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Abstract --The aim of the methods described is to calculate the properties of turbulent reactive flow fields.
At each point in the flow field, a complete statistical description of the state of the fluid is provided by the
velocity-composition joint pdf. This is the joint probability density function (pdf) of the three components
of velocity and of the composition variables (species mass fractions and enthaipy). The principal method
described is to solve a modelled transport equation for the velocity-composition joint pdf. For a variable-
density flow with arbitrarily complex and nonlinear reactions, it is remarkable that in this equation the
effects of convection, reaction, body forces and the mean pressure gradient appear exactly and so do not
have to be modelled. Even though the joint pdf is a function of many independent variables, its transport
equation can be solved by a Monte Carlo method for the inhomogeneous flows of practical interest. A
second method that is described briefly is to solve a modelled transport equation for the composition joint
pdf.
The objective of the paper is to provide a comprehensive and understandable account of the theoretical
foundations of the pdf approach.
CONTENTS
1. Introduction 120
1.1. Introduction and objectives 120
1.2. Pdf methods 121
1.3. Outline 122
2. Probability Functions 122
2.1. Turbulent mixing layer 122
2.2. Random variables 123
2.3. Distribution function 123
2.4. Probability density function 124
2.5. Expectation 126
2.6. Measurements 128
2.7. Joint pdf's 129
2.8. Conditional probabilities 132
2.9. Limitations of one-point pdf's 133
3. Velocity-Composition Joint Pdf 134
3.1. Conservation equations 134
3.2. Velocity and composition spaces 136
3.3. Velocity-composition joint pdf 136
3.4. Discrete representation 138
3.5. Joint pdftransport equation 141
3.5.1. Evaluation of the integral I 142
4. Lagrangian Description 143
4.1. Equivalent systems 143
4.2. Lagrangian equations 144
4.3. Lagrangian pdf 145
4.4. Relationship between Lagrangian and Eulerian pdf's 146
4.5. Deterministic system 147
4.6. Stochastic systems 150
4.7. Normalization, mean continuity and pressure 153
4.8. Summary 156
5. Modelling 156
5.1. Guiding principles 157
5.2. Scalar dissipation 158
5.2.1. Exact equations 158
5.2.2. Deterministic model 159
5.2.3. Particle-interaction model 159
5.2.4. Langevin model 162
5.2.5. Conclusion 163
5.3. Energy decay and the return-to-isotropy 163
5.3.1. Analysis of the stochastic reorientation model 166
5.4. Rapid pressure 166
5.4.1. Solution of the Poisson equation 168
119
120 S.B. POPE
the three scalars. At each point this is a function of six general, nonlinear, finite-rate reaction, conventional
independent variables. Clearly, the six-dimensional turbulence models reach an impasse.
joint pdf contains much more information than the The modelled composition joint pdf equation has
eight quantities considered in the conventional been solved for a variety of flows, demonstrating its
turbulence-model approach. ability to handle nonlinear reactions. Janicka et
Probability density functions have been used in the al. 25'26 and Nguyen and Pope 2~ studied hydrogen-
study of turbulent reactive flows for at least 35 air turbulent diffusion flames; Pope 2s and McNutt 29
years.l 2 In the last ten years, several models have been studied turbulent premixed flames; and Sherikar and
developed in which pdf's play a central role. 13"~4 In Chevray a° and Givi et al. al studied the N O - O 3
these models, a parametric form for the pdf is reaction in turbulent shear flows. There have also
assumed 15-1s in terms of its first and second been several solutions of the transport equation for
moments, for which transport equations are solved. the pdf of a conserved scalar, a2- a6
The methods described here are distinctly different in While the composition-pdf equation overcomes the
that the shape of the pdf is not assumed, but it is closure problem associated with nonlinear reaction
calculated from a modelled evolution equation for the rates, it does not address the problem of determining
pdf. the turbulent flow field. In most of the composition pdf
The pdf methods are applicable to a wide class of calculations referenced above, the standard k - e
flows. While we restrict our attention to single-phase, turbulence model was used to determine the mean
low-Mach number flows, no restrictions are placed on velocity and turbulence fields. The mean velocity and
the complexity of the thermochemistry--there can be the turbulent diffusivity and frequency were then used
large density variations, and there can be nonlinear as inputs to the modelled transport equation for the
reactions involviag many species. Pdf methods are composition joint pdf. In this equation, turbulent
well-suited to flows with complex thermochemistry, transport is generally modelled by gradient diffusion.
and most of the work on pdf's in the last ten years has For the inhomogeneous flows of practical interest,
been applied to reactive flows. This work, too, is analytical solutions to the pdf transport equations are
concerned with reactive flow: but this should not hide out of the question, and numerical methods, are
the fact that (compared to conventional turbulence required. Standard techniques such as finite-differ-
models) pdf methods have many advantages for inert ences are severely limited because of the large dimen-
and constant-density flows. sionality of joint pdf's. For example in a statistically
two-dimensional flow, the velocity joint pdf and the
joint pdf of three compositions are each a function of
1.2. P d f M e t h o d s five independent variables and time. It can be
estimated a2 that each time step in a finite-difference
The method of solving a modelled pdf equation solution to these joint pdf equations requires of the
started in 1969. Lundgren 19 derived, modelled, and order 1011 computer operations (additions or multi-
solved a transport equation for the joint pdf of plications). With current computing rates of order 106
velocity. In this equation, convective transport operations per second, such requirements are exces-
appears in closed form. In mean-flow closures 1° a sive if not prohibitive. Further, the computer require-
model is needed for the Reynolds stresses (which ments rise exponentially with the dimensionality of
transport momentum), and in Reynolds-stress the pdf.
closures* 1,2o a model is needed for the triple velocity For problems with a large number of independent
correlations (which transport the Reynolds stresses). variables, Monte Carlo methods aT,as usually provide
These transport processes are usually modelled by a feasible alternative means of obtaining numerical
gradient diffusion. But in the velocity pdf equation solutions. In 1980, Pope a9 devised a Monte Carlo
these processes do not have to be modelled and so the method to solve the composition joint pdf equation.
gradient-diffusion assumption is avoided. Lundgren This can be viewed as an extension to the inhomo-
proposed simple relaxation models for the unknown geneous case of the stochastic mixing models of
terms, and obtained analytic solutions to the modelled Spielman and Levenspiel 4° and Flagan and
pdf equation for simple flows. Appleton. 41 In this case the computer requirements
Dopazo and O'Brien 21-23 and Pope 24 derived, rise only linearly with the dimensionality of the pdf--
modelled, and solved the transport equation for the the best that can be achieved. The Monte Carlo
composition joint pdf--that is, the joint pdf of a set of method has been used to solve the equation for the
scalars (e.g. mass fractions and enthalpy) that describe joint pdf of three compositions in a one-dimensional
the thermochemical state of the fluid. This equation is flOW 28 and that of two compositions in a two-dimen-
remarkable in that arbitrarily complicated reactions sional flow. a°,a 1
can be treated without approximation. This is in The ability of the Monte Carlo method to handle
marked contrast to conventional turbulence models in joint pdf's of large dimensionality opened the way to
which the mean reaction rate can be determined only combining the velocity and composition pdf methods
in special circumstances--when the reaction rate is to obtain the advantages of both. This is achieved by
linear or when it is either very fast or very slow considering the transport equation for the joint pdf of
compared with the turbulent time scales. For a the velocities and compositions. In this equation, con-
I22 S.B. POPE
This paper is primarily concerned with the 2.1. Turbulent Mixing Layer
evolution equation for the velocity-composition joint
pdf--its derivation, interpretations, modelling, and Figure 2.1 is a sketch of the turbulent mixing layer
solution. The objective is to provide a comprehensive formed between two parallel streams of air. The axial
and understandable account of the theoretical and lateral coordinates are x 1 and x2, and the width of
foundations of the approach. the apparatus is assumed to be infinite in the spanwise,
The next section contains a review of the definition Xa, direction. The lower air stream has an axial
and properties of the probability functions used in velocity U° and absolute temperature Ta, while the
subsequent sections. In Section 3, the governing con- upper stream has a higher velocity U b and a higher
servation equations of turbulent reactive flow are temperature Tb. The figure shows the flow a long time
presented: the properties of the velocity-composition after its initiation, when the free stream properties (Ua,
joint pdf are examined, and its evolution equation is Ta, Ub and Tb) no longer vary with time. However, we
derived. In Section 4 this equation is studied from a are also interested in the temporal development of the
Lagrangian viewpoint. This Lagrangian description flow from a uniform, quiescent initial condition. This
affords a clear physical interpretation of the equation initial state exists before the time t = 0 when the flow
and provides the framework for the modelling is started in a repeatable way.
(Section 5) and for the solution algorithm (Section 6). It is assumed that the temperature T(x, t) is always
Three types of models are described: linear deter- in the range,
ministic models; stochastic particle-interaction
T a<~ T<%Tb. (2.1)
models; and, models based on the Langevin equation.
In Section 7 the composition joint pdf equation is This assumption is valid if the initial and boundary
examined. The final section contains a summary of the conditions satisfy Eq. (2.1), and if the Mach number
most important points, and a discussion on the attri- Ma is small. Specifically, we require
butes and limitations of the pdf approach. Tb- Ta
Ma 2 << (2.2)
Tb+ T ~"
2. P R O B A B I L I T Y F U N C T I O N S
The normalized temperature ~b(x, t) is defined by
Considering the stochastic nature of turbulence, it is
~b(x, t) - ( T ( x , t ) - T . ) / ( T b - T ~ ) , (2.3)
remarkable how little probability theory is used in
most theoretical approaches to the subject (see, for and, in view of Eq. (2.1), ~ adopts values between zero
example, HinzeS3). In this section various probability and unity:
functions are defined and their properties outlined in
0 ~< ~b ~< 1. (2.4)
order to provide the theoretical foundation on which
the rest of the paper is built. The texts on probability In referring to measurements of the normalized
theory by Drake s4 and Gnedenko 5s and those more temperature 0(x_,t) and of the velocity U(x,t), we
Pdf methods for turbulent flows 123
A
assume that the measurements are free from error, and
,o I .I
that the measurement process does not affect the flow. 0 1/3 2/3 I '
FIG. 2.2. Sample space (qs-spacel for the random variable 0, FIG. 2.4. Sample space showing the regions corresponding
showing the sample point ff = 4x to the events B --- q5 > 2 and C ~ sin O ~>0.
124 S.B. POPE
function F,($):
)
*<% d
f,(q/) - ~-~ F,(~). (2.19)
I I I I
f~(~,)
T%(W) T
0.5 2.0
q,
I a,
O 0.5 I.O o 0.5 ,'o
FIG. 2.6. Distribution function F,(O)against 0- FIG. 2.7. Probability density function J~(~O)against ~,.
Pdf methods for turbulent flows 125
Discontinuous distribution functions such as Eq. magnitude b, and its derivative bS(y-c) is a delta
(2.26) can be expressed as Heaviside functions, and function at y = c of magnitude b. (By "delta function
then the corresponding pdf's are composed of Dirac of magnitude b" we mean a delta function multiplied
delta functions. The definitions and properties of these by a constant of magnitude b.) From Eq. (2.31) we
generalized functions are given briefly here: a more obtain,
detailed and rigorous treatment can be found in Refs
58 and 59. f :oob 3(y-c)g(y)dy = by(c). (2.32)
The Heaviside function (or unit step function)
H(y) is given by The discontinuous distribution function Eq. 12.26)
can now be written as
n(y) O, y <~O,
=
The delta function is best defined by its fundamental This is shown on Fig. 2.8(c) with the corresponding
{sifting) property: pdf which is a delta function at ~O= 1. At the edge of
the mixing layer the flow is intermittent--sometimes
/: 5(y)g(y)dy = g(0). (2.31) turbulent, sometimes non-turbulent with ~ = 1. The
oc corresponding distribution, sketched on Fig. 2.8(b), is
The quantity bH(y-c) is a step at y = c of continuous up to qJ = 1, where there is a j u m p of
magnitude 0.35. The pdf is also continuous up to
= 1 where there is a delta function of magnitude
0.35.
,oyo /.,,/i. The probability of 4~ adopting the particular value
q~, can be deduced from Eq. (2.17):
It is evident from Eq. (2.63) that all the moments of 4, These properties follow trivially from the definition of
can be determined from the pdf: but, in general, the a derivative:
and a is the standard deviation of tk, <qY2> t/2. Then as E{F~N(~) } = F,(~), (2.82)
N tends to infinity, according to the Central Limit and
Theorem, ss the pdf of e, f~ (~), tends to the standard-
ized normal distribution E{f~N(~b)} = f,(~k). (2.83)
~2 / 1 2\ These definitions are consistent since the ensemble
f~(*) = (2x)- : e x p ~ - ~ * ) . (2.75)
average of any function of 4, can be recovered without
error:
The following three results are readily deduced
from Eq. (2.75): 1 N
(i) Almost certainly (i.e. with probability one), as N
tends to infinity, <~b>Ntends to <q~>.
1 N
(ii) A finite N suffices to reduce the error = ~ ~ Q(~b("))= <Q(q~)>N.
I<~b>~- <~b>l below any specified positive limit n=|
I
4.0 /,.--,, E {f**N(0) } = f,(0), (2.88)
(b) // "\\ shows that the pdf is the expectation of the normalized
sample point number density.
o ..... 0.3
II I[l'"--;..J
0.5 0.7
t
These considerations are important for the theory
developed below, where pdf's are represented in-
directly by ensembles of sample points. The principal
Fro. 2.9. (a) Distribution functions against ~: dashed line conclusions are that the pdf can be regarded as the
F,(~,): solid line FON(#). (b) PDF's against @: dashed line expectation of the normalized sample point density,
f,($); vertical lines (representing delta functions of magni- which is equal to the ensemble-averaged pdf. As the
tude 0.05) .f,~ (¢).
size of the ensemble N tends to infinity, all ensemble
averages <Q>u almost certainly tend to the means
f,(@) = (27~<~b'2>)- I/2exp(-½(~ -- <~>)2/<fb'2>), <Q>.
(2.85)
2.7. Joint Pdf's
with <4)> = 0.5 and <q5'2> = 0.01. On Fig. 2.9a, the
dashed line is the distribution function F,(~) For the mixing-layer experiment, the random
(obtained by integrating Eq. (2.85)), and the solid line variable that we have been considering is the
is F,~(0) for N = 20. (The 20 samples ~") are normalized temperature at a particular location, 4~ =
normally-distributed random numbers with mean 0.5 $(x_o, to). We now consider a second random variable
and variance 0.01.) It may be seen that while F,(0) is U, which is the normalized axial velocity at the same
continuous, FoN(O ) is a piece-wise constant with N location:
points of discontinuity, On Fig. 2.9b, the dashed line is
U - (Ul(xo, to)--U,)/(Ub--Uo). (2.89)
the pdf f,(0), Eq. (2.85), and the delta functions (each
of magnitude 1/N= 1/20) form the ensemble- When the steady state is reached, in the low-speed free
averaged pdf f,N(0). stream U and 4' are zero, and in the high-speed stream
The definition of the ensemble-averaged pdf is saris- U and $ are unity. The value of 4>is bounded by zero
factory since it possesses the required mathematical and unity; but the same is not the case for the velocity,
properties, Eqs (2.83-84). But its relationship to the since pressure fluctuations can cause U to exceed these
pdf requires further comment: they are distinctly bounds. (Experimental data 61 show that U does
different quantities in that f,u(O) is composed of delta indeed exceed these bounds.)
functions whereas f , ( 0 ) may be continuous. The rela- A sample space (temperature space, or 0-space) has
tionship between f,N (0) and f , (0) can be understood been associated with the random variable q~, so that
as follows. any value of 4' can be plotted as a sample point 0 = $.
Each value q~4,~is a sample of the random variable Similarly, velocity space of V-space is introduced so
~, and each location 0 = ~bt"~ is a sample point in that any value of U can be plotted as the sample point
q/-space. Let m(0, A0) denote the number of sample V=U.
points in the region 0 ~ 4) < 0 + A 0 . The normalized The distribution function F.(V) and the pdf f,(V)
sample point number density is defined by are defined by,
.. (,.(0.A0)~ F,(V) = P(U < V), (2.90)
ffN(O) -- um - - (2.86)
and
and is the fraction of sample points per unit distance dF~(V)
f~(V) = dV (2.91)
along the O-axis. Clearly, f~N(O) is zero except at the
sample points where there is a delta function of magni- These definitions and the properties of the functions
tude 1/N. In other words, it is equal to the ensemble- are exactly analogous to those for 4', The mean
averaged pdf: (mathematical expectation) of U is
fgN(~) = f,u(O). (2.87)
<U> = [~ Vf.(V)dV, (2.92)
Thus the ensemble-averaged pdf is the normalized
sample point number density in 0-space. and the mean of a function* of U, Q(U) is
As N tends to infinity, the ensemble-averaged pdf
.f,s, does not converge to f,, since f , s is still composed * See previousfootnote.
130 !ti.B. POPE
<Q(U)>=
The variance of U is
s m
-m
QU'l.L(Vv~ (2.93)
already been noted, the joint pdf cannot (in general)
be determined from the marginal pdf’s.
If Q(U,qb) is a function of U and 4, then its mean
(mathematical expectation) is
D(U) = (u’) = co (V-(U>)%(V)dV,
s -a (QWv4)> = m m QU'ttilf,,(KlL)dvW.
s-m I--co
(2.94)
(2.107)
where u is the fluctuation
If Q is a function only of U, then this formula yields
u f U-(U). (2.95)
The distribution functions Fo($) and F,(V) contain
all the information about 4 and U separately, but they
(QW>=
Q(V){f_miA&‘, ti)dl//
i_pm 1 dV
do not contain joint information. That is, if 4 and U = coQU'Vu(v)dv,
are measured, the probability of C$< $ is given by s-m (2.108)
FJJI) and the probability of U < V is given by F,(V). which is consistent with the earlier definition, Eq.
But F,($) and F,(V) do not contain sufficient in- (2.93).
formation to determine the probability of the joint The marginal pdf’s f,(V) and f,($) have means
(simultaneous) event 4 < $ and U c V. This informa- (U) and (4) and variances (u2> and (&‘). For the
tion is provided by the joint distribution function joint pdf f,,( V, $) another important characteristic is
F,( V, t,b)which is defined by the covariance (u@),
F,& $) = P(U < V, 4 < JI). (2.96)
(Uf$‘)E m m (V-(U>)(~-(~))f.s(V,~)dVd~.
