12
Tower
Pump
17 Gas 4 2.5 10
Condensor
18 Low Pressure 1 4 4
19 Absorber
20 High 1 8 8
Pressure
Absorber
Cooler
21 High 1 10 10
Pressure
Absorber
22 Drain 1 3 3
Separator
23 Ammonia 3 9 27
Recovery
Absorber
24 Carbamate 2 3 6
Tank
25 Condensate 1 4 4
Tank

70
26 Hot Water 1 2.5 2.5
Tank

27 Induced 6 2.5 15
Draft
Fan
28 Forced 6 2.5 15
Draft
Fan
29 Fluidized 2 6 12
Bed
Blower
30 Dryer 2 2 4
31 DM 1 600 600
water
plant
32 Mother 1 5 5
Liquor
Tank
33 Fresh water 1 200 200
storage tank
34 CO2 2 20 40
Compressor
35 Ammonia 3 4 12
Plunger
Pump
36 Recycle 3 6 18
Carbamate
Pump
37 Emission 1 20 20
control
system

71
38 Effluent 1 400 400
treatment
plant
39 Reverse 1 400 400
osmosis plant
40 Prilling 1 300 300
Tower
41 Various 50 1.2 60
Pumps
42 Coal 1 582 582
handelling
and treatment
plant
TOTAL 3000 lakh

Total Capital Investment

(A) Fixed Capital Investment (FCI)

(1) Direct Cost

Table 8.2- Direct cost

Direct Cost
Sr. No. Item % Total Cost
Purchased (Rs.)
Equipment (Lakhs)
Cost
1 Equipment 100% 3000
Cost
2 Installation 25% 750
3 Instrumentatio 10% 300

72
 n
& Control
4 Piping 25% 750
5 Electrification 20% 600
6 Building 30% 900
7 Service 40% 1200
Facilities
8 Land 4% 120
Requisition
TOTAL 7620

73
 (2) Indirect Cost

Table 8.3- Indirect Cost

Indirect Cost
Sr. No. Item % Total Co
Purchased (Rs.) st
Equipment (Lakhs)
Cost
1 Engineering 10% 300
&
Supervision
2 Construcuti 10% 300
on
3 Contractor 5% 150
4 Contigency 5% 150
TOTAL 600

(A)Fixed Capital Investment (FCI)

= DC + IC

= 7620 + 600

= 8220

(B) Working Capital Investment (WCI)

= 15% of FCI

= 0.15 X 8220

= 1233

74
Total Capital Investment
= FCI + WCI

= 8220 + 1233
= 9453

(3) Total Product Cost (TPC)

(A)Direct Production Cost

(1) Cost of Raw Material

Table 8.4- Raw Material Cost

Sr. No. Raw Material kg/Annum Cost Rs/kg Total Cost

Required (Rs.) (Lakhs)
1 Ammonia 266.169 x 106 10 26619.9
2 Carbon 344 x106 0 0
Dioxide
Total 26616.9

(2) Operating Labors Cost

= 10% TCP Cost

= 0.10 X TCP

= 0.10 TCP

(3) Utility Cost

= 20% TPC Cost

= 0.20 X TPC

75
= 0.20 TPC

(4) Maintenance & Repair Cost

= 4% of FCI
= 0.04 X 8220

= 328.8

(5) Operating & Supply Cost

= 15% of Maintenance & Repair Cost

= 0.15 X 328.8

= 49.32

(6) Laboratory & Testing Cost

= 15% Labour Cost

= 0.15 X 0.10 TPC

= 0.015 TPC

(7) Patents & Royalties = 3% TPC

= 0.03 X TPC

= 0.03 TPC
Direct Production Cost

=1+2+3+4+5+6+7

DPC = 26616.9+ 0.10 TPC + 0.20 TPC +328.8 + 49.32 + 0.015TPC + 0.03TPC

DPC = 0.345 TPC + 26995.02

(B) Fixed Charges

76
(1) Deprecation
= 10% FCI
= 0.10 X 8220

= 822

(2) Local Taxes =

1.5% of FCI
= 0.015 X 8220

= 123.3

(3) Insurance
= 1% of FCI

= 0.01 X 8220

= 82.2

Fixed Charges = 1 + 2 + 3

= 1027.5

(C) Plant Overhead Cost

= 60% of Labor and Maintenance Cost

= 0.60 X (0.10TPC +328.8 )