It is emphasized that the event (U < V, 4 < $) refers s -0D s -co
to simultaneous values of U and 4. (2.109)
The following properties of the joint distribution The normalized covariance r is called the correlation
function are readily deduced: coeficient :
0 G F,,(V,$) g 1, (2.97) r = (f4qY)/{(u’) (@‘)}““. (2.110)
F,,(-oo,$) = F,,(V, -00) = 0, (2.98) If r is zero, then U and 4 are said to be uncorrelated. If
(2.99) It-1= 1, then U and 4 are perfectly correlated. In
F,,(% II) = F,($),
general, r lies between minus one and one,
F,,(V, a) = F,(V), (2.100)
-l,<r,<l. (2.111)
and, F,( V, $) is a non-decreasing function of both V
and I++. Perfect correlation occurs when U and C#J
are linearly
The joint pdf of U and 4,fN( V, IL),is defined by related,
4 = a+/?u, (2.112)
where a and ,9 are constants. If B is positive, then r = 1
Both F,(V, $) and &( V, $) are defined in the two- and U and C#J are perfectly positively correlated: if fl is
dimensional V-tj sample space. By integrating Eq. negative, r = - 1 and U and 4 are perfectly negatively
(2.101) over an infinitesimal area in this velocity- correlated.
temperature space, we obtain In nearly-homogeneous turbulence, experiment@’
show that fti( V, t,b)is a joint normal distribution:
f&+(V,l(/)dVd$ = P(V G U < V+dV,
fJV,$) = c-“‘exp(-i(V,$)), (2.113)
$6 4 < Jl+dJI). (2.102)
where the constant c is
Other properties of the joint pdf are:
c=4~~(~~)(~‘~)(1-r~), (2.114)
f”,#(VY#) 2 0, (2.103)
m P and A(V, $) is the positive definite quadratic function
_&(V,ti)dVdJ/ = 1, (2.104)
f -cc J‘-m A(v,lL) = f{(V-<U>)2/(a2>
Figure 2.10 shows the joint-normal pdf correspond- f~,(V,¢) = 6 ( V - U.)6(~O-t~.). (2.122)
ing to ( U ) = 0.4, ( ~ ) = 0.5, (u ~) = 0.01, ((h '~) = The delta function product, or two-dimensional delta
0.00696 and r =0.3. The maximum probability function, in Eq. (2.122) represents a unit spike at
density (at (V, q~) = ( ( U ) , (~b))) is 20. Five ellipses are location (U,, ~ , ) in the V-~ sample space.
shown on which the probability densities are (from We now consider the transformation of the joint pdf
the inside outward) 16, 12, 8, 4 and 0.2. The prob- under a change of variables. (Equation 2.48 is the
ability of a sample point being within each ellipse is transformation for a marginal pdf.) Let 9 and h be
0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 and 0.99. Also shown are 100 sample random variables (with corresponding sample-space
points which were obtained from an appropriate variables # and/t) defined by
9 = G(U, th), # = G(V,~), (2.123)
and
q,
ffu~ Iv,#) h = H(U,(b), fi = H(V, qJ). (2.124)
0.7
We require that the functions G and H be such that
there is a one-to-one correspondence between points
IO in V-¢ space and those in #-/~ space. This require-
ment is met if the Jacobian
0.5
o.3
has the same sign everywhere.
A given event corresponds to a region of V-~ space
do o15 ,io which, in turn, corresponds to a region of ~-Fi space.
As an example, the event
FIG. 2.11. Joint-normal pdf: .L,o(V.q,) against V for @= 0.3.
0.4. 0.5.0.6 and 0.7. A - - ( V Q < ~ U < Vb,¢°~<~b<qjb), (2.126)
132 S.B. POPE
and the two-point joint pdf is 3.4. In Section 3.5 the transport equation for
f(V,~O;x_,t) is derived from the transport equations
f24,(@,d/,; x_,t,x,,t,)
for U and 4~.
02
=_- F2c~(~,~.,x_,t,x_.,t.). (2.158) 3.1. Conservation Equations
The one-point pdf can be recovered by The state of a reacting gas mixture composed of s
species is fully described by the species mass fractions
f¢(~O; x, t)-- f?A,(C,,~,,;x_,t,x,,t,)d~,,, m,(x_, t) (~ = I, 2..... s), the specific enthalpy h(x, t), the
pressure p(x, t), and the velocity U(x_,t). An equation
(2.159) of state determines the density p as a function of m__.h
and p:
but, in general, the two-point pdf cannot be deter- p = p(~h,p), (3.1)
mined fromf,(~; x_,t) a n d f , ( ~ , ; x,, t,).
It is clear, then, that one-point pdf's do not provide where m denotes the set of species mass fractions.
a complete description of random fields. They provide The evolution of the reactive flow field is governed
information at each point separately, but no joint by the conservation equations of mass, momentum,
information at two or more points. As a consequence, chemical species and enthalpy 65.66:
one-point pdf's contain no information about the
frequency or length scale of the fluctuations. ~+~x,(pu,)= 0, (3.2)
To illustrate this observation, suppose that ~b(x, t) is
a travelling sine wave of frequency co, wave length L, DU~ _ Oz~j ?~P ÷pg/, (3.3)
and random phase, P Dt ~3x~ t?xj
~b(x, t) = ½+½sin {2n(cot+xJL+~)}, Dm, ~J~
(2.160) p. . . . . q-pSi, (3.4)
Dt c~xi
where ~ is a random variable, uniformly distributed and
between zero and one. The corresponding pdf is
Dh ~J~
f,(~0;x.t) = _1 { I - ( 2 ~ - 1)2} -1/2. (2.161)
P D----t= - ?x--~-+-pSh, (3.5).
reference pressure Po be have also determined that Ap does not affect the
thermoehemical equations at low Mach number.)
po(t) = (p(X_o,t)). (3.9) In some applications (notably internal combustion
The pressure can then be written as engines) the reference pressure po(t) varies signifi-
cantly with time. In other applications (open flames,
p(x, t) = po(t)+Ap(x~ t), (3.10)
furnaces, and gas turbine combustors in the steady
where the pressure variation Ap is defined by state) the reference pressure is constant. For
simplicity, we consider the case of constant reference
Ap(x, t) - p(x,t)-po(t ). (3.11)
pressure, but the extension to the variable case is
The pressure-gradient term in the momentum equa- straightforward.
tion can be rewritten as The mass fraction and enthalpy equations can be
written in a common form by defining the set of
g P - ~ (Ap(x_,t)+po(t))= ~A--~p (3.12) a --- s + 1 scalars ~_(x~t) by:
?xj ~x s ~x s "
dp~=m~, a = 1 , 2 ..... s = t r - 1 ,
showing that the uniform reference pressure Po has no and
effect.
~bo = h. (3.191
The density and the reaction rates (and hence S,)
depend upon the magnitude of the pressure, not upon Then, with J~-= J~ and S, = Sh, the general scalar
the pressure gradient. The equation of state (Eq. 3.1) transport equation is,
can be expanded in a Taylor series in p around Po to
D~b~ ~J~
yield, p .... ~-pS~, ~ = 1 , 2 ..... a. (3.20)
Dt c~xi
p(m_,h,p) = p(m,h, po){l q POp~PopAp .... }" For a given reference pressure Po (assumed constant),
the density and sources depend only on the set of
(3.13) scalars ~:
Now, since Ap/p o can be estimated to be of the order p = p(~), (3.21)
of the Mach number squared,/7 only the first term in and
the expansion need be retained. Thus, to a good
S, = S,(~b). (3.22)
approximation,
The set of a scalars ~ defined by Eq. (3.19) provides
p = p(m,h, po), (3.14)
a complete description of the thermochemical
and similarly, the sources S, can be evaluated by properties of the gas mixture. Many combustion
problems involve a large number of species, and con-
S~ = S~(_~h, po). (3.15)
sequently a is large. (For example, the combustion
The source in the enthalpy equation is 6~ of methanol may involve 26 species. 6s) In turbulent
combustion calculations, simplifying assumptions are
c~Ui Dp , , ,
pS h = zi.i-~xi+-~+(A--e), (3.16) usually made in order to reduce the number of scalars
needed to describe the gas composition. Extreme
where A and e are the rates of absorption and emission examples are the idealized premixed and diffusion
of radiant energy (per unit volume). At low Math flames, in each of which the gas composition is (by
number, the viscous dissipation term is negligible and assumption) determined by a single scalar. For the
the pressure term is well approximated by idealized premixed flame 69 the single scalar is the
progress variable (or the normalized product concen-
Dp dp0
D--}-= d-T' (3.17) tration): for the idealized diffusion flame 7° the single
scalar is the mixture fraction (or the nozzle-fluid con-
In non-sooting gaseous flames, radiative heat transfer centration).
can usually be neglected in the enthalpy equation. It is In order to exploit such simplifying assumptions,
assumed that the rate of absorption A is negligible, but we redefine the set of scalars considered as follows:
the rate of emission can be retained in the equation
~_ is a set of a scalars (~_=t~l,~ 2..... ~b,),
since it is a function of m__,T and P0. Thus, with the
governed by the general transport equation Eq.
assumption of low Mach number and the neglect of
(3.20), which, in conjunction with the simplifying
radiation absorption we obtain
assumptions (if any), is sufficient to determine the
S h = S,(m, h, Po, dPo/dt). (3.18) density p, the source terms S~ (ct = 1, 2,..., a) and
any other thermochemical property of interest.
It may be seen that with the low Mach number
assumption, the pressure variations Ap do not affect The scalars ~bare called the composition variables since
the thermochemical equations while the reference they determine the composition of the gas mixture.
pressure Po does not affect the momentum equations Their definition ensures that Eqs (3.20-3.22) hold, and
directly. The equations are still coupled through the that (at least by assumption) the mass fractions and
density which depends upon Po. (Strahle~7 and others enthalpy are known functions:
136 S.B. POPE
m, = m,(q~), (3.23)
and
h = h(¢_). (3.24)
In summary, the equations governing the evolution
of the turbulent reactive flow field are the mass con-
servation equation, Eq. (3.2), the momentum con-
servation equation, Eq. (3.3), the composition
~ th
3.2. Velocity and Composition Spaces FIG. 3.1. Reaction path in augmented composition space.
position variables, form the (3 + a)-dimensional infinitesimal volume dl/l at JI is f&(k) dk. Similarly, for
random vector (U_ 4). The (3+a)-dimensional the (3 +a)-dimensionakdom vector (IJ, p), the prob-
distribution function of(LJ, 8) is defined by ability of its being in the infinitesimal volume dy d& at
(V_L) is f(V_ &) dy d&. (These properties of the pdfs
F,,(Xi,)
- = PW, < V,, u, < v,, u, < V,, follow from the definition of the distribution function,
41 < $I,& < $~....r& < ti,). (3.29) Eq. (3.29).)
The sample point corresponding to a value of the
At every point in the velocity-composition space
random vector (U_&) is sure to lie somewhere in the
(v--k space), this distribution function has a value
Y-k sample space. Thus the probability of this event
between zero and one. The joint pdf of &J,$) is
(which is given by the integral off(V_t& over the whole
defined by, space) is one :
(3.39)
Similarly,
Before outlining the properties off* we introduce
some abbreviated notation. First, f (without sub-
scripts) is written forl$:
and an infinitesimal
dy = dV, dV, dV,,
volume in -$-space is d&,
(3.32) sf$&)dL = 1.
Let Q@,$) be a function* of U and I. Corre-
(3.41)
(3.43)
( M!dk.
II
It may be recakd that & is always within the
The joint pdf of the three velocity components &a) allowed region of &-space. Physical properties such as
is obtained from f (Y, I& by integrating over k-space: the density p have no physical meaning outside the
f,(V) = f(X$L)dk.
s
And the marginal pdf of a single velocity compo-
(3.36)
allowed region. However, it aids both the notation
and the analysis to regard p&b) as a finite continuous
function defined everywhere in k-space. The definition
of p(k) outside the allowed region is arbitrary (except
nent--U,, say-is obtained by integrating fu over that p(&) should be finite and continuous) since
the other two velocities: p(&)f+ (I& is non-zero only in the allowed region. Thus,
the mean density can be determined from
f”,(V,) = a cc f,O!)dV, dV3. (3.37)
s I
Similarly the joint iif ifXthe compositions, f$ (&) is
obtained by integratingf(V_&) over velocity space
(PW =
sA$)f&)d&~ (3.45)
In Section 2.5 it was shown that the pdf of a single where the density-weighted joint p d f f i s defined r° by
scalarf, (~) is equal to the expectation of a delta function
f(V, ~0) - f(V_, ~b)p(g,)/(p). (3.56)
( 6 ( ~ - $ ) ) , Eq. (2.67). Similarly, for the joint pdf we
have With this definition of f, Eq. (3.55) for the density-
weighted mean, ~ is directly analogous to Eq. (3.49) for
f(V__,g/) = (6(V-U_)6(~-~)), (3.46)
the mean (R).
where 6(_y_-U) is written for the three-dimensional delta The random vector (U, ~) has been defined as the
function at _V = U, velocity and composition at the particular location and
time ~ t) = (X_o,to). Clearly, the random vector (and
~ v(y_-u) = ~(v~ - u o6(v2 - u~)~(v3 - u3), hence the distribution function and pdf) can be defined
(3.47) at any ~ t). In general, then, the joint distribution
and, similarly, 6 ( ~ - ~ ) is the a-dimensional delta function is defined by,
function at ¢ = gt, F,#(_y_, ~,x_, t) = P(UI(x, t) < V1, U2(x_,t)
~ ( ¢ - ~ ) = ltI ~ ( 0 , - ~ , ) . (3.48)
< v2, U3(x_, t) < v3, ~,(x~ t)
< ,P~, 4,2(x_, t) < 02 ..... 4,,,(x_,t) < 0~,),
If R is any random variable, its mean can be deter-
mined by (3.57)
and the joint pdf is defined by,
(R>=ff<RIU=V.~_=¢>fV~t)dVd~, ~3+ct
(3.49)
f v(y_~.;x_,t) -
OVI OV2OV30~IIO~I2 ...(~Ia
where (RI__U = V_,q~ = ~ ) is the conditional expecta- xF,2 V(y_,~O,x_,t). (3.58)
tion ofR, given that U = V and 4} -- ¢t (cf. Eq. 2.149). If
It is emphasized that f ~ ~; x_,t ) contains information
R is independent of U and q~, then the conditional
about every point ~ t) separately: it contains no two-
expectation is equal to the mean,
point information in physical space or time.
<RIU__ = V. 4~ = ~ ) = ( R ) , (3.50) In applying the pdi" equation to inhomogeneous,
variable-density flows, the natural dependent variable
in which case Eq. (3.49) is not useful. At the opposite
is neither f nor f b u t it is the mass density function (mdf)
extreme, if R is completely determined by U and q~ (i.e.
R = R(U__,~_)),then ~'(_y_,~O,x_; t) --- p(~)f(V__,~; x, t)
( R ( _ ~ b ) I U -- V,~b = ~ ) = R(y_,~0), (3.51) = (p)f(V__,~O;x~t). (3.59)
and Eq. (3.49) reduces to the definition of the As is explained in the next subsection, the mass density
unconditional mean. Henceforth, conditional expecta- function ~" is the expected mass density in _ V - ~ - x
tions are written (R IV, ~), it being implied that _Vis the space.
value of U_U_,and ~ is the value of ~p. The important properties of ~ follow immediately
An important result embracing conditional expec- from its definition and from the properties o f f :
tations and delta functions is
(R~(_V-U)6(~-q~)) = ( R I ~ g ~ ) f ( V . ~ ) . (3.52) f f : ' ( _ y . ¢, x_; t) dV dg, = (p), (3.60)
F r o m Eqs (3.49) and (3.53) w e obtain In these equations, the means are functions of_x and t
and (RJV_, g/) is written for
(R(x, t)l__U(~, t) = V_, ~(x_, t) = 0 ) .
This formula (Eq. 3.71 ) for the standard error reveals (3.76)
the strength and weakness of the discrete representa- The numbering of the particles is arbitrary. In
tion. The weakness is that the statistical error decreases other words the random vectors (U(n),~b("),x_(")),
slowly with increasing N: if 100 samples (N = 100) n = 1 , 2 , . . . , N , are identically distributed. Con-
140 S.B. POPE
sequently, the expectation of Eq. (3.76) can be written 3.76). In physical space, the expected particle number
N density is proportional to the mean fluid density (Eq.
<~-..(v_.~0.x)>= Am ~ <6(y_-u~"q6(~0-~"q 3.82). At a given location in physical space, the expected
particle number density in velocity-composition space
x 6 ~ - x~"~)>, (3.77) is proportional to the density-weighted joint p d f f (Eq.
3.84). In state space (V-~-x space) the expected particle
or, alternatively,
number density is proportional to the mass density
<~-N(Y_,¢,,x_)> function ~" (Eqs 3.78 and 3.79).
For constant-density homogeneous flows, the
= M<6(V_- U__.
t*~)6 ( ~ - ~ t'~) 6(~-x~"})), (3.78)
expected particle number density is uniform in physical
for any n (i ~< n ~< N). space and the statistics of U I"~and ~"~ are independent
The discrete mass density function ,a¢ has been of x ~"1.The volume averaRe of the discrete representa-
defined (Eq. 3.76) in terms of the state vectors of the N tion of ~(V,_C,x_) (Eq. 3.76) is then the same as the
notional particles, but the properties of these random discrete representation off(V_, ~) (Eq. 3.67), thus estab-
vectors have yet to be defined. Their properties are now lishing the consistency of the two representations.
deduced from the requirement that the expectation of We have obtained a prescription for determining the
ff~ is the mass density function ~': discrete representation ~-N(_~,~,x) from the mass
density function ~(y_, ~b,x). In the solution procedure
(~(.y_, ~O,x_)) = ~'(y_,~,x). (3.79) described in Section 6, the discrete representation is
Let h~) be the Ixtf of particle positions--that is, h(x) used, and consequently we need to consider the inverse
is the probability density of x t-~ = x. Then integrating problem--to determine (or, rather, to approximate)
Eq. (3.78) over velocity-composition space yields expectations from ~-N(-Y,~, x_).
To this end, let the volume ¥ be divided into K cells,
ff<.. >dVdq.=M<6~_-x'')> the kth being centered at ~k~ and having volume Yk.
These cells are sufficiently small that within each one
= Mh(x), (3.80) statistical homogeneity can be assumed, and the
total number of particles N is sufficiently large that the
and integrating Eq. (3.79) yields number of particles Nk in the kth cell is large.
The volume average of Eq. (3.82) over the kth cell is
f f <.,,>dv dq, = (3.81)
(Nk>/(NYk) = (p(xlk}))/M (3.85)
A comparison of these results shows that the particle where x_j~}is a location within the cell. Consequently, an
position pdf is approximation to the mean density is
h~) = (p(~))/M. (3.82)
(P(~k~)> ~ AmNk/¥k. (3.86)
Thus the number density of notional particles in
physical space is proportional to the mean fluid density. This is simply the mass of particles in the cell divided by
(It may be noted that the integral over ~ of each side of the cell volume. There are two approximations in Eq.
Eq. (3.82) is unity.) (3.86): first (Nk) has been replaced by Nk, resulting in a
Let f*(y_~ ~lx) denote the joint pdf of U ~'~ and ~"~ statistical error of relative magnitude N k 1/2; second,
conditional upon x t'~ = x. Thisis the joint pdfofU ~ and because of the assumed homogeneity with the cell, -~kl
qb~"~for a notional particle located at x. In terms of delta has been replaced by ~t~.
functions, this conditional pdf is A similar approximation is obtained for the density-
weighted mean of any function Q(U__,~b). Multiplying
Eq. (3.79) by Q(V_,~), integrating over v_-~k space, and
x 6~-xt"q)/<a~-xt"})). (3.83) taking the volume average over cell k we obtain
Thus, the ensemble average over the particles in expressed in terms of a conditional expectation,
the cell approximates the density-weighted mean.
jr c/ As _v,
3.5. Joint Pdf Transport Equation
F; ,,,OQ V~,)
A transport equation for the velocity-composition
joint pdfcan be derived from the transport equations for
U and qS, Eqs (3.3) and (3.20). These equations can be
xfdVd~. (3.98)
rewritten as The second step follows since, for U = V and ~b = #,
pOQ/OUs is a known function of_Vand ~0.Integration by
D U_____=2 As, (3.90) parts yields,
Dt
and V 0
D~=
-- = O:, (3.91)
Dt x [p(~0) (AslV__,~ ) f ] dVd~, (3.99)
where A is the force per unit mass, where
bxj) --
(3.95)
This is the first expression for (pDQ/Dt>. The terms within the braces are independent of Q.
A second expression is obtained by relating changes Consequently, a sufficient condition for the satisfaction
in Q to changes in U and ~b, of Eq. (3.103) (for any Q) is that the terms within braces
sum to zero: but since Q can be chosen arbitrarily from a
DQ(U,~b) JQ DUs OQ D~b, wide class of functions, this is also a necessary condition.
(3.96)
Dt = OU~ Dt +t?~b,-- Dt Hence we obtain the transport equation for the
Note that summation is implied over repeated suffices (j velocity-scalar joint p d f f (V_,~0; ~ t):
and a). The material derivatives can be replaced by Aj
and ®, (Eqs 3.90 and 3.91) to yield p(¢/) +p(~.)V~ = Ob [p(d/)(AslV,~_>f ]
=( ~ s ){ .~: ,. (3.97,
---
d
[p(q,) < o , I ~ ~o>f].
oqJ,
The first term on the right-hand side can be re- (3.104)
142 S.B. PoP~
Equivalently, the transport equation for the mass The terms on the right-hand side of Eq. (3.109)
density function ( ~ = pf) is represent transport in velocity space by the viscous
stresses and by the fluctuating pressure gradient, and
a~ a [vj~] a transport in composition space by the molecular fluxes.
Before the equation can be solved for f, the conditional
a expectations appearing in these terms must be deter-
+ ~ - ~ [ < O , lV,~>~~r] = O. (3.105)
mined or approximated. In Section 5 models are
presented that approximate the conditional expecta-
It may be seen that the change of ~ with time is caused tions as functions of the joint pdf and of a specified
by transport in x-space (due to the velocity), transport turbulent time scale r(x_,t).
in V-space (due to A__),and transport in ~O-space (due to
O__).A complete discussion of this fundamental equation
is provided in the next section. 3.5.1. Evaluationof the integralI
Expressions for the conditional expectations of A and It is shown that the integral
are obtained from their defining equations. From Eq.
(3.93) we obtain I=-f f a-~j[P(~)O(~O)<A/YY,~>f]dV--d~,
=
I aJ~ \ (3.110)
is zero for a wide class of functions Q. It is simply shown
aJT that I is zero if Q has bounded support. In addition, with
-- - <~xi, V_,@>+ p(@)S,(@). very reasonable physical assumptions, it is shown
(3.106) that I is zero ifQ is monotonic as IvI tends to infinity and
the expectation <pAjQ> exists.
By decomposing the pressure p into its mean <p> and Let S(v) denote the surface of the sphere in V-space,
fluctuation p' centered at the origin, and with radius v,
p' -- p-<p>, (3.107) vz = V . V , (3.111)
fromEq. (3.92) we obtain and let g(v)be the probability density of[U_" U__]1/2 = v.
By first integrating over composition space, the integral
P(~-)<AjIV'~> = \ax i a<p> ap' +poAv,t)
Oxj axj I becomes
=
azu
--v,#L -
a<p> ' I= f J~j[<pA~QW>./~(V)]dV. (3.112)
a<p>)~+~[p(~)
of a s ,(~)S] where n is the outward-pointing normal vector.
It is obvious from Eq. (3.114) that if Q has bounded
support then I is zero.
= ~[(_~. o~ We now consider less stringent conditions on Q. The
mean <pA~Q>can be expressed as
Differentiating Eq. (4.9) with respect to time we Figure 4.1 is a sketch of fluid particle paths (or
obtain pathlines) in x_-t space for a two-dimensional flow. The
fluid particle which is initially at x o follows the fluid
particle path to reach x+(xo, t) at time t. The fluid
particles which initially occupy the (two-dimensional)
volume d¥(t o), at time t occupy the larger volume d'C(t ).
This volume expansion is due to a decrease in density,
= (DUj~ (4.12)
\-6T/x.x,' Eq. (4.18).
The state of a given fluid particle (i.e. given Xo)
since Ox~'/dt is just the velocity Us. This confirms the is defined by its position x_÷, its velocity U ÷ and
interpretation of the material derivative DfDt as the its composition ~b+. At any time t, the state of the
rate of change following the fluid. Thus, (from Eqs 4.2- particle can he represented by a point (V_.,~,x_)=
4.3) the Lagrangian equations for U + and ~+ are (_U_÷, q~+, x ÷ ) in the (6 + a)-dimensional state space or
V-~b-x_ space; and (U +,~+,x_ ÷ ) is the state vector.
-~U+(x_o,t) =Aj[x_+(Xo, t),tl, (4.1.3) As time progresses, the state of the particle changes
and the point defined by the state vector moves in state
and space. The Lagrangian equations show that the state
vector evolves by,
~-~ ~b~+(Xo, t) = O,[.x+~o, t), t'l, (4.14)
~ = . 4.191
where A__and O_Oare
_ given by Eqs (3.92-3.93).
x_+ U___+
Consider an infinitesimal material element of fluid
that at time to occupies the volume d¥(to) = dxo at X_o. Thus the vector (A, O__,U__÷ ) represents the rate of change
The mass of this element is of state, or the velocity in state space. The evolution of
the state of the particle can be represented by a path in
d m = P~o, to) d¥(to). (4.15)
the augmented state space or V-~b-x_-t space. For given
At a later time t > to, the material element occupies the x_o, th~ particle path is
volume d'C(t) at x+(xo, t), and its mass (which, by
definition of a material element, is unchanged) is,
= / ~+(t) / ' (4.20)
dm = p[A+~o,t),t]d'¢(t). (4.16)
L-x+(t) J
The volume d¥(t) is related to d¥(to) by the Jacobian
If at ~ t) = (X_o,to) the flow is turbulent, then the
a(xf,xLx~) _~. . initial state
d¥(t) = ~ - 7 - ~ , a [to/
U[XoI,Xo2,X03)
-
O(x_÷ )
d¥(to). (4.17)
/ to)/' (4.21)
Lx÷(to) J LX-o J
From these three equations we obtain the Lagrangian is a random vector. The rates of change A and 0 are also
form of the continuity equation random vectors. Consequently, different realizations of
Pdf methods for turbulent flows 145
where the conditions St and So are defined by Eqs Now, the Jacobian is known from the Lagrangian
continuity equation Eq. (4.18) in terms of the densities.
(4.22-23). In the final step, x + can be replaced by x since
Thus, Eq. (4.32) can be rewritten
x + = _xis one of the conditions in Sv By applying the
same treatment to the other terms, we obtain the
evolution equation forfL : "'(v__,C,,x;t)=fffp(~o)p(~_+)/p(~DXo,
d)
8'fa ~ . g [ f t . V J + a [ft.<A, IS,,So>] x ~ ( u + -v_)~(p_- -{z)
~t cxi ov~
x ~(U[xo, to] - Vo)
0
+~[A<odS, So>]=0. (4.31) x ,~(4,[Xo, to] - ~ o )
x 6(x + -x_)dVod~odx +. (4.34)
The evolution equation for ft. has a similar form to
that for :~-, Eq. (4.8). There are two important differ- The fight-hand side of this equation can be deter-
ences: ft. is a pdf rather than a mass density function; mined by integrating over V_o,~o and x + in turn. Only
and in Eq. (4.31 ) A and O are conditioned on S Oas well 6(_U_~o,t)-Vo) depends upon V o and its integral
as on St. over the whole of Vo-space is unity. Only P(~o) and
(It is interesting to note that the form of Eq. (4.31) 6(~b~o, to)-~ko) depend upon t#o, and in view of the
does not change if additional fixed conditions are sifting property of the delta function (Eq. 2.32) we
applied to (or removed from)ft.. [By definition a fixed have
condition is independent of t.] Let C denote a set of fixed
conditions and let f~(V,~O,x; tlC, xo) be the corre- fP(~o) {p(~rAo, t] } 6(~_[x o, t] - ~_o) d~o = 1.
sponding Lagrangian conditional pdf. Then the evolu-
tion equation for f, is the same as Eq. (4.31) with f~ (4.35)
replacing ft. and C replacing So.) Thus, Eq. (4.34) reduces to
The conditioning on ~o is needed in order to relate the With this result, Eq. (4.42) becomes
Jacobian d(x +)/0(xo) to densities. But in constant- a~- ?
density flows (in which the Jacobian is unity) only the a-S- = - ax--~.[ ~ v , ] -o-v, [~<A'IV-'~>]
conditioning on x o is needed. In this (constant-density)
case Eq. (4.39) reduces to a
a0 [&~<®~lv_y,¢>]. (4.47)
.f(V_,~ ;x_,t)= jlfL(V__,~h,x_;tlX_o)dxo. (4.40)
This is the evolution equation for the Eulerian mass
It is useful to be able to derive Eulerian pdf evolution density function ~- derived from the Lagrangian
equations from Lagrangian equations. This can be done equations for the evolution of fluid particle properties
by differentiating Eq. (4.39) and substituting for OfL/dt (_U_+,q~+,x+). Inevitably the result is the same as Eq.
from Eq. (4.31): (4.8) which is derived from the evolution equations for
a:(v__,~,x_;t) the Eulerian properties U and ~b.
?t
4.5. DeterministicSystem
It has already been noted that the joint pdf transport
equation, Eq. (4.8), is deterministic. In this subsection
a [ft<@,lS.So)]} the equation is interpreted in terms of a deterministic
Lagrangian system.
x o~(Vo, ¢o, xo; to id_Vo d~o dx_o. (4.42) In the joint pdf equation, the rates of change A~, t),
It may be noted that, for each of the three terms, the O(_x,t) and U(3.,t) appear as their conditionally
derivative (~/~x~,~/~V~or ~/0¢~) can be removed from expected values:
the integral, since ~(V_o,~o, Xo; to)dV o d~bo dx o does
not depend upon the state variables (V,~k,x). The l
resulting integrals are then of the form -0v(-Y-'~'x' t)J w-L<U__~,/<--O('t)[V--'
t)lV_,
~' ~~k>J
>/" (4.48)
ff
x {:(Vo, 6'o,X_o;to)
) /f
f
x ct(V°: ~°' x°)"(,':d O"d~ d~. (4.53)
atu~ ~_,x~ ) -
to I~ w,
The left-hand side of this equation can also be written as
IVo, ~.) IV,qJ) an integral over the final states, namely
change ($~__0) is not a random variable: it is the Now, since both these equations for ~ must hold for all
conditional expectation of the rate of change of fluid states (V, ~, x), the two terms in braces must be equal:
particles with the same state. (Yo, ~o, X_o)
The conditional path from the state (_Y_o,C/o,X_o)at :(0~_~, i_; t) = .~(_vo, ~o, X_o;to)
t = t o is sketched on Fig. 4.3. Again, this sketch is only (4.55)
suggestive since the (7 +a)-dimensional augmented
state space ~_-~-x-t-space) is shown as being 3- or, dividing by the Jacobian,
dimensional. The following observations can be made:
: .~(__V0,~o, Xo; to).
(i) the conditional path is uniquely defined by the
initial state; (4.56)
(ii) since the state vector uniquely determines the rate This formal solution, Eq. (4.56), has a simple
of change vector (.~ 0, O)conditional paths cannot geometric interpretation in terms of expected mass and
cross; and conditional tubes. Let So be the surface in state space that
(iii) the state vector changes in time and physical space encloses a (6 + a)-dimensional volume ¥o. At the time
on scales characteristic of the larger scale turbulent to, the quantity
motions.
While the behavior offluid particles and conditional
particles are quite different, their (one-point) statistics o
(4.57)
are identical. This is simply because in each case the
evolution for the mass density function ~ is Eq. (4.8). represents, the expectation of the mass within the
Thus, for a given flow, if initially (at time to) the particular region of state space ¥o: that is, m(to) is the
conditional particles are distributed in state space expected mass in ¥o at time t o.
identically to the fluid particles, then the conditional In the augmented state space (V-~k-_x-t), the condi-
and fluid particle distributions remain identical at tional tube (associated with ¥o) is defined to be the
future times. surface formed by all the conditional paths that at t = t o
For conditional particles, the transition density is
ft.(V, ¢/, x; ttV0,~o, Xo)= 3(_y_.-0")~(~- ~)5(x- i_),
(4.51)
since, by definition, (_0,0~,i_) is the state at time t of the v(t)
conditional particle that had the state (Y-o,~o, Xo) at
time t o. Thus, from Eq. (4.39), the mass density function
at time t is determined by its value at time t o and by the
conditional paths:
pass through the surface So. Since, by definition, the :(Y_o, 0o, Xo; to) ~ :N(Vo,~k0,X_o; to)
tube is everywhere tangential to conditional paths, a N
conditional particle cannot cross from inside to outside - A m ~ ~(V_o-U(O"')
n=|
the tube or vice versa. A conditional tube is sketched on
Fig. 4.4. Because x_and (V_,~k)are each represented by a x 5(~Lo-~b~n))&(Xo-_X~). (4.63)
single coordinate, the surface So appears as a closed Each particle represents a mass Am and (at time to ) (U~ ~,
curve, and the volume ¥o appears as a two-dimensional ~(O"),x~ )) is the state of the nth particle. Replacing ,~ by
area. ~-N on the right-hand side of Eq. (4.52) yields
At the later time t > to, the conditional tube occupies
the volume ¥(t) in state space, see Fig. 4.4. The expected :(y_,~,x_; t)
mass in ~(t) is
m,t,=ff;,~,,,.~(V,~,x_;t)dVd~dx_. (4.58,
Am ~,
n=l fff
t
~(-Y-o-- U---(o"))~(~Lo- ~b(o"))~fx-o-X-(on))
stochastic particles whose evolution is simply com- FZG.4.5. A sample of the Poisson.process U*(t).
puted and in which the pdf evolves in the same way
as the pdf of fluid particles.
We consider two types of stochastic processes. An evolution equation for f * ( V ; 0 - - t h e pdf of
Poisson processes form the basis of particle interaction U*(t)--is now derived. Because U* is a discontinuous
models (Section 5.3); and diffusion processes form the function of time, the methods of derivation used in
basis for Lanoevin models (Section 5.5). Sections 3.5 and 4.3 cannot be employed. However the
At time t, the state of a stochastic particle is denoted evolution equation is readily derived from the
by (_U_*(t), ~b*(t), x*(t)). This is a (6+a)-dimensional transition density through the relation
state vector that corresponds to a point in state ~ace.
The state of the particle evolves according to a f*(V; t+fit) = ~f*(Vo; t)fo,(V; t I Vo) dVo,
w
stochastic prescription, and the corresponding point (4.70)
moves--not necessarily continuously--in the aug-
mented state space (V, ~,, x, t). (cf. Eq. 4.39). The transition density for the Poisson
In order to examine Poisson and diffusion processes process, corresponding to Eq. (4.68), is
it is sufficient to consider a single (scalar) state property. J~,(v; tl Vo) = (1 -fit/z)fi(v- v o) + (fit/z)o(vI v o, t).
Let U*(t) be the state property at time t and let f*(V; t)
(4.71)
be the corresponding pdf. The stochastic process U*(t)
can be defined either in terms of the increment Substituting forJ~ t in Eq. (4.70) yields
A~,U*(t) -= U*(t+6t)- U*(t), (4.67) f*(V; t +fit) = (1 -&/~)f*(V; t)+ (fit/~)
or in terms of t he transition density f a ( V; t I Vo). This is
the probability density of the event U*(t+6t) = V x ff*(Vo;t)g(VlVo, t)dVo. (4.72)
conditional upon U * (t) = Vo. In both cases we consider
the limit as the (positive) time interval, fit tends to zero. Hence in the limit as at tends to zero we obtain the
(Note that A~, is the forward-difference operator.) evolution equation
For a Poisson process, the increment is: a/,(v; t)
= _I lf,(Vo; t)g(V[ Vo, t) dVo - f * ( V ; t)/r.
with probability 1 - fit~z: AotU*(t ) = 0, at z
(4.73)
with probability 6t/z : Af, U*(t) = U°(t)- U*(t),
It may be seen that although U*(t) evolves
(4.68)
stochastically and discontinuously, its pdf f*(V;t)
where z(t) is a specified time scale and U°(t) is a random evolves deterministically and smoothly (provided that
variable with a specified conditional pdfo(V I Vo, t). neither f*(V; to) nor 9(V] Vo, t) is pathological).
A sample of such a process is shown on Fig. 4.5. The The usefulness of the Poisson process is discussed
conditional pdf in this example is below, but now we turn our attention to diffusion
processes. A necessary preliminary is to describe the
g(V, Vo, t ) = fi ('V - 9 Vo) ., (4.69) Weiner process.
Let the time interval from t = 0 to t = T be divided
and the time scale z is taken to be constant. It may be into N equal subintervals of duration at = T/N, and let
seen from the figure that U*(t) is constant except at a ¢~,1 (n = 1, 2 ..... N) denote N independent standard-
finite number of points where it changes abruptly. In ized normal random variables; thus
this example, the value of U* is reduced by 10 ~o at each
(~.1) = 0, (4.74)
such change. The time interval between abrupt changes
is a random variable: the probability density of the time and
interval being At is r - 1e-a,/~ (see Ref. 55). (~.~,,) = 6.,.. (4.75)
Pdf methods for turbulent flows 151
0.25 I
W(ln)
O
e
-0.25
_,.o
-0.50
I
0 0.5 1.0
; I I I
t
0 1.0
F1G. 4.6. A sample of the function W(t.). t
and, in the case being considered, 9n, is Gaussian with to diffuse in V-space. (The diffusion process Eq. (4.81)
mean D( Vo, t )6t and variance B( Vo, t )6t. causes the pdf to diffuse in V-space. This should not be
Either from first principles or by combining Eqs confused with gradient-diffusion models of turbulent
(4.70) and (4.84) (with Vo = V - A V ) we obtain transport which cause diffusion in physical space.)
For the particular case in which B is uniform and D is
f*(V; t + 60 = f f * ( V - AV; t)O6,(AVl V - AV, t) d(AV). linear in V,
The right-hand side can be re-expressed as a Taylor the general diffusion process (Eq. 4.81) reduces to
series: A6,U*(t ) = G(t)U*(t)6t + [B(t)] t/2A6,W,. (4.91)
This is the Langevin equation. Originally proposed s ~to
f*(V;t+6t)=f{f*(V;t)Ont(AV, V,t)
model the velocity of a particle undergoing Brownian
motion, the Langevin equation and its generalizations
- AV O(f*g6') have been widely studied.73- 7s
OV
We now consider, in general terms, the modelling of a
1 2 , ) physical process by a stochastic process. Let U(t) be a
tAV~20 (f*gn,) ~d(AV), (4.86)
+~, • OV2 ... physical quantity (e.g. one component of velocity) and
let A(t) (a random variable) be its rate of change. The pdf
where f *96, is written for f * (V; t )06, (A V[ V, t ). Now the of U(t)-f,(V; 0--evolves according to
derivatives and f * can be removed from the integral,
and the remaining terms can be identified as conditional Of,(V; t) _ O
moments of An, U*(t): Ot OI,; [a(V, t)f.(V; t)], (4.92)
(4.87)
a(V, t) - (A(t)l U(t) = V). (4.93)
For a Poisson process, U*(t) is a discontinuous
From Eqs (4.82-83) it may be seen that the first and function of time, and for a diffusion process it is
second moments are of order 6t while higher moments continuous but not differentiable. Clearly then, neither
are of smaller order.t Thus, to first order in 6t, of these stochastic processes provides a good direct
model oftbe physical process U(t ). But the pdf's of U * (t)
f*(V; t + 60 = f*(V; t ) - - ~ [f*(V; t)D(V, t)bt] and U(t) can evolve identically and hence f*(V; t) can
be a perfect model off, W; t). The conditions that have
to be satisfied for this to be the case can be deduced by
+~ ~ [f*(V; t)B(V, t)bt], comparing Eqs (4.73), (4.88) and (4.92). For the Poisson
process, the time scale ~ and the pdf0 must be such that
and hence in the limit as 6t tends to zero we obtain the
evolution equation for f * :
Of*(V;t) 0
. . . . [f*(V; t)O(V, t)]
0t 0V xo(VlVo, t)d dV V,t)]. (4.94)
1 02
+ 5 ~V5 [ f * ( v ; t)B(V,t)]. (4.88) For the diffusion process, the functions D and B must be
such that
The evolution equation for the pdf in a diffusion
process, Eq. (4.88), is called the Fokker-Planck equa- 1
a(V,t)= D(V,t)-~[f,(V; t)]_lO_J_~[fu(V;t)B(V,t)].
tion and has found wide application in many
fields. 73-76 The functions D(V, t) and B(V, t) are called (4.95)
the coefficients of drift and diffusion. If D is uniform,
And of course in both cases the initial conditions
then its effect is to cause the pdfto movein V-space at the
f~(V; to) andf*(V; to) must be the same.
speed D. If B is uniform (and D is zero) then Eq. (4.88)
At the end of the last sub-section a computationally
reduces to the unsteady one-dimensional heat conduc-
feasible deterministic method of solving the joint pelf
tion equation:
equation was outlined. In the present context the
Of* 1 B ozf* method is to approximate the initial pdf f,(V; t0) by a
Ot = 2 ~ " (4.89) large number of conditional particles in V-space:
From this it may be seen tfiat the term in B causes the pdf 1 N
f.(V; to) ~ -- ~ 6 ( V - O("~(to)). (4.96)
Nn=i
t These conditions on the moments are sufficient for Eq.