= 0.06TPC + 197.28

(D) Administrative Expenses

= 25% of Labor Cost

= 0.25 X 0.10TPC

= 0.025TPC

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(E) Distribution and Market Expenses
= 10% of Total Production Cost
= 0.10 X TPC

= 0.10 TPC

(F) R & D Cost

= 5% of FCI

= 0.05 X 8220

= 411

(G) Interest =
8% of FCI
= 0.08 X 8220

= 657.6

Total Product Cost

TPC = A + B + C + D + E + F + G

= (0.345 TPC + 26995.02) + 1027 + (0.06TPC + 197.28) + 0.025TPC + 0.10 TPC

+

411 + 657.6

TPC = 62314.68 lakh

(1) Total Income

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 Table 8.5-Total Income
Sr. No. Product Cost/Kg Capacity Total
Kg/Annum Income
(Rs.)
(Lakhs)
1 Urea 18 450 x 106 81000

(2) Gross Profit

= Total Income – Total Product Cost

= 81000 – 62314.68

= 18685.32 lakh

79
 Chapter 9
Pollution control and
Safety

80
9.1 Environmental Impact Assessment
An Environment Impact Assessment is an assessment of the possible
positive impact or negative impact which the project may have on the natural
environment. The purpose of the assessment is to ensure that decision makers
consider environmental impacts used to decide whether to proceed with the project.
The International Association for Impact Assessment (IAIA) defines an
environmental impact assessment as "the process of identifying, predicting,
evaluating and mitigating the biophysical, social, and other relevant effects of
development proposals prior to major decisions being taken and commitments
made.

Objectives of EIA Assessment

• To ensure that proponents take primary responsibility for protection of the

environment influenced by their proposals
• To ensure that best practicable measures are taken to minimize adverse
impacts on the environment, and that proposals meet relevant environmental
objectives and standards to protect the environment, and implement the
principles of sustainability
• To provide opportunities for local community and public participation, as
appropriate, during the assessment of proposals
• To encourage proponents to implement continuous improvement in
environmental performance and the application of best practice
environmental management in implementing their proposal

81
 • To ensure that independent, reliable advice is provided to the Government
before decisions are made
Impact of the Urea Plant on the environment
In the early part of previous decade ammonia consumption per ton of final
product of 575kg or even higher used to be acceptable. This figure implies
however a loss of some 8kg per tonne of final product produced (Table 1), which
for a 2000 mtd plant would result in a loss of 16 mtpd ammonia either in the form
of urea or straight ammonia. Presently ammonia consumptions of some 567kg per
tonne are released in the large single stream plants. Since this figure is very close
to the theoretical consumption figure, the conclusion is that losses in steady
operation are approaching the zero targets.

Ammonia releases from urea plants

Early nineteen eighties = 8kg NH3/mt final
product
Presently = 0.7kg NH3/mt final
product

Ammonia releases from urea plants

Not only ammonia, carbon dioxide and urea releases from process plants
have a negative influence on the environment but also the unnecessary use of
energy is negative from an environmental point of view and from the economic
point of view as well.
Following table shows the present typical energy consumption for urea production

Emissions to Air
Air emissions may be categorised as either fugitive or point source emissions.

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 Fugitive Emissions
These are emissions that are not released through a vent or stack. Examples of
fugitive emissions include dust from stockpiles, volatilization of vapour from vats,
open vessels, or spills and materials handling. Emissions emanating from ridgeline
roof-vents, louvres, and open doors of a building as well as equipment leaks, and
leaks from valves and flanges are also examples of fugitive emissions.
Point Source Emissions

These emissions are exhausted into a vent or stack and emitted through a single
point source into the atmosphere. Above table highlights common air emissions
from urea manufacturing processes.