(4.88) to follow. The infinitesimal increment A6tU*(t) does It was supposed that a(V,t) could be modelled as a
not have to be Gaussian. simply computed function, and hence the evolution of
Pdf methods for turbulent flows 153
ff~,~v(y_,~h,x_;t)dVd~=<p(x_,t)>,(4.107)
(4.101)
Here, M~(x, t), Gsk(X,t)and B(x, t) are specified func- and
tions; ~ is an isotropic Weiner process so that
<A$t(Wi)tA,~t(W j)t> = 6t611; (4.102) ff ~(V_, ~b,x; t) [p(~b)l- XdVd~ = 1, (4.108)
We now ask: starting from a consistent initial con- conditions are satisfied if, and only if,
dition ~*(V_,~O,X;to), what conditions must be
<p(~[x_, t])) = q(x, t). (4.114)
satisfied by a modelled pdf equation in order that #'*
remains a valid mass density function? This ques- Hence proposition (ii).
tion is answered by establishing the following The terms to be modelled in the evolution equation
propositions. for ,~* represent transport in V - ~ space. Conse-
quently, when any modelled evolution equation for
(i) Any model that can be expressed in terms of the
,,at, is integrated over all V and ~b the modelled terms
evolution of the discrete mass density function
vanish leaving:
~-N satisfies the realizability condition, Eq.
(4.106).
(ii) The consistency condition, Eq. (4.107), and the
normalization condition, Eq. (4.108), are equi-
atLf f
valent (one implies the other). + ~-~x~ ~'*(V, ~0,x_; t)V~dV d~ = 0. (4.115)
(iii) The satisfaction of the mean continuity equation
a<p> a[<p>Oj Evaluating the integrals using Eqs (4.111-i 12) yields
-- ¢- - = O, (4.109)
at ax~ aq+ ~
-~- ~ x (qU~)=o, (4.116)
is a necessary and sufficient condition for the
satisfaction of the consistency condition. or
(iv) The mean continuity equation is satisfied for all 13 aO ,
time if, and only if, the mean pressure satisfies a 13--~tn q = - ax-----[' (4.117)
Poisson equation, Eq. (4.129).
where
Thus, if the model can be expressed in terms of the
evolution of the discrete mass density function, and if I3 a ÷0iaUx~ (4.118)
the mean pressure is correctly determined (by Eq. 13t - at
4.129), then the modelled mass density function # ' * is Rather than assuming the satisfaction of the mean
valid (i.e. it satisfies Eqs 4.106-108). continuity equation (Eq. 4.109), we define the function
The discrete representation of the mass density
X(~, t) by
function, Eq. (3.76), is a positive quantity (Am) multi-
plied by the sum of delta function locations moving in
<p>z(x_,
a<p>e [<P>O']
t) - -Ti- ax~ (4.119)
state space. But irrespective of the delta functions'
locations (i.e. irrespective of the modelling) the delta Then X -- 0 is a necessary and sufficient condition for
functions are non-negative and hence proposition (i) the continuity equation to be satisfied. Obtaining a 0 /
is established. Thus in pdf methods, realizability is ax~ from this equation and substituting into Eq.
guaranteed in a simple, natural manner. (4.117) yields:
Rather than assuming Eq. (4.107), we define
131nq 13In <p>
13~ = 13~ Z. (4.120)
q(x,t)-ff.*(V_,g,,x;t)dVd~, (4.110)
Since q and <p> are initially equal (for all x), then it is
and then define obvious from Eq. (4.120) that they remain equal if and
f(v,~;x_.t) - ,~*(v_,~,x_;t)/q(x,t). (4.111) only if ~ = 0. Thus proposition (iii) is established.
The satisfaction of the mean continuity equation for
Since f is non-negative and integrates to unity, it is a all time is equivalent to the satisfaction of
joint pdf. Density weighted means are defined (at any
x, t) by a_~_~= 0, (4.121)
~t
ff (4.112) with the initial condition Z(x_,to) = 0. Differentiating
Eq. (4.120) with respect to time we obtain
These are consistent definitions that assume Eq.
(4.106) but not Eqs (4.107-108). az a2 O~a__ a
Now with Q(_U_,~) = [p(q~)] - ~, Eq. (4.112) yields a--[=a-[i { < p > - q } + ax, ~{<P>-q}
+OOi a
~T ~ ~<P>-q) (4.122)
Suppose that at time t the consistency condition
=ff[PtrD]-t~*(v_Y.,qL)dVd~q. (<p> = q) and the continuity equation (X = 0) are
satisfied. Then the last term in Eq. (4.122) is clearly
(4.113)
zero, and so also is the next to last term. This follows
By comparing this equation with Eqs (4.107-108), we since (for the case considered) Eq. (4.120) yields a/at
clearly see that the consistency and normalization (<p> - q ) = o. Thus in order to satisfy Eq. (4.121) and
Pdf methods for turbulent flows 155
hence the continuity equation we require To summarize this development: if, and only if, the
02 mean pressure satisfies Eq. (4.129) then, in turn, Eqs
at----~- { < p ) - q } = 0. (4.123) (4.123), (4.121) and the mean continuity equation, Eq.
(4.109) are satisfied, thus establishing proposition (iv).
We now show that this equation is satisfied if, and The starting point for this derivation of the Poisson
only if, the mean pressure satisfies a Poisson equation, equation for ( p ) is the general model for a stochastic
(Eq. 4.129). particle, Eq. (4.124). The result is valid even if U* is
For a fluid particle with state U+(0, ~b+(t), x+(t), not a differentiable function of time. For the more
the velocity evolves by (see Eq. 3.3) familiar but less general case of fluid particles, the
same equation is readily derived. From Eq. (3.3) we
aU; )_~ {ap &o~
at = -P@+ 7xj Ox,j r + a r have
apUj i_a__~ c3(p> FpAO ' (4.130)
Thus in a small time interval fit, the velocity increment
at ax i (pU~U j) = Ox~
A,,U ÷ due to the mean pressure gradient is
_ &p(~+ )-i [V<p>]x+. where
We consider, then, the general model for the PA o =_O"cij ap' +PgJ" (4.131)
velocity increment of a stochastic particle: ax~ axj
A~tU*(t) = -- 3tp(~*)- l[V(p>]xo +g_a,. (This redefinition of A ° is, for the case considered,
(4.124) consistent with definition (4.126).) The Poisson
equation, Eq. (4.129) is obtained by taking the mean
The first terra on the right-hand side represents the of Eq. (4.130), differentiating with respect to x j, and
effect of the mean pressure gradient. The random substituting
function ~ , can depend upon the state variables U*(t), a a 02<p)
~*(t), x_*(t) and time. The corresponding Eulerian axj at (pUj) = Or2 , (4.132)
mean momentum equation is obtained by deriving the
appropriate equation for F*(V_, ~k,x; t), multiplying by which is obtained from the continuity equation.
Vj, and integrating over all V and ~. The result is Finally, we note that the mean continuity equation,
Eq. (4.109), and the Poisson equation, Eq. (4.129), are
0
0-7(qC) = -Tx, ~
(qU,U)
q a(p)
<p> Oxj i_q,7to kinematic equations. That is, they hold at each time t
independent of the past or future. For a constant-
(4.125) density Newtonian fluid this is obvious because the
whereS" equations reduce to
lim {<p~,>/&}.
~°(x,t) - ( p ) - ' (4.126) V .<U> - 0, (4.133)
bt~O
and
From Eq. (4.116) we obtain
aq 2 0 0 V2(p) = - p
a~<U~U~) (4.134)
&2 .= axj dt (qO fl. (4.127) axi,gxj
But in variable-density flow, the occurrence of a< p )/d t
Adding 02(p)/at 2 t0 both sides and using Eq. (4.125)
and d2<p>/at 2 in Eqs (4.109) and (4.129) suggests the
to substitute for O/at(qOg) yields
contrary. However, the time derivatives of <p) can be
72 ~.2(p) 02(qU'-~.
Uj) re-expressed solely in terms of the fields at time t.
?t----~[ ( P ) - q } = Ot2 ~xiax j From Eqs (3.20) and (3.21) we obtain
ap a
0 ( q d(p)'~+ ~__~_.(q~O).
. (4.128) ~- = ~- p(~E~ t])
Oxj ~ axj / Ox~
In order to satisfy Eq. (4.123), the right-hand side of
Eq. (4.128) must be zero. For the case considered (in -- L=(~) ~ t ~
which [ ( p ) - q ] , but not necessarily its temporal
derivatives, is zero), this condition leads to the = L,@){-V,a~, 1 aJ_~7
-~ &, ~s,@)},
Poisson equation
a'<p> a2<p> a:<pU~U~> 0(<p>71 °) (4.135)
CXja-Y.j Ot2 ~XiOXj OXj where
(4.129)
L=(~k) = ~ p(~). (4.136)
f It may be seen that in order for the mean momentum to Each quantity on the right-hand-side of Eq. (4.135)
evolve continuously, the limit lim~t~0 (~,)/& must exist.
This does not imply that lim~r,o~t/fit exists: indeed this can be evaluated from the fields U(x_,t) and ~(x_,tt
limit exists for neither Poisson nor diffusion processes. independent of their rates of change. By the same
156 S.B. PoPE
method an expression for d2p/dt 2 can be derived, and Then the corresponding mass density functions ~ *
hence it may be seen that a(p)/dt and dZ(p)/dt 2 can and f f will also have the same evolution. To solve the
be determined from the dependent variables at a single evolution equation for ~ * directly would be a pro-
time. hibitively difficult computational task. But it is
(The conclusion that the pressure is determined straightforward to compute the evolution of a large
kinematically stems from the assumption that the number of stochastic particles which, through the
density is independent of pressure. Without this discrete representation Eq. (4.98), approximate the
assumption there would be an acoustic pressure field mass density function if*.
that is not kinematically determined.) The mass density function ~ satisfies realizability,
normalization and consistency conditions, Eqs
4.8. Summary (4.106-108). The modelled mass density function if*
also satisfies these conditions provided that
We have considered several different systems of
(i) the model can be expressed in terms of the
particles. Theflu/d particle originating from x_o at time
evolution of the discrete mass density function:
t o has the state U+(x_o,t), q~+(x_o,t), x+ x(xo,t), which
and
evolves according to Eq. (4.19). Fluid particle paths
(ii) the mean pressure is determined by the Poisson
are sketched on Fig. 4.2.
equation, Eq. (4.129).
The Lagrangian conditional joint pdf fLV(Y_.,~,X;
tlV_o,@o,X_o) is the joint pdf of the fluid particle
state (_U_+,@*,x+) at time t, conditional upon its
5. MODELLING
state being V(_Yo,¢o,~) at time t o. This is the tran-
sition density for turbulent reactive flows: the mass In a turbulent reactive flow, the evolution equation
density function at time t, ,~(y_,~,x_;t), is equal to for the joint p d f f ( V , ~ ; x, t) is (see Eq. 3.109):
the mass-probability-weighted integral offL over all
initial states, Eq. (4.24). ,~f
Conditional particles evolve deterministically with
the same pdf as fluid particles. From the initial state
(_V_o,~o,X0) at time to, the state (O,0~.,~_) of a con- + Lp(~)gi--~xi). -~+-~ [p(¢)S,(~)f]
ditional particle evolves according to Eq. (4.49). The
rate of change of state of a conditional particle is the ~u ~P' v, ,yj •
conditional expectation of the rate of change of state
of fluid particles with the same state. The solution to (5.1)
the joint pdf equation can be formally written in terms
of conditional particle states, Eqs (4.52) and (4.56). The mean pressure (p) is obtained from the Poisson
Many different systems of particles evolve with the equation, (Eq. 4.129), and p(~k) and _S(~) are known
same pdf. The essence of the whole approach is to functions. Thus all the terms on the left-hand side of
construct a system of stochastic particles whose evolu- Eq. (5.1) are in closed form. The three conditional
tion is simply computed and in which the pdf evolves expectations containing zu, P' and J~ need to be
in the same way as the pdf of fluid particles. The modelled while the remaining terms are known.
stochastic particle originating from x_o at time t o has Before considering the terms to be modelled, we
the state (U*,@*,x*) with the corresponding pdf emphasize that no modelling is needed for the terms
fL*(v_, t, x; t). pertaining to reaction, the mean pressure gradient,
In a Poisson process, the state of a stochastic buoyancy, or transport in physical space.
particle is constant except at a finite number of time- In this section, models for the three conditional
points where it changes abruptly; see, for example, expectations are presented. The emphasis is on the
Fig. 4.5. For a diffusion process, in the small time form of the models, their qualitative performance, and
interval fit, the change of state of a stochastic particle how they affect the solution procedure.
has two components: a deterministic component of In Section 5.1, the general principles that guide the
order fit, and a random component with zero mean modelling are outlined. In order to demonstrate the
and standard deviation of order (6t) t/2. The state qualitative features of different types of models, in
variables are continuous but non-differentiable func- Section 5.2, deterministic, particle-interaction, and
tions of time: see, for example, Fig. 4.7. Langevin models are presented for the effect of
Equations (4.99-101) provide an example of a com- molecular diffusion on the pdf f,(~) of a single com-
bined Poisson and diffusion process. The correspond- position. A combined deterministic and particle-inter-
ing pdf equation for fL*, Eq. (4.103), shows that the action model for the velocity joint pdf f,(V) is
Poisson process gives rise to integrals over state space, presented in Sections 5.3 and 5.4; and the generalized
whereas the diffusion process leads to a term corre- Langevin model for f,(V) is described in Section 5.5.
sponding to diffusion of the pdf in state space. In Section 5.6 the models for f~(¢) and fw(V) are
The task of modelling is to devise a stochastic combined and extended to apply to the joint pdf
process such that the pdf fL*of the stochastic particles f(V,~). The models presented in Sections 5.2-5.6 are
evolves in the same way as the pdffL of fluid particles. for inert, constant-density, high-Reynolds-number,
Pdf methods for turbulent flows 157
homogeneous turbulence. The development of more structs, is invariant under a change of units and under
accurate and general models is an active area of a change of coordinate system. Principles (i) and (ii)
current and future research which is discussed in guarantee that the model equations also have these
Section 5.7. properties. Dimensional consistency simply requires
For the homogeneous flows considered in Sections that the exact and modelled terms have the same
5.2-5.6, the joint pdff(V, ~,; x, t) is found to be a joint dimensions. Coordinate system independence is
normal distribution. 62 The aim of the modelling is, guaranteed provided that the exact and modelled
therefore, to produce Gaussian pdf's whose first and terms can be written as Cartesian tensors with the
second moments evolve correctly. same suffices.
The joint pdf f(V, ¢; x_,t) contains no information The principle of Gallilean invariance states that (in
about the time or length scales of the turbulent Newtonian mechanics) the equations of motion are
fluctuations: such information must be supplied. All invariant under a change of inertial frame. Conse-
the models presented involve a turbulent time scale quently, under such a change, exact and modelled
~(x_,t) defined by terms must transform in the same way.
Schumann 77 introduced the ¢ealizability principle
"C = k / e . , (5.2)
into turbulence modelling and it has subsequently
where k(x_,t) is the turbulent kinetic energy been used by several authors (e.g. Ref. 11). In fact the
ideas introduced by Schumann can be made more
k = 5(uiu,>
1 = f f ~ ( V , - ( U , ) ) ( V , - ( U , ) )f dV dd/, precise by distinguishing between three different prin-
ciples: weak realizability; strong realizability ; and the
(5.3) accessibility of extreme states. These principles are
now described and illustrated.
and e, is the rate of dissipation of k,
The weak realizability principle states that if a
e=l~'i~dUJX)/p (5.4, physical quantity (q, say) satisfies an inequality (e.g.
~xl I I " q > 0), then the value of the quantity obtaincdfrom the
model equations should satisfy the same inequality.
(Here, and until Section 5.7, constant density is
Examples of such inequalities are
assumed.) Since k is known as a function off, the time
scale T can be obtained by solving a modelled trans- ~:(y_,~)/> 0, (5.5)
port equation for e,.~o Alternatively, in simple flows,
(or the length scale kX/2T) can be specified directly. and
There is further discussion concerning the determina- (ulu 1) >1 O, (5.6)
tion ofz in Section 5.7.3.
where u - U - ( U ) .
Equation (5.5) is the principal weak realizability
5.1. Guiding Principles condition that the mass density function (or
equivalently the joint pdf) has to satisfy. If Eq. (5.5) is
The modelling process consists of replacing exact satisfied, then all weak rcalizability conditions applic-
but unknown quantities in the joint pdf equation with able to moments (e.g. Eq. 5.6) are also satisfied. As is
approximations in terms of known quantities. For pointed out in Section 4.7, the discrete representation
each of the exact quantities to be modelled (and for of the mass density function satisfies Eq. (5.5), and
the pdf equation itself) several quite general hence any model that can be expressed in terms of its
properties can be deduced, usually by examining the evolution satisfies the weak realizability condition. All
effects of various transformations. The modelling is the models presented below satisfy this condition.
guided by the requirement that the modelled Another weak realizability condition to be satisfied by
quantities have the same properties as their exact the mass density function is the boundedness of com-
counterparts. positions, principle (vi). This is discussed separately.
The six principles that have guided the modelling The strong re,alizability condition is concerned with
presented here are: behavior of physical quantities in extreme states. If the
(i) dimensional consistency, physical quantity q(t) satisfies the inequality
(ii) coordinate system independence,
q >/0, (5.7)
(iii) Gallilean invariance,
(iv) realizability, then, by definition, q = 0 is an extreme state. Now if,
(v) linearity and independence of conserved passive at some time t 1, q attains its extreme value (i.e.
scalars, and q(q) = 0) then its rate of change at t I must also be
(vi) boundedness of compositions. zero--for if not, either q will be negative at the next
instant of time, or, contrary to assumption, q is not a
The velocity U~ef (at a reference point and time) in a differentiable function of time. Equation (5.7) then
flow can be expressed in various units (e.g. m/sec, ft/hr implies
etc.), and the reference point can be expressed in
implies
various coordinate systems. But the physical process (Oq) =0. (5.8)
(i.e. the flow), being oblivious of these human con- - t #=0
158 S.B. Pope
In general, the stron9 realizability principle is that the tion equations must be homogeneous (i.e. the same
rate of change of a physical quantity in an extreme state scalar suffices must appear in each term, including any
is zero. repeated suffices).
Suppose that the evolution of q is modelled by the In pdf models, the linearity and independence con-
equation ditions are simply stated in terms of the scalar incre-
dq ment. If the modelled mass density function
d--t = R(q[t], rl't]), (5.9) Jc*(V, ~, x; t) is represented by N stochastic particles
with the nth having the composition 05"~")(t), then the
where r is some other physical quantity, and the increment
specific model is defined by the choice of the function ,(n)
A6,05*~")(t) -- 05~ (t+6t)-05~,(n) (t), (5.15)
R. If q(t) = 0, then the strong realizability principle
requires must be a linear function of 05"~"~ (n = 1, 2..... N),
independent of any other scalar property (e.g.
g(O,r[t]) = 0. (5.10)
(05~05#)). The models presented below satisfy this con-
But consider a model for which dition.
As discussed in Section 3.2, composition variables
R(O,r[t]) > 0. (5.11) are usually bounded. For example, if 05~ is a species
In this case the extreme state q(t)= 0 cannot be mass fraction, then
reached (except as the initial condition) and so the 0 ~< 05, ~< 1. (5.16)
strong realizability principle Eq. (5.8) is not violated,
but it becomes mute. Thus we conclude that the strong Consequently there is an allowed region of com-
realizability condition is not violated by a model for position space corresponding to possible values of 4>.
which Outside the allowed region the joint p d f f ( ~ ~0; x, t) is
zero. Clearly a modelled pdf equation should preserve
R(0, r[t]) I> 0. (5.12) this property.
We introduce the principle of the accessibility of
extreme states, accordin 9 to which a model equation 5.2. Scalar Dissipation
should allow the extreme states to be reached. Equation
(5.10) is then a necessary condition for this principle to In order to examine the qualitative performance of
be satisfied. But, unlike the realizability principles, linear deterministic models, particle-interaction
there is no fundamental reason why we should models, and Langevin models, we consider the effect
demand that the accessibility principle be satisfied. of molecular diffusion on the pdf of a conserved
The models presented here conform to Eq. (5.12) passive scalar. This allows general conclusions to be
rather than (5.10). Thus the strong realizability condi- drawn (Section 5.2.5) about the use of these models in
tion is not violated but the extreme states may be pdf methods.
inaccessible. The extreme states generally considered 5.2.1. Exact equations
are two-dimensional turbulence)1.7a and the perfect
correlation of the velocity and scalar fields.t1"79 Since We consider the simple case of the evolution of the
neither of these states is likely to exist in the turbulent pdf f~ (if; t) of a single conserved passive scalar 05(x, t)
reactive flows being considered, their accessibility is in constant-density homogeneous turbulence. There
most likely not an important consideration. are no mean gradients (of ( U ) or (05)) and the
The fifth and sixth guiding principles are concerned coordinate system is chosen so that the mean velocity
with the modelling of the scalars 05(_x,t). In a reactive is zero.
flow each scalar may have a different source S~(05) and Before examining the behavior of the pdf, we con-
a different molecular transport term. But the modelled sider the evolution of the mean (05) and the variance
pdf equation should be applicable to the simpler case (05,2). Assuming simple gradient diffusion, with F
of 05 being a set of conserved passive scalars with the being the constant diffusion coefficient, the molecular
same diffusivities: that is, flux of 05 is
plying Eq. (5.18) by 4} and taking the mean: The behavior of the model is best understood in terms
of the corresponding equation for a conditional
1 d<4}'2>
2 dt = - Q,' (5.20) particle:
d,~ 1
where the scalar dissipation is --dt* = -~C,(~-<4}>). (5.31)
0%
% = (F/p) \c3x i d x i / "
(5.21) In composition space (0-space) the conditional
particle moves towards the mean <4}> at a rate pro-
Since % is positive, it is evident that the variance (4},2) portional to its distance (in 0-space) from the mean
decays. <4}>. Thus, as time proceeds, the conditional paths
Just as z = k/e is the decay time scale of the velocity converge to the location ~ = <4}>. The constant of
fluctuations, r¢~ --- ½<4},2>/~ is the decay time scale proportionality ½C, is chosen to yield the correct
of the scalar fluctuations. The determination of e~ is decay rate of the variance.
discussed in Section 5.7.3. For the moment we adopt This model is attractive in its simplicity, and it is
Spalding's suggestion sl that z and z~ are propor- straightforward to verify that the modelled pdf
tional: equation admits the Gaussian solution Eq. (5.27) as it
z~ = z/C~, (5.22) should. But in general its qualitative behavior is incor-
rect. s2 From the arbitrary initial condition
where the empirical constant C, is taken to be 2.0.
f(l~; 0) = (¢'2>o 1/29([Ip - <4}>](4}'2>o ,/2),
Thus,
(5.32)
e~ = ½C~<4}'2>/z. (5.23)
(where # is an arbitrary standardized pdf) the solution
Defining the non-dimensional time t* by to the modelled Ixlf equation is
dt* = dt/z, (5.24) f(~b; t) = (4},2> -1/2g([-~ _ <4}>]<4},2>- 1/2).
the equation for the variance (Eq. 5.20) becomes (5.33)
d<¢'2> (The mean <4}> remains constant and the variance
dr* = -C~<{b'2>' (5.25) <4},2) decays according to Eq. 5.26.) As is readily seen,
the model predicts that the shape of the pdf remains
which, with the initial condition of (~'2)o at t* = 0, unchanged during decay, and consequently, from an
has the solution arbitrary initial pdf, there is no relaxation to a
(¢,2> = (4},2>o exp ( - C¢,t*). (5.26) Gaussian distribution. This incorrect behaviour might
be expected since the model contains no information
If the pdf of 4}, f(~b; t), is Gaussian then it is com- about the shape of the distribution--only the mean
pletely determined by the (constant) mean (4}> and <4}> appears in Eq. (5.30).
the variance (4},2> : In order for arbitrary pdf's to relax, the model must
f,(~) = (2r~<#2 >)- Inexp( _½[qj _ <4}>]2/<4},2>). contain information about the shape of the distribu-
tion. Such models have been proposed by Pope, 24
(5.27) Janicka et al. 2s and Dopazo. s3 In each case the model
A satisfactory modelled pdf equation should admit contains functions of the Ixlf integrated over com-
this Gaussian pdf as a solution. position space. The nonlinear and integral nature of
The evolution equation for f,(~b; t) is obtained from the resulting pdf equation, prohibits analytical solu-
the equation for f(V__,~k; x, t) (Eq. 3.109) by integrating tions. Numerical solutions can be obtained, but only
over velocity space and invoking the conditions of for one-dimensional (and possibly, two-dimensional)
constant density and statistical homogeneity: composition spaces. For flows with many species, and
hence a composition space of large dimension, the
computational work needed to perform the integra-
tion over ~,-space is prohibitive. 32 Fortunately, the
or same result can be obtained by computationally-
~fo
a---~= e [f*<(I'/p)V24}tO>]"
a6 (5.29)
efficient stochastic models.
5.2.3. Particle-interaction model
It may be seen that the evolution of the pdf de-
Consider the discrete representation in which the
pends entirely upon the conditional expectation
pdff~(¢,) is represented by N delta functions:
((F/p)V2O[~> which is to be modelled.
1 N
5.2.2. Deterministic model f~*Ntff; t) -= ~- ~ 6(~-4}*~"~(t)). (5.34)
nml
Dopazo 33 suggested the following deterministic
The discrete pdf evolves by the N stochastic particles
model:
4}*~'~moving in ~-space.
1 We now describe a stochastic mixing model (similar
({F/p)V2¢l~}>=-~C,(~-<4}>)/z. (5.30)
to a Poisson process) that simulates scalar dissipation.
160 S.B. POPE
f l N
+ ft)> - = EJV_ + ft)
-- ~b**"~(t )] }. (5.41)
(5.42)
Thus the model correctly leaves the mean <~b>
unaffected. 0.0 ~ ' ~I ~ 1 I ~
Since the mean is constant, a change in the variance 0.0 J.O 2.0 5.0
~0
<~b'2> is the same as a change in <~b2>, In the time
FIG. 5.2. Standardized pdf's f~*(¢) against ¢: . . . . . .
interval fit this is
Gaussian; standard stochastic mixing model;
improved stochastic mixing model. (f~*(~b) is sym-
metric about ¢, -- 0: it is shown for ~ >/0 only.)
=--1 E{ 2N1[(~*ln)(t-I-&)]z_ ~ [q~,~.~(t)]~}
N n= n=l ferent from a Gaussian pdf. In particular the flatness
(5.43) factor <~),4>/<~),2>2 for the mixing model's pdf is
infinite whereas it is equal to 3 for a Gaussian. Pope 8s
The only contribution to the right-hand side is from has developed an improved stochastic model that
the particles p and q in the event that they mix. The produces pdf's that are closer to Gaussian. Figure 5.2
probability of this event is &/%. Thus shows the pdf's for the standard mixing model and for
fit • the improved model compared with a Gaussian.
A~,<4~'2>=~-~ E{Eq~ ~>(t+ft)] +[¢b*~q~(t+ft)] ~ Stochastic mixing models are readily extended to
apply to a set of o scalars, ~ = Of1, ~b2..... ~,. The
- [~*~,~(t)] ~ _ [4,*~,~(t)] ~} joint pdf f,(~k;t) is represented by N stochastic
particles ( ~ ' ~ , n = 1, 2..... N), and the mixing occurs
= C , & E{2[½~b,~,~(t)+½~,~,~(t)]~
T by these particles moving in the a-dimensional com-
position space. For the simple stochastic model
-- [4,*(P)(t)] ~ -- [q~*(q)(t)] ~ } described, two particles (p and q) are selected at
random (in the same way as for a single scalar), and
= c , ft E{-½[~*~'~(t)]'-½[~*~,~(t)] ~
~r mixing occurs by:
+ 4~**'~(t)4~**~(t)}. (5.44) _~*~'}(t+ ft) = ½[q~*~(t)+ 4>*~q~It)],
The second step follows from the definitions of ~N and n = p or n = q, (5.48)
dp*~(t+&). Since 4~*¢~ is an element selected at
random from the ensemble, we have dp*{"}(t + f t ) = q~*{"~(t), n --k P and n ~ q. (5.49)
E [ ~ , ~ ] ~ = <~2> = <~b,~>+<q~>~, (5.45) Figure 5.3 illustrates the mixing process given by Eq.
+[B<~'2>/~]t/2fls, W v (5.52)
Here G and B are constants to be determined (B > 0),
and 14:,is a Weiner process. Thus the first term on the
right-hand side of (5.52) represents a deterministic
change in the composition of the stochastic particle;
while the second term represents a random change of
mean zero and variance B< 4),2 > &/~.
Corresponding to this Langevi n model, the evolu-
tion for the pdff~*(~b; t) is (of. Eq. 4.88)
, ~32¢* 0
c3f~ d . .4_~B/,.h,2., v j ,
& . = -~--~ [f~ G ( ~ - < 4 ) > ) ] _ 2 "~" : a@2
(5.53) (b)
sional case considered, the Langevin equation could the momentum equation (Eq. 3.3) becomes
be modified to guarantee boundedness. But for the
general case, such modifications would be prohibi- dui 6uj 0uj 0p' (5.61 )
tively complicated.
5.2.5. Conclusion (The mean pressure is uniform and, since the density is
constant, there is no buoyancy effect.) The Reynolds-
From the preceding examination of deterministic, stress equation is obtained by multiplying Eq. (5.61)
particle-interaction, and Langevin models, we can by Uk, adding the same equation with j and k com-
draw conclusions about their use in pdf methods. muted, and taking the mean. The result is
Because of their simplicity, linear deterministic
models (e.g. Eq. 5.30) are appealing, especially from ~(ujuk) ~(utujuk) = U(ukV2uj + ujV2uk )
a computational viewpoint. Since they do not cause P~ + P c3xl
the pdf shape to relax, they cannot be used alone. But / ap', ap'\
they can be used in conjunction with other models. A - \u, (5.62)
linear deterministic model is used to model part of the
pressure term (Section 5.4). Finally, making use of the fact that in homogeneous
For the case considered (scalar dissipation) the turbulence the spatial gradients of mean quantities
Langevin model is, in general, inapplicable because it ((u~ujuD, (uju~) and (u@')) are zero, we can write the
violates the principle of composition boundedness. Of Reynolds-stress equation as
the models described, only the particle interaction
model is satisfactory in all respects. (The simple model d
P "~ (UjUk) = --Pgjk + Pjk, (5.63)
described is unsatisfactory in that the pdf shapes
obtained are far from Gaussian, but the improved
where the dissipation tensor is
mixing models 85 are satisfactory.) In the next sub-
section particle-interaction models for the velocity t~ /Ouj Ou~\
joint pdf are described. ~jk=--2p t~xi-~X~), (5.64)
Although the Langevin model is inapplicable to
scalars, it is a good model for the velocities (which are and the pressure-rate-of-strain correlation is
not bounded). A generalized Langevin model for the / ,/auj Ou~\
joint pdf of velocity is presented in Section 5.5. PSk=--\p t~-~Xk+-~Xs)/. (5.65)
5.3. Energy Decay and the Return-to-lsotropy Of course, the Reynolds-stress equation can also be
derived from the joint pdf equation. This is achieved
We now turn our att,~tion to the joint pdf of the by multiplying the equation for f(_y,~;x_,t), Eq.
velocities fu(V;t) for constant-density homogeneous (3.109), by VjVk, integrating over V-q/ space and
turbulence with no mean velocity gradients. A good invoking the assumptions of homogeneity, etc.
approximation to this flow is the turbulence generated The decay of the turbulent kinetic energy
by a uniform stream passing through a grid. In a 1
coordinate system moving with the mean flow k = ~(uiui), (5.66)
velocity, the two principal observations are that the
turbulent kinetic energy decays, s6 and that the is due solely to the dissipation: contracting each side
Reynolds stresses tend towards isotropy, s~ of the Reynolds-stress equation yields
The evolution equation for the Reynolds stresses dk
(U~Uk) can be derived from the continuity and -- = -e, (5.67)
dt
momentum equations (Eqs 3.2-3.3). Since the density
is constant, the continuity equation (Eq. 3.2) becomes where the dissipation rate of turbulent kinetic energy
is
= O. (5.57) 1 ~_(Ou~Ouj;
g.x i
e= -~e~s= P \~xi ~3xil" (5.68)
By decomposing U__into its mean (in this case zero)
and fluctuation u There is no contribution from the pressure-rate-of-
strain because, by virtue of the continuity equation,
U(_x,t) = (U(x,t)) +u(_x.t), (5.58) Ps~ is zero. It may be noted that e is a positive quantity.
we obtain It is assumed that e is known, either from a
modelled transport equation or through the turbulent
?u~_= O, (5.59) time scale z - k/e. In terms of the normalized time
~'x i (dt* = dr~r), the kinetic energy equation is
With the assumption of a Newtonian fluid dk
- - = - k. (5.69)
dt*
TiJ = l ~\ / C.~j
w - - + ~('%i
- / /. {5.60)
The net rate of change of the Reynolds stresses is
164 S.B. POPE
often expressed as, not be linear in bjk as Rotta's model implies, Eq. (5.76).
d<ulu~> 2 (This is discussed more in Section 5.5.) Nevertheless,
dt = --'~.6jk'l-Rjk, (5.70) Rotta's model provides a reasonable representation of
the experimental results--at least with C 2 being a
where function of the anisotropy and Reynolds number.
Rjk E PflJp-
[2]
~,.ik---~l~6jk , (5.71)
For the flow considered, the evolution equation for
the joint pdf of velocity fu (V; t) is
This tensor has zero trace and each component is zero (5.80)
if the Reynolds stresses are isotropic. A scalar measure The first term on the right-hand side causes the kinetic
of the anisotropy is energy to decay without the anisotropy tensor being
b~ - b(~b~, (5.75) affected: the stochastic mixing model produces this
effect. The second term causes the anisotropy tensor
which is zero for isotropy and positive otherwise. to decay without the kinetic energy being affected: the
Equations (5.73-75) yield stochastic reorientation model produces this effect.
db~ The stochastic mixing model is directly analogous
dt* = -C2bjk' (5.76) to that used for the scalar dissipation. The joint pdf
f~_(V;t) is represented by the discrete pdf f*N
and which is composed of N delta functions:
db~ , 2 1 N
dr* = - 2 C 2 b " ' (5.77) L*u(V; t) --- ~- ~ ,~(V-U*~"I(t)). (5.81)
n=l
V3 d
- ~ (uju~) = - Cu(UlUk), (5.91 )
_U*(P)(t+f t) =__
U ( ~ )(t ) + 1-~11A U ( ~ ) (),
t
FIG. 5.5. Effect of mixing on the stochastic particles U *(p)
and U*(q): © before mixing, • after mixing. and (5.93)
|
U*(q)(t + ft ) -- ~_(~)(t) - 2 ~ZA U(Pq)(t),
Figure 5.5 shows, in velocity space, the effect of mixing
on the stochastic particles p and q, Eq. (5.83). After where ~/is a random vector uniformly distributed on
mixing, both particles lie half-way between their initial the unit sphere (that is, !/is a unit vector of random
locations. orientation). In this process, which is illustrated on
The momentum (per unit mass) M (p~) associated Fig. 5.6, neither the average velocity ~(~) nor the
with the particles p and q is, simply: velocity difference AU (n) is changed. Consequently,
neither the momentum nor the kinetic energy is
M (~) = U*(P)+U_ *(q) = 2 ~ (~), (5.84)
affected.
where the average velocity U (p~)is In Section 5.3.1 the stochastic reorientation model
1 ,(p) ,(q)
is analyzed to show that its effect on the Reynolds
D__(p~)_--~LU_ + U ]. (5.85) stresses is
d(ujuk) ,{ 2 }
Equation (5.83) shows that the average velocity is dt* = - C 2 (ujulc)-3 k f j k " (5.94)
unaffected by the mixing process
When the stochastic mixing model and the stochastic
O(P~)(t + fit) - _ lJ(P4)(t).
- (5.86)
reorientation model are used simultaneously, the net
The kinetic energy (per unit mass) associated with the effect is the sum of the two effects (Eqs 5.91 and 5.94).
particles is Thus, the stochastic models cause the Reynolds
stresses to evolve according to Rotta's model (Eq.
K (p~) -= 1 U * ( P ) ' U * ( p ) + I u *(q) "U *(~). (5.87) 5.80).
2~ -- 2-- --
In terms of the average velocity ~(P~) and the velocity
difference
A U (pq) = IU *(p)- U__*(~)[, (5.88)
the kinetic energy can be re-expressed as
(5.90)
Thus, the reduction of the particle separation in
velocity space causes a decrease in kinetic energy.
The type of analysis used in Section 5.2.3. can be FIG. 5.6. Effect of stochastic reorientation showing that the
used to show that the effect of the stochastic mixing average velocity ~ and the velocity difference Am are un-
model on the Reynolds stresses is affected: © before reorientation, • after reorientation.
166 S.B. POPE
The reorientation process, Eq. (5.93), is directly Similarly, for j :z k, the conditional expectation
analogous to a collision between two Maxwellian E(q/lqk ) is zero since, for given qk (k ,==j} and z, the
molecules. Before the collision, the two molecules (p events qj = z and qj = - z are equally likely. Hence.
and q) have velocities U_*°'~ and U *~. They collide,
E(qfllk) = O. j ~= k. (5.101)
and their new velocities U*~)(t + fit) and U*~q)(t+ fit)
are such that both momentum and energy are con- By definition, the vector ~/has unit length:
served. In view of this analogy, it is not surprising that
qjqj "~- E(qjrlj) = E O h q l ~'- q 2 q 2 "b q3r]3) = I.
the stochastic reorientation model causes the pdf to
(5.102)
relax to a Gaussian (Maxwellian) distribution.