Emissions to Water
Emissions of substances to water can be categorised as discharges to:

• Surface waters (eg. lakes, rivers, dams, and estuaries);

• Coastal or marine waters
• Storm water
Because of the significant environmental hazards posed by emitting toxic
substances to water, most facilities emitting above listed substances to waterways
are required by the relevant environment authority to closely monitor and measure
these emissions. The existing sampling data can be used to calculate annual
emissions. If no wastewater monitoring data exists, emissions to process water can
be calculated based on a mass balance or using emission factors

Emissions to Land
Emissions of substances to land on-site include solid wastes, slurries, and
sediments.

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Emissions arising from spills, leaks, and storage and distribution of materials
containing listed substances may also occur to land. These emission sources can be
broadly categorised as:
• surface impoundments of liquids and slurries; and unintentional leaks and
spills.
In general, there are four types of emission estimation techniques (EETs) that may
be used to estimate emissions from the facility. The four types are:
• Sampling or direct measurement;
• Mass balance;
• Fuel analysis or other engineering calculations; and
• Emission factors

9.2 Pollution control methods

Presently plants are equipped with the following features to keep the effluent and
emission at extremely low levels:
• N/C ratio meter
• Waste water treatment section
• Absorbers
• Special operational facilities

N/C ratio meter in the Synthesis section

Instead of using a gas-chromatograph or a mass spectrometer in the gas
phase of the synthesis section, Nitrogen/Carbon (N/C) ratio meters are installed in
the liquid phase
(reactor liquid outlet) of the urea synthesis section
The principle of this N/C meter is based on the linear relationship between
liquid density and the N/C ratio. The density is measured continuously with a

84
solartron meter, being an instrument in which vibrations are measured in an
extremely accurate way whereby the vibrations are a measure of the density of the
reactor liquid.
This N/C ratio meter allows the process at all times to be operated at the
optimum ratio to achieve highest reactor efficiency combined with higher energy
efficiency. Special procedures are used to eliminate emissions during start-up.

Urea plant waste water treatment section

The process water in urea plants contains ammonia, carbon dioxide and urea.
The concentrations of these components vary within a range depending on the
operating conditions, On average, the concentrations in the process water are about
6 wt.% ammonia, 4 wt.% carbon dioxide and 1 wt.% urea.

Sources of the ammonia and urea are

• Condensate from the evaporators.
• Off-gases from the recirculation section, which are absorbed in the process
water.
• Off-gases from the synthesis section, which are absorbed in the process
water.
• Flush and purge water for pumps.
• Liquid drains.
The purpose of the process water treatment is to remove ammonia, carbon
dioxide and urea from the process condensate. For every tonne of urea produced,
approximately 0.3 tonnes of water are formed. This water is usually discharged
from the urea concentration and evaporation section of the plant. Removal of
ammonia and urea from wastewaters can be a problem as it is difficult to remove
one in the presence of the other. One method used to overcome this problem is the
hydrolysis of urea to ammonium carbamate, which is decomposed to ammonia and

85
carbon dioxide. These gases can then be stripped from the wastewaters. Urea plants
are in operation that produces wastewaters with ammonia and urea levels below
1ppm. This water can then be used for a variety of purposes depending on the
required quality such as cooling water or Boiling Feed Water make-up. The
recovered ammonia and carbon dioxide are returned to the process to be
subsequently converted into urea.

Absorbers
Absorbers are used in urea plant to eliminate emissions to the atmosphere, can be
classified as follows:

(1) The vent from the synthesis section of the plant

The purge from the urea synthesis section contains inerts, ammonia and
carbon dioxide. To avoid ammonia emissions from this purge a low pressure
absorber is installed in purge stream. First the ammonia is washed out with a large
flow of low concentrated and cooled process water and secondly the remaining
ammonia is absorbed in cooled condensate or clean waste water.
(2) The vent from the low pressure section of the plant
The ammonia and carbon dioxide present in the off gases of the
recirculation section, the Process Water Treatment System and the evaporation
section are washed out in an atmospheric absorber where large amounts of cooled
low concentrated process water are used to absorb all the ammonia present in said
off gases.