And, since by symmetry E071q1), E(v/2v/z) and E(v/zvt3)
5.3.1. Analysis of the stochastic reorientation model are equal, we obtain
The effect of the stochastic reorientation model 1
(Eqs 5.92-93) on the Reynolds stresses is determined E(qfl/k) = ~, j = k. (5.103)
in this subsection.
Equation (5.101) and (5.103) can be written in the
In the time interval 6t, with probability 6t/zR, the
common form
velocities of particles p and q change: otherwise the
velocities are constant. Thus the change in <UjUR) is 1
E(qjrlk ) = "~ 6jk, (5.104)
6t I E{U~n}(t +gt)U~P)(t +6t)
Returning to Eq. (5.96), since ~ is independent of the
velocities, the second term on the right-hand side is
+ U*~q~(t+ 6t)U~<~(t + 60
zero:
_ U.t~. U ' ~ - U.~ u * ~ } ,
(5.95)
where, here and below, U *~"~ is written for U*~")(t). (5.105)
From the definition of U*~P}(t+6t) and U*~}(t+6t),
Similarly the third term is zero. The final term is
Eq. (5.93), we obtain
E{ U*~m(t + 6t )U~P~(t + 60} E {~ r/jq,[AU°'q'] 2}
the mean velocity gradient is uniform) we obtain Thus, the effect of the rapid pressure is to move
conditional particles in velocity space at a rate pro-
V 2 ?p(1) = ~(U:) ~2u~ . (5.114) portional to their distance from the mean velocity
~xj 2p Ox~OxrOx~
(_O~-(U)) and proportional to the mean velocity
This equation can be solved using Green's theorem to gradient. Since the mean velocity is unaffected, the net
yield an expression for the conditional rapid pressure motion in each direction (in V-space) is zero: and,
gradient in terms of the two-point conditional expec- since the kinetic energy is unaffected, the mean-square
tation of velocity: outward motion from V = ( U ) is balanced by the
(gff~)u } -2pC(~ U`) mean-square inward motion.
- - = v = B.~:(y_), As with the other linear deterministic models, this
\ (xj I- cx,,
model does not change the shape of the distribution,
(5.115) only its moments. Thus a joint normal distribution
168 S.B. Povw:
where there are several suggestions for the tensor A OPO':' - 2 p ~ B , ~ j + I ~ U +l~2', (5.129)
(Launder et al.,2° Lumley and Khajeh-Nouri 9° and
Lin and Wolfshteing!). Comparing these two where
equations, we see that A and C are related by
l f f f , R10:u"(~')dy,
r oy: oyj -
(5.130)
Ajkt,n = (2/k)Cq~j(ukuq), (5.125) B~ = -'~n
and
1 !
I~t) =-~1ffs°2P"tY)lds, Oy~On r (5.131)
Cq,,ej = -~k(UkU~)- Ajkem. (5.126)
and
From this last equation, Pope 72 evaluated the tensor
C corresponding to Launder et al.'s model for A. I~2~ = -4--~ 1 ffs ep",(y) a
aye--- 0n dS. (5.132)
For many flows the quantitative performance of
This solution follows directly from Green's second
Launder et al.'s model may be adequate. But their
identity (see, for example, Ref. 92).
model--and all the others mentioned--do not
We now take the expectation of Eq. (5.129) con-
guarantee (weak) realizability. In the pdf model, the
ditional on u(x_) = v, and then take the limit as R tends
(weak) realizability principle imposes no conditions
to infinity. In this process, both surface integrals
on C--except that it be finite. But, if the turbulence
vanish. For I}2~,for example, we have
becomes two-dimensional, the Reynolds stress tensor
becomes singular and then the right-hand side of Eq. = v>__ _1 f f ?p"'(y)lu(x)-- v; 0r-'
(5.126) becomes infinite, unless A satisfies a particular 4n J J s \ dyi ]-- -/an dS
condition. Current models for A do not satisfy this
condition and hence are badly behaved when the = - 4"-~ (Pt)(x-+r)]u(x-) = v)-ffn-n dS'
turbulence becomes two-dimensional. In view of this,
it would be preferable to model C directly. The corre- (5.133)
sponding model for A deduced from Eq. (5.125) would
then guarantee realizability. Now as R, and hence r, becomes infinite, pa~(x+r)
becomes independent of u(x_):
5.4.1. Solution of the Poisson equation lim (#U(x+r)lu(x) = v) = (p")) = 0.
r~ct2
An exact solution for the conditional rapid pressure (5.134)
gradient is obtained in terms of the two-point condi-
Consequently the derivative of (p"~(x+_r)lu(x)=_v)
tional expectation, Eqs (5.115-116). The solution
also tends to zero, yielding
follows from a straightforward application of Green's
theorem, but some care is needed to ensure proper lim (l}2~l_u(x) = v) = 0. (5.135)
R~oo
behavior at the origin and at infinity.
Let x and y = x + r be points within a regular region The same argument yields the same result for I~u.
R with bounding surface S, Fig. 5.7. The length of the The conditional expectation of the volume integral,
Pdf methods for turbulent flows 169
l ffs!~n(u,~+t)lu(x-)=v-)dS
4n
1 fffffR1 ~32
47r r t3rrt3rj
x (u,,(x_+_r)lu(x) = v)dr. (5.136) +~-n~ (u=(x +r)lu(x)=v.)--~-ndS.
In the limit as R tends to infinity, this equation defines (5.145)
the third-order tensor B,ej(v),
The first term on the right-hand side is just v,,, while,
B,,¢/(v_) = l,im (B,~,j [u(x) = v) as r tends to infinity, the other terms vanish. Hence we
R~
obtain
1 f l ~2
= -- 4--~ _J r ~ (urn(x-+ [)[-u(x-) = v) dr, B~f(v) = lim (B~flu(x) = v__)= vm. (5.146t
R~oo
(5.137)
where ~dr_ represents the volume integral over the 5.5. l_,angevin Model
whole physical space. The convergence of the integral In the previous two sections a model for the evolu-
is not in doubt since, as r tends to infinity, tion of the velocity joint pdf fu is described. The
(u~(x_+r)lu(x_) = v)) tends to zero more rapidly than dissipation and return-to-isotropy terms are modelled
i.-1
by the stochastic mixing and reorientation models
The conditional expectations of all the integrals in (Section 5.3), and a linear deterministic model is used
Eq. (5.129) have now been evaluated to yield the for the rapid pressure (Section 5.4). In this section an
required solution alternative model for the evolution offu is described.
This is the generalized Langevin model--a generaliza-
u_(x_)= v = - 2 p ~-~-~-_ B ~ q ~ ) , tion of Eq. (4.91) (see also Eq. 5.52). As in the previous
(5.138) sections, we consider constant-density homogeneous
turbulence with uniform mean velocity gradients.
where B,ej is given by Eq. (5.137). This solution is In terms of the velocity increment of a stochastic
useful because it shows explicitly the role of the mean particle,
velocity gradient and because several properties of
Bmq can be deduced. It is evident from Eq. (5.137) that An,U__*(t) = U*(t+ft)-U*(t), (5.147)
the result is unaffected by reversing the order of the generalized Langevin model is
differentiation: hence,
6t ~<p>
Bmej = Bmje. (5.139) AaU* = - - +-Go(U*-<Uj>)6t
p dx~
The continuity equation, Eq. (5.109), at the point y is +BI/2A~,(W~),, (5.148)
(~Um(Y__) CUm(X_"~r ) where W, is an isotropic Weiner process:
. . . . o, (5.14o)
~y',~ t3r~,
(Aa(Wi),As,(Wj),) = 6t~ u. (5.149)
and hence
The second-order tensor G and the positive scalar B
~r---~(u~,~-i-_r)l u(x) = v) = 0. (5.141) define the particular model, and their determination is
discussed below. Both G and B can depend upon time
Thus, in Eq. (5.137) the integrand vanishes i f / o r j is but are independent of U* and x (in homogeneous
contracted with m: turbulence). The first term on the right-hand side of
Eq. (5.148) defines the effect of the mean pressure
Bm,.j = 0, (5.142) gradient on the stochastic particle to be the same as
and that on a fluid particle.
With U* evolving according to the Langevin
B,e,~ = 0. (5.143) equation (Eq. 5.148), the Eulerian pdf f*v(y__;x_,t)
(Eq. 5.143 also follows from Eqs 5.139 and 5.142). evolves by (of. Eq. 4.105),
The final property of Bm/j is slightly more difficult to ~*+ VOW* = 1 0 ( p ) Ofu* 8
obtain. Contracting / andj in Eq. (5.136) yields
c3t c3xi p t3xi c~V/
(U(x,t)) is not uniform). It is useful, therefore, to modelled equation yield the correct energy decay rate
consider g(v; 0 - - t h e Eulerian joint pdf of the velocity (Eq. 5.67). Thus, for isotropic turbulence (with
fluctuations: (U)=0), the Langevin equation, (Eq. 5.148),
becomes
g(v; t) - f * ( V ; x_,t), (5.151)
where A,,U~' =-(~+~Co)(6t/z)U*+(Coe)'.'2A~,(Wi)v
v - V - (U(~, t)). (5.152) (5,160)
When the evolution equation for g is derived from Eqs Anand and Pope .4 used this model equation to
(5.150-152), the spatial derivative and mean pressure calculate the diffusion of heat behind a line source in
terms vanish, leafing grid turbulence. Excellent agreement with the avail-
Og ~O(Us) G,~ 0 [ g v ] ' 1 _ t~:g able experimental data was obtained for C o ~ 2.1.
0-7 = - 2
+ - ' - OvtOv~" Since, according to Kolmogorov's hypotheses, Co is a
universal constant, we adopt this value for the general
(5.153) model.
This equation is qualitatively correct in that it We now consider modelling G~ifor the more general
admits joint normal solutions. And, as noted in case of homogeneous anisotropic turbulence with uni-
Section 5.2.4, the term in B causes arbitrary initial form mean velocity gradients. At this level of closure,
distributions to relax to Gaussians (for B > 0). G can be a function of z, (ului) and O(Ui)/Oxj. The
The coefficient B is determined by requiring that (in most general model for G contains far more scalar
a limited sense) the Langevin equation be a direct coefficients than could possibly be determined with
model of fluid particle behavior. Consider a time confidence. Haworth and Pope 94 considered a simpler
interval s that is much less than ~, but much greater model for G that is linear in both the Reynolds
than the Kolmogorov time scale %: stresses and the mean velocity gradients:
their values are irrelevant and can be set arbitrarily. the universal constant Co has th~ value 2.1. A model
The requirement that the model yields the correct for the tensor G~j that is linear in both the anisotropy
kinetic energy evolution leads to the condition: tensor and the mean velocity gradients has been
proposed (Eqs 5.161-162). For homogeneous
turbulence, the resulting pdf equation yields a joint
0~1~ -(~"~-~Co)-~x2bijbji-T('~l-l-fl2 "~ f13 "J¢'~~l*b) kl
normal distribution with the Reynolds stress
evolution closely matching experimental observa-
x O(Uk) -w*bubi/O(Uk) (5.165) tions.
Ox~ Oxr '
The values o f T 6 = - - 3.09 and y~ = - 1.28 then follow where the positive coefficient Cy depends upon the
from Eqs (5.167) and (5.169). details of the model.
To summarize: for consistency with Kolmogorov's Since both (~b'2) and (u~ui) decay, it is inevitable
scaling laws, the coefficient B in the Langevin that (ui~) also decays. It is more informative to study
equation, (Eq. 5.148), is determined to be C0e, where the evolution of the correlation coefficient r.
172 S.B. POPE
2 ,2 I N
q - A ~*(n)~-- r/'*(nbh*(n)~
This definition can be understood by noting that, if
the coordinate system is chosen such that the scalar 1 N
flux (which is a vector) is in the xt-direction, then Eq.
frT*(n)A ,4~*(n)._c.:h*(n)A TT*(nH
(5.174) becomes
(5.179)
r2 = (Ul4p')I/{(UtUt) (~b'2)} (5.175)
Now A6,q~*~"~is zero except, with probability 6t/z u, for
(cf. Eq. 2.110). If k, (~,z) and (u~q~) decay according the two elements p and q. If mixing takes place, then
to Eqs (5.69, 5.25 and 5.173), then it follows that r
evolves by A A*(p) = __1 ~,b,~p~_ d),(¢) ]
~t~', 2 ....... (5.180)
dr
-- = -C,r, (5.176)
dr* and similarly for ^ ,~*~) Thus, using Eq. (5.160) to
substitute for Ao,U *~"', Eq. (5.179) becomes
where
6t
A~,(ud,,) = - - - E [ U , *~P~(4, .* ~. - .~ *. ~ q
C, = C f - ~ (1C ~ + 1 ). (5.177) 2N¢ N
*(q} *(¢) *(p,
+u, (4~, -4~, )]
Sirivat and Warhaft 9~ provide experimental data
for the correlation coefficient r in decaying grid turbu- + ~._ 4,.*~, - ;+=Co or, -
lence. The data show that r decays, but a unique decay n=l T
3 1 ~<3 1
~ C o - ~ C ~ <~C r ..~ 4 C o + ~ C , , (5.184) d(uluj) = -Cu,~(uiuj) , (5.189)
dr*
f~
.
1 ./,/'au~ aF~\
\]
o %
O~ I- / ~UsO~<l \1
Fig. 5.8. Pdf of indicator ~br showing a delta function of
magnitude (1 -~,)at ~0;.= 0.
O
Ox Ol,~ [ f (p' l V. ~k)]. (5.196) sometimes non-turbulent, t°° Consider a high
J )
Reynolds number jet which transports a conserved
The principal influence ofinhomogeneity is to cause passive scalar 0r(x_, t), where 7 = cr + 1. At the jet exit
convective transport in physical space. This effect 4~ is positive, while in the non-turbulent, irrotational
appears in closed form in the joint pdf equation fluid remote from the jet q~r is zero. As the Reynolds
through the term VjOf/Ox~. In contrast, in second- number tends to infinity, the condition ~b.~(x,t ) > 0
order closures, this term gives rise to the correlations can be used as an indicator of turbulent fluid. That is,
<UiUjUk>,<UiUj~)'~>t and (uiqY,~b~) which are generally if ~b~(~,t)> 0, the fluid is in turbulent motion, if
modelled by gradient diffusion. It is emphasized that, qbr(_x,t) = 0, the fluid is in irrotational, non-turbulent
in the joint pdf equation, the convective term is in motion. The intermittency factor ~,(~,t) is defined as
closed form and therefore no .gradient diffusion the probability of the fluid at (x_,t) being turbulent. In
models are needed. terms of the indicator ~br, the intermittency factor is
The first term on the right-hand side of Eq. (5.196)
represents transport in physical space due to y(x,t) = P(c~(x_,tl > 0). (5.198)
molecular diffusion, and (at high Reynolds number) is The pdf of 4)r, f , , (~07; x, t), is zero for ~O< 0, it has a
usually negligible. Nevertheless, the term appears in delta function of magnitude (1 -?(x~ t)) at ~O~= 0, and
closed form and can be retained without additional it has a continuous distribution for ~b > 0, see Fig. 5.8.
modelling being required. Integration over the delta function and over the con-
The next three terms represent the effects of tinuous distribution yields
dissipation and pressure fluctuations that have been
modelled in Sections 5.3-6. Since dissipation and (to a f + f,~,(~by;x,t)d~b 7 = l-'~(x,t), (5.199)
lesser extent) the slow pressure are associated with the
smaller turbulent scales, it is reasonable to assume and
that these processes are unaffected by inhomo-
geneities.
For flows remote from walls, it is assumed that the
rapid-pressure models still apply. An analysis of the
f0 ~ f4, (~Or;x, t)dq/.r = ?(x_,t).
+
rapid pressure rate of strain 99 shows that, to first two parts: .the first f r ( ~ qJ; x, t)is the joint pdf of U
order, departures from homogeneity have no effect. and q~ conditional upon the fluid being turbulent, the
Near walls, however, the velocity gradients and second fNV(Y_,~_;x,t) is conditional on the fluid being
Reynolds stresses vary rapidly. Further, the analysis of non-turbulent:
Section 5.4.1. has to be modified to include surface
f = f i r + ( 1 -Y)fN- (5.201)
integrals at the wall. Consequently, the models (Eqs
5.119 and 5.148) (or at least the tensors C and G) have In terms of f,_~, (V, ~b,~ ; x_,t)--the j oint pdf of ~ q5
to be modified: this is a subject for future work. and ~br--these two conditional pdf's are
The final term in Eq. (5.196) represents transport
due to the fluctuating pressure. Pope 7~ suggested the fr(V_, ~b;x_,t) = f (V_,~; x_,t l ~ > O)
model
1
(p'IV, q~) = -~((utut,)-veve), (5.197)
y0 ~f,¢~ (V, 0 qJ~;x~ t) d~0JT(x_,t)
(5.202)
which is consistent with Lumley's modeP ~ for (p'uj). and
But this model has not been tested. fs(V,~; x_,t ) = f ( V , ~ ; x_,tl~by=0)
5.7.2. Intermittency
Near to the edge of boundary layers and free shear
= ;? f.~,(V__,~,O,;x,t)dO,/(1 -~,tx_,t)).
The reason for wanting to discriminate between mining z. But there are two problems. First, the
turbulent and non-turbulent fluids is that their representation of turbulence by a single scale most
behavior is quite different. Consequently, a gain in likely limits the validity of the approach to reasonably
accuracy can be expected if different models are used simple flows? °2 Second, since measurements of e are
for the different states of the fluid. This can be done in scarce and difficult to perform, a modelled transport
two ways. The first way (that followed by Kollmann equation for e cannot be adequately tested. Thus the
and Janicka TM) is to derive and model the transport one-point joint pdf method (in common with k-e and
equations for f r , fN and ~,. The modelling that has been Reynolds-stress models) may suffer from the
discussed so far is appropriate to the turbulent part fr, inaccurate (or at least uncertain)determination of e.
and different modelling can be applied to fN. The rate Scale information can be incorporated by con-
at which non-turbulent fluid becomes turbulent is sidering multi-point pdf's, or the joint pdf of state
determined by the transport equation for 7. variables and their derivatives. Work on these pdf's
The second approach--that used by Pope + a - i s to has been performed by Lundgren, l°a Ievlev, 1°+
solve a single transport equation for Qian, l°s Meyers and O'Brien 1°~ and Pope ?°7 None
f~,(V,~,~Oy;x,t), but to use different modelling of these methods has been applied to inhomogeneous
depending on the value of Or- For+ ~ > 0 the flows. While multipoint pdf methods hold great
modelling appropriate to turbulent fluid is used, while promise for the future, they tie outside the scope of the
for ~,~ = 0 non-turbulent models are used. The rate of present work.
creation of turbulent fluid depends on the flux off~.~ Attention is now turned to the scalar dissipation
away from O r = 0. Thus, rather than solv'~ng and the model, Eq. (5.205). For a single, conserved,
equations for the conditional pdf's f r and fN, the passive scalar ~, C+ can be interpreted as the ratio of
equation for f~__~,is solved using conditional modelling. velocity-to-composition decay time scales:
Pope +3 presented such conditional models and used
C+ = U%, (5.206)
them to make calculations of a self-similar plane jet.
The calculated intermittency factor and conditional where
statistics agree well with the experimental data. But
since several of the conditional model constants were ~+ m ~1 ( ~ t2 )/~,. (5.207)
chosen by reference to these experimental data,
further calculations are needed to assess the univer- By measuring the decay of k and (~b'2) in grid turbu-
sality of the modelling. lence, C+ can be deduced. The measurements of Lin
and Lin 1os and those of Warhaft and Lumley 1o9 show
5.7.3. Dissipation rates that C, is not a universal constant. For given experi-
In the particle-interaction and Langevin models, mental conditions, C+ remains constant as the
rate information enters through the dissipation rate turbulence decays: but, depending upon the initial
and through the turbulent time scale t, conditions, values of C~ from 0.6 to 2.4 have been
observed.
z - kl~. Wartiaft 11o performed an experiment in which the
(Since the kinetic energy k can be determined from the scalar fluctuations were induced differently than in
joint pdf, a knowledge of either z or e is sufficient.) In Refs 108 and 109. Inthis case C+ is found in the range
addition, the scalar dissipation rate 1.2-3.1; and, for each of six configurations investi-
gated, C+ decreased by about 40 % over the length of
~ = (2F/p) ( ~ ~3~b~
~}~3x+/' (5.204) the wind tunnel.
In another experiment performed by Warhaft 111
is implicitly modelled by the stochastic mixing model grid turbulence with scalar fluctuations was passed
to be through an axisymmetric contraction. After the con-
traction C, was found to be in the range 1.9-3.1
e,o = C , ( (o',dp'¢)/z, (5.205)
(depending upon the configuration): C+ then in-
[cf. Eq. 5.51 ). This raises the questions: how can ~ (or creased significantly, nearly doubting by the end of the
e) be determined? Is Eq. (5.205) valid? and; if so, is C¢ tunnel.
a universal constant ? The purpose of this subsection is It is abundantly clear that, with measured values in
to outline the problems raised by these questions. the range 0.6-3.1, C+ is not a universal constant. It
For simple flows, ~(x_,t) can be specified. For would appear to be preferable therefore to abandon
example, Pope +:'+3 assumed z to be uniform across a Eq. (5.205) and instead solve a modelled transport
self-similar plane jet. But for most flows, a general equation for ~,p. Such equations have been
means of determining z(x~t) is required. Since k is proposed--by Newman et al., 112 for example. At this
known in terms off, an obvious method is to solve the level of closure, any modelled equation for ~,p implies
standard turbulence-model equation for e.l° Alterna- that (in decaying isotropic turbulence) the time scale
tively a modelled transport equation for T could be ratio C+ has a unique behavior, s° Thus, Newman et
solved. al.'s model causes C+ to remain at its initial value,
To solve a modelled transport equation for e (or z) consistent with the data of Lin and Lin 1°8 and
is. most likely, the best available method for deter- Warhaft and Lumley. 1°9 But the model is then incon-
176 S.B. POPE
sistent with Warhaft's data. 11°'1~: Worse, the prin- other terms in Eq. (5.208) contains the density
ciple of linearity and independence of conserved explicitly.
passive scalars constrains the form of the modelled The effect of variable density on the conditional
equation for e~p so that a consistent model is incapable expectations is largely unknown. The major effect is
of allowing C, to remain constant. likely to be on the fluctuating pressure p'. The Poisson
The discussion above centers on scalar fluctuations equation for the pressure becomes
in decaying grid turbulence. But for shear flows in
which the scalar and velocity fields share a common
=p~U i~U~ 8p fDU~
history and common boundary conditions, Eq. (5.205)
may be less unrealistic. B6guier et al. ~3 deduced the D (dU,~ t92% (5.209)
value of C a from data of three shear flows: a boundary x,0x/
layer, pipe flow and a plane wake. The value C# = 2.0
fits the data to within 20 % over nearly all of the flows. For a constant-density Newtonian fluid, only the first
Thus, at present, Eq. (5.205) may provide the best term is non-zero, but, it may be seen, additional terms
model for e~B, but further investigations are clearly arise due to density gradients, the velocity divergence
needed. and the shear stresses. Not only are there additional
Finally, we draw attention to the fact that none of influences on p', but p' also affects the pdf in different
the models presented depends upon the molecular ways. For example, the term
transport properties. At high Reynolds number it can (p,0v,;
be assumed H4 that the dissipation processes are ~X i /
controlled by the large scales of the turbulence, inde-
appears as a source in the turbulent kinetic energy
pendent of the viscosity and diffusivity. However,
many flows of interest are at moderate Reynolds equation. (In constant-density flows the divergence of
numbers. It is possible to include a Reynolds number velocity is zero and so pressure fluctuations do not
affect the kinetic energy.)
dependence in the modelling (see, for example, Ref.
11), but this has yet to be done in pdf methods. The effect of variable density on the modelled terms
is a subject f~r future work. It is emphasised, however,
At moderate Reynolds number, the different
that even in variable-density flows the terms per-
molecular diffusivities of different species are known
to have a significant effect in some reactive flows.~l ~ taining to convection, buoyancy, the mean pressure
Also, when the Prandtl or Schmidt numbers are far gradient, and reaction appear in closed form in the
from unity--in liquids, for example--the modelling of joint pdf equation.
the mixing terms may not be realistic. Again, this is a 5.7.5. Laminar flamelets
topic that has yet to be addressed in pdf methods.
In the stochastic mixing model for f#_(~), it is
assumed that the rate of mixing is inversely propor-
5.7.4. Variable density
tional to the turbulent time scale z. This assumption
In the low Mach number flows considered, the (modified by the comments of Section 5.7.3) is valid
density p(~b) can vary significantly due to variations in provided that the steepest gradients--which provide
composition (and enthalpy). In both inert mixing the dominant contribution to (l'V2~b I ~ ) - - a r e caused
experiments and combustion experiments, density by turbulent straining. But rapid reactions can also
variations of a factor of five or more are not produce steep composition gradients. This effect is
uncommon. It is clear, therefore, that the density studied in more detail for an idealised premixed
variations have a significant effect on the flow, and turbulent flame.
that it would be inappropriate to treat them as small Let the single scalar q~ be the progress variable
fluctuations. (normally denoted by c 69) that is zero in the unburnt
In the joint pdfequation (Eq. 3.109) it is remarkable
that the terms pertaining to convection, buoyancy, the
mean pressure gradient, and reaction appear in closed
form irrespective of variation of density in com-
position space. The conditional Lagrangian equation
(cf. Eq. 4.49) corresponding to these terms is p
g = _4;) -
p -~ = r +pS, (5.210)
h(@)
0.5 \ cx~/
where h is the known function given by Eq. (5.217).
We thus reach the remarkable conclusion that for
laminar flamelet combustion the reaction and mixing
terms appear in closed form.
FIG. 5.10. Premixed laminar flame profile e(x 0 against x~. Using this result (Eq. 5.218). Pope and Anand a5
178 S.B. PoPE
have made joint pdf calculations to compare the 6.2. Discrete Representation
properties of premixed flames in flamelet and distri-
buted combustion. We consider the turbulent flow within a three-
dimensional volume of physical space--the solution
domain. At time t, the mass of fluid within the solution
6. S O L U T I O N A L G O R I T H M
domain is M(t). The mass density function
3~'(y_,~, x; t) is represented by N(t) stochastic particles
6.1. Introduction in state space, each particle representing a fixed mass
Throughout the development, the ability to solve Am. At time t, the state of the nth stochastic particle is
the modelled joint pdf equation has been a prime U__*(")(t),~*(")(t), x*("}(t), n = 1, 2..... N(t).
consideration. The joint pdf can be represented com-
putationally by the discrete representation, and its (6.1)
evolution can be computed via stochastic models. In
As time proceeds, the statesof the stochasticparticles
this section an algorithm is outlined to solve the change--some particles may leave the solution
modelled joint pdf equation for an unsteady, variable- domain and some may enter as prescribed by the
density, three-dimensional turbulent reactive flow. boundary conditions. The discrete mass density
Variants Of the algorithm for simpler flows are
function, and the discrete pdf of the stochastic particle
outlined in Section 6.8.
states are given by
In the last section, alternative models are presented.
The solution algorithm is described for the velocities ~¢~(V~b, x_; t) = pt~/)f~(V__, ~b;~ t)
being modelled by the Langevin equation, and the N{t)
scalar dissipation being modelled by the stochastic =am y. ~(v - u *("96 (t - ~ *(">)~x_-x
( *(")).
mixing model. Solution algorithms for other modelled n=|
treated sequentially. In the first fractional step f(V,~0; x_,t) = ( f ~ ( V , ~ ; x_,t)). (6.4)
(Section 6.4), the pdf evolves under the influence of all
processes except stochastic mixing, convection, and It follows that Y~, must satisfy the consistency con-
the mean pressure gradient. Stochastic mixing takes dition
place during the second fractional step which is
described in Section 6.5. In the third fractional step f f <~-~,(v__,~, x; t)> dV de
(Section 6.6), the mean pressure is determined by an
indirect algorithm. Then the joint pdf evolves under
the influence of convection and the mean pressure
(N,, )
= Am.~l 6(x--x*(")[t]) = (p(x_,t)),
gradient.
The algorithm described provides the solution in (6.5)
terms of the discrete representation of the joint pdf. (cf. Eqs 3.82 and 4.107). Equivalently, ~'~ must satisfy
But normally, the information sought is mean quanti- the normalization condition (Eq. 4.108)
ties, such as CI(.~ t), q~(x_,t) or g~(q~(x_,t)). Furthermore,
the mean velocity, the Reynolds stresses, and the mean
ff<~,v(y_,~,x;t)>[p(~,)]-'dVde
velocity gradients appear in the modelled Ixlf
equation and must, therefore, be determined from the
solution. An obvious way to determine means--that
( =
,,,,
Am ~ 6(x--x*(")[t p(q~*(")l-t = 1.
II=l
described in Section 3.4--is to divide physical space
into cells. Then an ensemble average over the particles (6.6)
in a cell approximates a density-weighted mean at the
The pressure algorithm ensures that Eqs (6.5-6) are
cell location, Eq.(3.89). But this method--though con-
satisfied.
ceptually useful--has little merit as a computational
scheme. As described in Section 6.7, the method of
least-squares cubic splines can be used to determine 6.3. Fractional Steps
means from the discrete representation of the joint
pdf. This is a computationally-efficient method that The modelled equation for ~(V_, ~b,x; t) to be solved
reduces the statistical error.
Pdf methods for turbulent flows 179
Before discussing these steps, we first verify that :~(t) 6.4. First Fractional Step
is, as claimed, a first-order approximation to ~'(t).
Using Eqs (6.11-12) to eliminate ~ and ~a~z, Eq. (6.13) Although the first fractional step contains most of the
becomes processes, it is nevertheless the simplest to explain and
180 S.B. POPE
for a time interval At, from the initial condition ~(t). (Clearly At should be chosen to be significantly smaller
This is simply achieved since Eq. (6.19) is the evolution than z.)
equation corresponding to the stochastic system A simple computational algorithm to select particles
is to generate N independent random numbers (oCn~,
A~,U* = g,ft + G,i[ U* - 0 ~]fit + (Co~)1/2A~,(I4I/). n = 1,2,...,N, each uniformly distributed between
a d ) ; = s~(~*)rt, zero and one. If ,
A~tx* = 0, (6.20) o(~)+P (n~ > 1, (6.23)
(of. Eqs 4.99-100 ). Integrating these equafi ons for a time then the nth particle is selected for mixing. (A more
At using the explicit Euler method yields (to first-order efficient, general, and complicated algorithm is given in
in At): Ref. 85.)
Mixing takes place locally in physical space, and this
U*(t + At) = U* + At{g, + Go[U* - 0 ~]} is reflected in the pairing of the selected particles.
+ (CoeAt)l/z~,, Each particle selected is close (in physical space) to
its partner. A simple algorithm to accomplish this
~*[t + At) = G* + atsd4~*), local pairing, is to divide physical space into cells, and
x~'(t ÷ At) = x*, (6.21) to pair particles within each cell.t This introduces a
truncation error of the order of the cell size, but there
where all quantifies on the right-hand side are at time t,
is little computational penalty in making this size very
and ~ is a standardized joint normal random vector.
small (compared to flow length scales).
Thus in the first fraction step, the states of each of the
The pairs of particles mix, as in the homogeneous
N(t) stochastic particles change independently
case, according to Eq. (5.48). This completes the second
according to Eq. (6.21).
fractional step.
The computational work needed to evaluate Eqs
(6.21), depends crucially upon the reaction scheme. For
each particle in an inert constant-density flow, about 6.6. Third Fractional Step: Convection and
forty arithmetic operations ale needed to perform the Mean Pressure Gradient
integration. But for a complicated reaction scheme
In the third fraction step, the equation
involving many species (for example Westbrook and
Dryer 6s) many thousands of operations may be c3~ 0,9v 1 t3(p) ~ "
required to evaluate the sources S~(~*). A computation- at ~-Vj c~xj = p(~k) c3xj ~V2 ' (6.24)
ally efficient algorithm is possible only if the sources _S
is integrated for a time interval At from the initial
can be evaluated efficiently. If the number of com-
condition ¢~2(t) to yield ~ ( t + At). In this subsection we
position variables tr can be reduced to three or less then
describe both the numerical solution of Eq. (6.24) and
S can be tabulated (once) and then 4a operations per
the determination of the mean pressure.
particle are required to obtain the values of S from the
Corresponding to Eq. (6.24), the evolution equations
table. For combustion calculation, the simplified
for stochastic particle properties are:
reaction schemes of Westbrook and Dryer: ~9 are well-
suited to this purpose. dU* - 1
dt = p(~b*[t])[V(P)]~*"" (6.25 k
6.5. Second Fractional Step: Stochastic
Mixku3 Model d~* = O, (6.26)
dt
In the second fractional step the position x_* and and
velocity U* of the stochastic particles are unaltered,
dx_*
while the compositions may change by mixing. = U*(t). (6.27)
The stochastic mixing model is described in Section dt
5.2.3 for the case of homogeneous turbulence. In that The initial conditions--denoted by x~2),U (2), ~(2)--are
case, in the small time interval 6t, the probability of a the properties after the second fractional step. Equa-
pair of particles mixing is tions (6.25-27) are integrated approximately so that the
C¢,N ft/z.
"t"There are several solutions to the problem presented by
Consequently, the probability of the nth particle being having an odd number of particles in a cell--but this is a
selected is computational detail.
Pdf methods for turbulent flows 181
properties after the third fractional step--~b TM, U (3), An elliptic partial differential equation for ( p ) is now
xt3)--are at least a first-order accurate approximation obtained by manipulating Eq. (6.33).
to the exact solution--U*(t+At), q~*(t+At), If there were no mean pressure gradient, then
x_*(t + At).t _x*(t + At) would assume the value
From Eq. (6.26) we obtain
X' -- x (2) +U(2)At. (6.34)
~(s~ = ~b~2)= q~*(t+At). (6.28)
And in general, from Eqs (6.31-32)it follows
Consequently, in this fractional step, the particle's
density remains constant. To aid the notation, we define
x * ( t + A t ) = x ,- ~ A1t 2 v*P(x (2 ))+tP(At a ). (6.35)
the particle's (constant) specific volume by
v* -- 1/p(t~(2)). (6.29) Substituting this expression for x*(t + At) in Eq. (6.33),
and expanding the delta function as a Taylor series in x
The pressure algorithm described below determines
about _x' yields
the mean pressure field to first order. The gradient of this
mean field is denoted by P(x_),
P(x) = V<p(x_,t)> + ¢(At), (6.30) \ z ox~ /
+ O(At s)
and, for the moment, is assumed to be known. Then,
Eq. (6.25) is integrated by 1 2 0
=h(x)+~At ~x<(~, )2P , ( x (2) )6(x--x)>
,
U(3) = U(z)_ Atv*P(x_(2))
= U*(t+At)+d)(At2). (6.31) + (~(At3), (6.36)
Having determined U*(t + At) to first order, x*(t + At) where
can be determined (from Eq. 6.27) to second order: h(x_) _ <v*6(~-x')>. (6.37)
Xt3) _ X_(2)+ 1 At(U(2 ) + U(3)), Since x_(z) approximates x_'with an error of order At, the
z term in _Pcan be re-expressed as
= x*(t + At) + t~(AtS). (6.32)
< (v*)2pl(x.(2))¢~_- x_')> _- <(~,*)2ei(_x(2))~(x-- x_(2))>
It may be seen from Eq. (6.32) that, as with all
+O(At)
Lagrangian methods, convection is treated without
= <(,~,)2~__x<2))>p,~)
reference to a grid, and spatial derivatives do not have to
be evaluated. Consequently the problems of false dif-
+ O(At)
fusion and artificial viscosity encountered in finite-
difference schemes 11s are avoided.
= ?(~) d O ,j) + ¢(At), (6.38)
To summarize, if the mean pressure is known, the
third fractional step consists of determining 4,(a), U TM
where
and x_(a) from Eqs (6.28), (6.31) and (6.32).
In principle, the mean pressure can be determined by 3'(X) -~= <(~*)26(_X--X(2))>. (6.39)
solving the Poisson equation, Eq. (4.129): But the
evaluation of the source terms--especially d2(p )~Or2 - The last step in Eq. (6.38) simply uses the definitions
is computationally impracticable. Instead, an indirect of _P (Eq. 6.30) and 3'(3_)-Substituting this result (Eq.
algorithm is used which results in an elliptic equation for 6.38) into Eq. (6.36) yields
(p). The algorithm is based on an observation that 1 2_~{ 8<P> 3
follows directly from the propositions established in M - ' = h(x)+~At 3'(_x)--~x+-x+
}+O(At ),
Section 4.7: tlae normalization condition (Eq. 4.108 or
6.6) is satisfied if, and only if, the mean pressure satisfies (6.40)
the Poisson equation. We deduce, then, the mean and hence the required elliptic equation for ( p ) is
pressure field that causes the consistency condition to
be satisfied at time t + At.
)~t~l-~x~; = 2[M -~ - h~_)]/At 2 + e(At).
For simplicity (and without loss of generality) we
consider a single particle (i.e. N = 1). Then, with a mass (6.41)
M of fluid in the solution domain, the consistency
condition at time t + At is The equations derived above are used in a five-step
scheme to determine the mean pressure and then to
M<,:*f(x-x*[t+~t])) = 1. (6.33)
perform the third fractional step:
(i) the function 3'~) (Eq. 6.39) is determined (or rather
+ The superscripts (2) and (3) refer to the states after the
second and third fraction steps, not to the second (n = 2) and approximated) from the initial positions x (2'") and
third 07 = 3) particles. Below. we write x_(2'') to denote the specific volumes v *(")of the N stochastic particles;
state of the nth particle after the second fraction step. (ii) for each particle, x'(") is determined from Eq. (6.34 ) ;
182 S.B. POPE
(iii) the function h(x) (Eq. 6.37) is determined from x_'(~) The discrete representation of the p d f f , (¢; x) is
and v *("); 1 N
(iv) Eq. (6,41) is solved to obtain a first-order approxi- f~,~($;x) = ~- ~ 6 ( * - d p ( " ' ) 3 ( x - x ( " ) ) , (6:44)
ll=l
marion to (p(x, t)); and then
(v) Eqs (6.31-32) are solved to obtain x (3'") and where x (") is the nth sample of a uniformly-distributed
U(~.")--approximations to x*(")(t+At) and random variable (0 ~< x (") ~< 1) and ~(") ts
__U*(")(t+ At).
qb(") = ( c~(xt"))) + a~j('), (6.45)
6.7. Determination of Means where ~(") is the nth sample of a standardized normal
random variable. The number of samples N is chosen to
The algorithm described previously provides a be 1000.
solution to the joint pdfequation in terms of the discrete The x-axis is divided into twenty equal-sized cells
representation, Eq. (6.2). For this solution to be useful, a (K = 20). Figure 6.1 shows the ensemble average of
method of determining mean quantities from the for each cell compared with the specified mean, Eq.
discrete representation is required. In order to compare (6,42). Some scatter is evident, but the overall agreement
theory with experiment, it is desirable to determine all is satisfactory: the r.m.s, error is 0.029. The second
the mean quantities that are measured-- the means ( U ) derivative d2(~b)/dx 2 is calculated from the cell
and ( ~ ) ; the second, third and fourth moments; pdf's averages by the three-point central difference. The
f=, (I/1 ; x_,t) and f,, (qG; x_,t); and the joint pdf's of two result, shown on Fig. 6.2, shows erratic behavior, the
variables. (Joint pdf's of more than two variables r.m.s, error being 30.1. Not only is the inaccuracy
cannot readily be presented graphically.) unacceptable, but also errors of this magnitude in d tT//
Not only are mean quantities required as outputs 0x=, for example, when fed back into the solution
from the solution, but they are also needed within the algorithm, would inevitably lead to numerical in-
solution algorithm. In the first fractional step, O, stability.