Special start-up, shut-down and draining facilities

Because of the present low releases during steady state operation in urea
manufacturing the consideration regarding environmental issues has changed

86
towards further reducing of effluents and emissions from non-continuous sources
during non-steady state conditions such as start-up and shut-down situations. A
change in the start-up procedure of the urea synthesis section has reduced the
impact on the environment considerably. Presently the ability to measure the
feed flows (NH3 and CO2) very accurate in combination with the ability to
measure the N/C ratio have enabled us to feed the synthesis section from the very
beginning of the start-up with the correct NH3/CO2 ratio, thus eliminating the
need, during the initial stage of start-up, to vent excess CO2 accompanied by some
NH3 into the atmosphere.
Special shut-down and draining facilities assure that non converted NH3 and
CO2 are recovered by the process after a shut-down. To achieve this facility to feed
clean water to dilute the carbamate formed from non converted NH3 and CO2 from
the synthesis section has been introduced.
The dilution should be to the extent that no ammonia will escape from the
liquid under atmospheric pressure. The water is in principle introduced in the low
pressure carbamate condenser and subsequently cooled to increase absorption
capacity, and drained in the ammonia water tank. After restart of the plant the NH3
and CO2 in this tank are recovered via the waste water treatment section. The clean
water used for the dilution may be an amount of clean waste water stored for such
purpose. In case sufficient condensate is available in the complex no such
additional
storage of clean waste water is required and condensate may be used .

9.3 Safety

Introduction

87
 Safety is the state of being „safe‟, the condition of being protected against
physical, social, spiritual, financial, political, emotional,
occupational, psychological, educational or other types or
consequences of failure, damage, error, accidents, harm or any other event which
could be considered non-desirable.
This can take the form of being protected from the event or from exposure
to something that causes health or economic losses. It can include protection of
people or of possessions.
Scientific minded people have analyzed accidents and developed a separate
engineering branch or accident prevention. This analysis was required due to:
1.) Rising trend of accidents
2.) Increased use of machinery
3.) Increased material handling
4.) Lack of safety standard
5.) Lack or training
6.) Better reporting of accidents

No industry can afford to neglect the fundamentals of safety in design and

operation of its plant and machinery. It is important that all the people responsible
for management and operation of any industry should have a good knowledge of
industrial safety.
Safety

Safe use of man, material and machine by safe system method of work is to
achieve zero accidents which results in higher productivity.
Accident

88
 An accident is unplanned and unexpected events which interfere or
interrupts the planned process of work and results in personal injury.

Accident factors

i. A personal accident injury occurs as a result of an accident

ii. An accident due to unsafe act and/or unsafe condition
iii. Unsafe act/unsafe condition exists due to fault of persons
iv. Fault of persons are due to negligence.
Thus, if we can remove fault of a person we can prevent 98 % accidents.

Principal of Protection and Prevention

Industrial accidents are caused by negligence of employer, the worker or

the both.
Employers‟ efforts to reduce the accidents are generally motivated by four
considerations:
1.) To lessen human suffering
2.) To prevent damage to plant and machinery
3.) To reduce the amount of time lost as a result

4.) To hold the expenses of workman’s compensation to a minimum

The basic reasons for preventing industrial accidents are human and
economic. The most important of these should be to avoid human suffering. Both
pain, suffering and wrecked lives are not to be the byproducts of any industry.
Accidents are economic losses and this is a challenging reason for accident
prevention.

89
Safety precaution

• When taking sample of anhydrous ammonia and when operating or working

on ammonia valves, equipment containing ammonia such as ammonia feed
pumps, operators, laboratory and maintenance personnel must wear safety
overalls
• Goggles and rubber gloves. If any part of the skin has been exposed to
ammonia, wash immediately and thoroughly with water
• Work on the ammonia equipment should be done from the upwind side of
the equipment to avoid or minimize contact with escaping ammonia.
• The location of fire hydrants, safety showers, eyewash fountains ammonia
canisters gas mask, emergency air breathing apparatus should be well known
to all personnel.
• Instruments containing mercury must not be used if ammonia is likely to
come in contact with the mercury.
• Heavy leakage of ammonia can be dealt by spraying large quantity of water
with spray nozzles.

List of safety equipments

A. Respiratory protective equipment

1.) Self-contained breathing apparatus sets of 30 minutes and 10 minutes

2.) Continuous airline masks.
3.) Trolley mounted self-contained breathing apparatus set 2.5 hours
4.) Canister gas mask

90
5.) Dust mask/cloth mask. (Air purifying respirator)

B. Non- respiratory protective equipment

1. Helmet

2. Ear muff and ear plugs

3. Goggles

4. Face shield

5. Hand gloves

6.Aprons

7. Safety Shoes

8.Suits

9. Safety harness

C. Warning instrument

i. Oxygen, carbon dioxide, chlorine, ammonia indicator with replaceable sensors.

ii. Explosive meters for measuring explosive range.

iii. Fire fly instrument for confined space entry.

D. Gas leak protection system

91
i. Safety Showers

ii. Manual water sprinklers

iii. Communication systems

Fire hazards
The general types of fire are encountered in the process plants. One
involves common combustible material such as wood, rags, paper, etc. (Class „A‟
fires), the next flammable liquids and gases such as lubrication oils and solvents,
ammonia vapours etc. (Class „B‟ fires) and the third involve electrical equipment
(Class „C‟ fires).In general three things are required to make a fire
• Something which will burn eg., a combustible material
• Oxygen-air
• A source of ignition or existence of a temperature at or above which a
material will start burning spontaneously.

Principal of fire extinguishing

• Fire may be extinguished by withdrawing of flammable contents,
interrupting flammable flow, isolating fuel from air, heat removal to below
reaction temperature or by dispersal.

• In the event of fire on electrical mains or apparatus, the affected part shall be
immediately isolated from its source of supply of electrical energy.

92
 • Carbon tetrachloride extinguishers and Carbon dioxide extinguishers are
intended mostly for use on electrical fires and may be used on energized
electrical equipment without danger to operator provides. They are properly
maintaining no moisture.
• It is dangerous to throw a stream of water, a wet blanket or a stream from an
ordinary soda acid or foam type fire extinguishers on line main apparatus.
When found necessary to use them, have all neighbouring mains or
apparatus made dead.
• In case of fire, it is the duty of the operating personnel to protect life and
property and to extinguish the fire as quickly as possible.
• The greatest cause of fire is welding which may be required during plant
operation. It should be a stringent rule of the plant that no welding without
permission of the supervisor.
Fire and safety equipment, under conditions of extreme exertion provide
protection only for a few minutes. Equipment must be cleaned, replenished and
inspected for damage before being returned to service. Equipment should be
maintained in excellent condition and inspected frequently so that they are
available in case of emergency.

9.4 Hazards

What happens to environment when ammonia enters the environment?

• Because ammonia occurs naturally, it is found throughout the environment
in soil, air, and water.
• Ammonia is recycled naturally in the environment as part of the nitrogen
cycle. It does not last very long in the environment.

93
 • Plants and bacteria rapidly take up ammonia from soil and water.
• Some ammonia in water and soil is changed to nitrate and nitrite by bacteria.
• Ammonia released to air is rapidly removed by rain or snow or by reactions
with other chemicals.
• Ammonia does not build up in the food chain, but serves as a nutrient source
for plants and bacteria.

How might I be exposed to ammonia?

• Everybody is regularly exposed to low levels of ammonia in air, food, soil,
and water. Ammonia has a strong irritating odour that people can easily
smell before it may cause harm.
• If you use ammonia cleaning products at home, you will be exposed to
ammonia released to the air and through contact with your skin.
• If you apply ammonia fertilizers or live near farms where these fertilizers
have been applied, you can breathe ammonia released to the air.
• You may be exposed to ammonia from leaks and spills from production
plants, storage facilities, pipelines, tank trucks, and rail cars.
• You may be exposed to higher levels if you apply ammonia fertilizers or live
near farms where these fertilizers have been applied.
• You may be exposed to high levels if you go into enclosed buildings that
contains lots of animals (such as on farms).

How can ammonia affect my health?

No health effects have found in humans exposed to typical environmental
concentrations of ammonia. Exposure to high levels of ammonia in air may be
irritating to your skin, eyes, throat, and lungs and cause coughing and burns. Lung
damage and death may occur after exposure to very high concentrations of

94
ammonia. Some people with asthma may be more sensitive to breathing ammonia
than others. Swallowing concentrated solutions of ammonia can cause
burns in your mouth, throat, and stomach. Splashing ammonia into your eyes can
cause burns and even blindness.

How likely is ammonia to cause cancer?

There is no evidence that ammonia causes cancer. The Department of
Health and Human Services (DHHS), the EPA, and the International Agency for
Research on Cancer (IARC), have not classified ammonia for carcinogenicity.

How can families reduce risk of exposure to ammonia?

The following are the ways by which families can reduce the risk of
exposure to Ammonia:
• Keeping products containing ammonia out of the reach of children.
• Maintaining adequate room ventilation when using cleaners containing
ammonia and wear proper clothing and eye protection.
• Preventing children from entering a room where ammonia is being used.
• Not storing cleaning solutions in containers that may be attractive to
children, such as soda bottles.
• Avoiding entering fields when ammonia fertilizer is being applied.
• Minimizing exposure to ammonia in the workplace by wearing proper safety
clothes and equipments, and by following safety rules.

Is there a medical test to show whether I’ve been exposed to ammonia?

There are tests that can detect ammonia in blood and urine. However, these
tests cannot definitely determine if you have been exposed because ammonia is

95
normally found in the body. If you were exposed to harmful amounts of ammonia
you would notice it immediately because of the strong, unpleasant smell and strong
taste. Your skin, yes, nose, and throat would also be irritated.

Has the federal government made recommendations to protect human health?

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set an acceptable
eight-hour exposure limit at 25 parts of ammonia per one million parts of air (ppm)
and a short-term (15 minutes) exposure level at 25 ppm.

96
References

97
1). A. MARTYN S. RAY, and DAVID W. JOHNSTON, “ Chemical Engineering
Design Project: A Case Study Approach,” 6th ed.,Gordon and Breach Science
Publishers, New York

2). Urea manufacturing processes, “ Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial

Chemistry,” 5th Edition, Volume A27.

3). The fertiliser Association of india, “ Seminar on fertilizer production and

technology,” New Delhi, (December 1969).

4). EIJI SAKATA and TAKAHIRO YANAGAWA, “ Latest Urea Technology for
Improving Performance and Product Quality,” TOYO ENGINEERING
CORPORATION , TOKYO JAPAN.

5). Perry, R. H., and D. W. Green, Eds., "Physical and chemical data," Chapter 2,
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6). Urea plant operation manual, Kribhco Shyam Fertilizer limited, Shahjahanpur.

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"Modeling the synthesis section of an industrial urea plant," Chemical
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9). Xiangping Zhang, Suojiang Zhang Pingjing Yao, Yi Yuan., "Modeling and
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11). Urea reactor calculation - http://www.ureaknowhow.com/urea_j/en/library/412-

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09-shen-sric-ureaknowhowcom-urea-synthesis-reactor-its-dynamic-model-part-
2.html

12). Urea price list - http://www.indexmundi.com/commodities/?

commodity=urea&currency=inr

13). Horacio A. Irazoqui' and Miguel A. Isla, “ Simulation of a Urea Synthesis

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14). C. E, REDEMANN, F. C. RIESENFELD, and F. S. LA VIOLA, “ Formation of

Biuret from Urea Research Division,” The Fluor Corp., Ltd., Whittier, Calif.

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http://www.nzic.org.nz/ChemProcesses/production/1A.pdf

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