ÙU/dxj and ul u~' must be determined in order to An alternative method of determining means is least-
evaluate the second-order tensor G O. And in the third squares cubic splines (de Boor12°). A cubic spline is a
fractional step, the functions h~) and ~(~) (Eqs 6.37 and piecewise cubic polynomial which is continuous and
6.39) must be determined as part of the pressure has continuous first and second derivatives. The x-axis
algorithm. is divided into L equal intervals, and within each
In this section, the determination of means is interval the function (i.e. ( $ ) ) is approximated by a
considered by reference to a one-dimensional example. cubic polynomial. Thus there are 4L polynomial coef-
It is shown that the straight-forward method of ficients. At the (L - 1) points between the L intervals, the
approximating means by ensemble averages over cells is function and its first two derivatives are continuous.
hopelessly inaccurate, especially for derivatives and
pdf's. But the method of least-squares cubic splines
provides a more accurate alternative.
The one-dimensional example considered is of a <~>/e
normally-distributed random variable ~b(x) in the
interval 0 ~< x ~< 1. The mean is specified to be 40
(O(x)) = 3x z sin (nx), (6.42)
and the uniform standard deviation is
ZO
a m (~b'2) t/2 = I/4. (6.43)
0 0.5~• • l.O
,¢>
"ZO
I.O
-40
-60 Q--
0.0 ,,~-
i I
o.0 0.5 I .o
X
FIG. 6.1. Quantity (q~(x)) against x: • ensemble average FIG. 6.2. Term d2(ek(x))/dx z against ×: • from central
from 1000samples and 20 cells; exact result. difference of cell averages: exact result.
Pdf methods for turbulent flows 183
f~(~).0t
1.0 ~
FIG. 6.4. Histogram (with interval A~ = 0.25) compared with the pdff~,(~; I/2).
184 S, B. POPE
3.0
2.0
1.0
f
o.o 0.5 t.O t .5
FIG. 6.5. Histogram (with interval A~, = 0.1) compared with the pdff4.(~,; 1/2).
f÷ ok)
2.0
1.0
i/ , , ~'--,.
v
Fro. 6.6. Pdff÷($; 1/2) against ~b: . . . . . . Gaussian; from least-squares cubic splines with 1000
samples.
f¢(~k)
2.0
1.0
FIG. 6.7. Pdff,0k; 1/2) against t#: . . . . . . Gaussian; from least-squares cubic splines with 10,000
samples.
Pdf methods for turbulent flows 185
in qJ between q, = - 1/2 and ~, = 2. It may be seen that The accuracy with which means can be determined
the agreement with the Gaussian is better than for the from the particle properties depends upon the particle
histograms, but it is still not very good. In addition, the number density. It is evident from Eq. (6.50) that near
approximated pdf contains small negative values, thus the axis of symmetry (small rk) the particle number
violating a fundamental property of pdf's. density is relatively low and consequently means cannot
Since f , (~O;x) contains all the one-point statistical be determined accurately. It is desirable to control the
information about 4~(x), it is not surprising that it is particle number density (and hence the accuracy) inde-
difficult to obtain an accurate approximation to the pdf pendently of the coordinates and of the mean fluid
from just 1000 data points. Figure 6.7 shows the density. This car~ be achieved by a system of adjustable
approximation to f,(q,; 1/2) obtained by the cubic- weights: the nth particle with weight W ~"1represents a
spline techniques when the number of data points is mass W{"}Am. The corresponding discrete representa-
increased by a factor of 10 (i.e. N = 10,000). It may be tion of the joint pdfis
seen that the agreement is now satisfactory. Fortun-
,~-* (V__,~b,x; t) = p(~_)f*(V_,~_;x_,t)
ately, satisfactory estimates of simple means (e.g. (4~))
N
can be obtained with far fewer data points.
=Am ~ W~")f(V-U *~"~)
n=l
...- ~ ~1 instantaneousedge
.....,.. b...... ~ - ~ of layer
Uo ~. . . . . ~ ~ 1 ~ j u
U: ---.. --.. ~ --.....,,...__,~,._~. id particle path
xlx2 c ~ -,.---l
LJ x3
FIG. 6.8. Sketch of a two-dimensional mixing layer showing a fluid particle path.
surfaces a, b and c: none entered through the down- algorithm for ./t' differs in three respects. First, the
stream surface d. Consequently, in order to solve the discrete representation is used to approximate ~g rather
j pint pdfequation, boundary conditions are required on than ~'. Consequently each stochastic particle
the surfaces a, b and c, but not on the surface d. An represents a fixed amount of axial momentum rather
algorithm that exploits these observations is now out- than a fixed mass. Second, in each fractional step, the nth
lined. particle evolves for a time
Rather than the mass density function, the dependent
At {n) ~ / ~ I / U ~ (n), (6.58)
variable considered is the axial momentum density
function rather than for a fixed time At. Third, the axial pressure
gradient is assumed to be uniform across the flow and is
~¢t(V~k, xl,x2) =- Vl~,a;(V,~_,xl,x2). (6.53)
determined from the free-stream conditions. The
From the modelled equation for ~ (Eq. 6.8) we readily pressure algorithm described in Section 6.6 is used to
obtain determine the lateral pressure gradient.
This algorithm is clearly inapplicable to flows in
0Jg O~-
which U, is likely to be zero or negative, since then At(")
would be infinite or negative, Eq. (6.58). In addition,
= (P~ +P2 + P ; ) ~ since the truncation error is of order Axl/U*, the
method is most easily applied to flows in which U* is
= (Pt + P2 + P'3)dt/Vt, (6.54)
never very small (compared to a characteristic velocity
where the operators P t and P2 are defined as before difference).
(Section 6.3) while the operator P; corresponds to
lateral convection and the mean pressure gradient: 7. COMPOSITION JOINT PDF
10(p) 0
P3 =- - v~ ~x + p(O) Ox~ ovj" (6.55) The velocity-composition joint pdf f(V_,~; x, t)
contains all the one-point statistical information about
Starting from the given boundary condition at the velocity and compositions. In order to solve the
x ~ = 0, the method calculates ..g at successive axial modelled transport equation for f, the only information
locations separated by a small distance Axe. We define required is the turbulent time scale ~(_x,t) (and, of course,
At(V~) to be the time taken for a particle with constant initial and boundary conditions). An alternative
axial velocity V, to pass from x t to x t +Ax~ : approach that has been used by several authors 25,a7- 36
is to treat the velocity field with a conventional turbu-
At(V,) - A x t / V ,. (6.56)
lence model, and to solve a modelled transport equation
Then, from Eq. (6.54) we obtain for the joint pdf of the compositions. This alternative
approach is described in this section.
¢#(x t + A x , ) = [ I + A t ( V , ) { P t +Pz + P;}]./t'(x,)
Most of the composition pdf calculations have been
+ ~Eat(v,) ~] performed in conjunction with the k-e turbulence
model, t° Modelled transport equations are solved for
= [I + At(1/1)P;] [I + At(Vt)P2] the turbulent kinetic energy k and its rate of dissipation
x El + At(V, )P ~].g (x ~) + CEAt(Vt )2], e. The turbulent time scale • is obtained from
(6.57) = k/~, (7.1)
where I is the identity operator. and a turbulent viscosity/~T is defined by
It may be seen that this equation for ~¢(xt +z~x~) is
#r = (P)C~,k2/e, (7.2)
directly analogous to Eq. (6.14) f o r ff(t+At).
Consequently an algorithm for ~t' directly analogous to where the constant C~, is ascribed the value 0.09. The
that for .'T described in Sections 6.3-6 is possible. The turbulent viscosity is used to determine the Reynolds
Pdf methods for turbulent flows 187
stresses through the isotropic viscosity hypothesis: right-hand side of Eq. (7.9) contain conditional expecta-
tions that have to be modelled. The first term on the
.,, ,,. (dO, doff
right-hand side represents transport in composition
space due to molecular mixing. The stochastic mixing
model (Section 5.2.3) accounts for this process.
+~6u((p) k dO/'~ (7.3)
The final term in Eq. (7.9) represents transport in
+ l~r Oxl /"
physical space due to turbulent velocity fluctuations. In
This is the simplest possible consistent gradient- the velocity-composition joint pdf equation this
diffusion model for momentum transport. The analo- process appears in closed form. But the composition pdf
gous gradient-diffusion model for composition trans- J~ contains no information about the velocities and so
port is, the conditional expectation (u" [~k) has to be modelled.
Most calculations have been performed using the
(p)ui'q~'~' = - Fr dxi (7.4) gradient-diffusion model 24:
where the turbulent diffusion coefficient is (p> (u',' I ~ ) ~ = - r r ~ff. (7.10)
F r = ~r/ao, (7.5)
The composition pdf approach--in which transport
and the turbulent Schmidt number % is taken to be 0.7. equations are solved forf~ (or a~¢), k, ~ and 2 - - has two
If the mean density ( p ~ , t ) ) is known, then the disadvantages compared-to the-velocity-composition
equations for k,e and the mean velocities O form a pdfapproach--in which transport equations are solved
closed set. In this approach, the mean density is deter- for f(y_, ~k; x_,t) (or a~-) and e. First, because of the use of
mined from the solution to the modelled composition the isotropic viscosity hypothesis (Eq. 7.3), the k-e
joint pdf equation. model provides a far less accurate closure for the
velocity field. Second, the turbulent convection off¢ has
to be modelled, whereas that offappearsin closed form.
7.1. Composition Joint Pdf Equation
The assumption of gradient-diffusion transport Eq.
The joint pdf of the compositions q~is f~l~; x, t). The (7.10) is particularly questionable in variable-density
transport equation forf¢ can be derived either from the reactive flows. Nevertheless, for simple free shear flows,
conservation equation for 4~, (following the procedure the k-e model and the gradient-diffusion assumption
of Section 3.5), or, more simply, by integrating the may be reasonably accurate. Then the composition pdf
equation for f(V, ~/,;x_,t) (Eq. 3.109) over velocity space. approach has the advantage that the transport equation
By either method the result is: for #'~ is simpler to solve than that for #'.
While the composition pdf approach is inferior to the
velocity-composition pdf approach, it still retains the
valuable attribute of being able to treat nonlinear
• reactions without approximation. Consequently, it
+ ~-~ [o(~)s,(~)f~_] ~_ . (7.6) avoids the closure problem encountered when mean-
flow or second-order models are applied to reactive
There is some advantage in considering the density- flows.
weighted (Favre)joint pdf ~ , and the composition
mass density function o~ :
7.2. Solution Aloorithm
, ~ (~,_x; t) = (p)f~ (~; x, t) = p(~_)f, (~,; x_,t).
(7.7) In this section we outline a solution algorithm for the
modelled composition joint pdf equation that is analo-
The second term in Eq. (7.6) can be re-expressed as gous to the algorithm for fV(y_,~;x_,t) described in
Section 6. But first, we mention two different methods
p(~) < Ui I~>f¢ = [ [~, + < u',' I~>] <p >f~ that have been used previously. Janicka et al. 25 used a
= rc,+<u;'l~,>]~,. (7.8) finite-difference technique to solve a modelled trans-
Then the joint pdf equation can be written (in terms of port equation for f¢ (~; x 1, x2) in a jet diffusion flame.
the composition mass density function) as For one, or maybe two, composition variables finite-
difference solutions are possible, but, as the number of
variables increases, the computational requirements
become prohibitive. Pope 32 has devised a combined
( [-/laJ~[ \~ q ~ , finite-difference/Monte Carlo method in which the
computational effort increases only linearly with the
number of composition variables. Consequently it can
(7.9) be used 27-32 to solve the equation for the joint pdf of
The first two terms represent the rate of change of ~ many compositions.
following a particle moving with the mean velocity O; The algorithm briefly described here (like that of
the third term represents the effect of reaction. Both Section 6) does not require a finite-difference grid in
these terms are in closed form whereas the terms on the physical space, and so the truncation errors associated
188 S.B. Pop~
The joint pdf equation can also be derived by a stochastic mixing model and the stochastic reorienta-
Lagrangian approach. The Lagrangian conditional tion model. In the stochastic mixing model, pairs of
joint pdf fL (_V,~, x; t[ V o, go, Xo~ is the joint pdf of the particles are randomly selected and their velocities
fluid particle state (U +, ~÷, x_+} at time t, conditional adopt their common mean velocity, Eq. (5.83). In the
upon its state being (Vo,~o, Xo) at time t o. This is the stochastic reorientation model, pairs of particles are
transition density for turbulent reactive flows: the randomly selected and are randomly reorientated in
mass density function at time t is equal to the mass- velocity space (Eq. 5.93). Both energy and momentum
probability-weighted integral of JL over all initial are conserved in this process. The effect of these two
states, Eq. (4.24). models on the Reynolds stresses (Eq. 5.80) is to cause
Many different systems of particles can evolve with decay and return to isotropy in accord with Rotta's
the same pdf as fluid particles. But there is only one model. Mean-velocity gradients give rise to rapid-
such deterministic system. In this system, the N pressure fluctuations. A deterministic model for their
notional particles are called conditional particles and effect (to be used in conjunction with the particle-
have the states (~t"}, ~1"), ~"~; n = 1,2 ..... N). The interaction models) is presented in Eq. (5.122) and
rate of change of state of conditional particles is equal shown to be consistent with Reynolds-stress models,
to the conditional expectation of the rate of change of Eq. (5.126).
state of fluid particles. The trajectories of conditional In the alternative--Langevin--model, the velocity
particles in the augmented state space ( V - ~ - x _ - t U*(t) of a stochastic particle evolves according to a
spacet are called conditional paths. These conditional diffusion process, Eq. (5.148). In the small time
paths define a formal solution to the joint pdf trans- interval fit, U*(t) changes deterministicaily by an
port equation, Eqs (4.52) and (4.56). A physical inter- amount ~tGoU ~, and randomly by amount (Btt)l/2~i
pretation of this solution is provided in Section 4 . 5 - (where ~ is a standardized joint normal random
loosely, probability is transported along conditional vector). For consistency with Kolmogorov's scaling
paths. laws, the coefficient B is determined to be Co~, where
The essence of the whole approach is to construct a Co = 2.1 is a universal constant. A model for the
system of stochastic particles whose evolution is tensor Go has been proposed (Eqs 5.161-162). For
simply computed and in which the pdf evolves in the homogeneous turbulence, the resulting pdf equation
same way as the pdf of fluid particles. Poisson yields a joint normal distribution with the Reynolds-
processes and diffusion processes (described in stress evolution closely matching experimental data.
Section 4.6~ provide the basis for such a stochastic The extension of these models to inhomogeneous,
system. variable-density reactive flows is discussed in Sections
The modelling is guided primarily by the known 5.6 and 5.7.
behavior of homogeneous turbulent flows. In these In Section 6, a solution algorithm is described to
simple flows, the joint pdf f ( V , ~ ; t) adopts "a"joint solve the modelled velocity-composition joint pdf
normal distribution. The aim of the modelling is there- equation for unsteady, three-dimensional, variable-
fore to produce a joint normal distribution whose first density flows. The velocities are modelled by the
and second moments evolve correctly. Langevin equation, and the scalar dissipation by the
For homogeneous turbulence, the joint pdf stochastic mixing model.
f(Y_.~;tl is represented by an ensemble of N The mass density function is represented by N
stochastic particles with states (U*~"~(t), ~*~"~(t); stochastic particles in state space, Eq. (6.2). Given the
n = 1,2 ..... N I. The modelling is performed, not states of the particles at time t, the states at time t + At
directly in the joint pdf equation, but indirectly by are calculated through a sequence of three fractional
prescribing the behavior of the N stochastic particles. steps. In the first fractional step, the velocities and
The primary effect of molecular diffusion on the compositions evolve due to reaction, the Langevin
composition variables ~b is to decrease the variance model and buoyancy, Eq. (6.21). In the second frac-
<~'~05~> while leaving the mean (qS~> unchanged, Eqs tional step, the particle compositions change
(5.50-511. The stochastic mixing model is used to according to the stochastic mixing model. And in the
produce this effect. Pairs of stochastic particles are third fractional step, the particle positions and
randomly selected from the ensemble (at a rate deter- velocities change due to convection and the mean
mined by the turbulent time scale ~) and their com- pressure gradient.
positions ~* adopt their common mean composition, The determination of the mean pressure field is an
Eq. ~5.481. integral part of the third fractional step. The indirect
Alternative models are presented for the effects of algorithm used is based on the observation that the
the fluctuating pressure gradient and viscous dissi- stochastic particle number density in physical space
pation. The first is based on stochastic particle-inter- should be proportional to the mean fluid density. The
action models, and the second on the Langevin mean pressure is determined--as the solution of an
equation. elliptic partial differential equation--by requiring that
With the particle-interaction models, in homo- this condition be satisfied. (Subtle connections
geneous turbulence with no mean-velocity gradients, between the mean pressure, the mean continuity
the decay of turbulence energy and the return to equation, and consistency conditions are discussed in
isotropy of the Reynolds stresses is simulated by the Section 4.7).
190 S.B. POPE
The algorithm provides a solution to the pdf equa- 8.2.2. Advantages of the pdf approach
tion in terms of stochastic particle properties. A con- Since the joint pdf provides a complete one-point
ceptually simple way to obtain mean quantities is to statistical description of the flow field, the pdf
divide physical space into cells, and then to form approach has advantages over other one-point
ensemble averages over the particles in each cell. In closures. The principal advantages are that reaction
Section 6.7 it is shown that this straightforward and convection transport can be treated without
method is hopelessly inaccurate, and better methods approximation, even in variable density flows.
based on cubic splines are described. For constant-density homogeneous flows, the
For simpler flows--one and two-dimensional flows, models for the effects of the fluctuating pressure
self-similar flows, and boundary-layer-type flows-- gradient and for molecular mixing are compatible
variants of the solution algorithm are described with Reynolds-stress models and hence are equally
in Section 6.8. accurate. For inhomogeneous flows, the joint pdf
The composition joint pdf approach is discussed in equation can be expected to be more accurate since
Section 7. In this approach, the mean velocity and additional models are required in the Reynolds-stress
turbulence fields are determined using a standard equations. Thus even for inert, constant-density flows.
turbulence model and a modelled transport equation joint pdf calculations can be expected to be more
is solved for the joint pdf of the compositions accurate than Reynolds-stress calculations. But the
f#-(~;x_, t). This approach is inferior to the velocity- pdf approach has the additional advantage of being
composition approach in that a turbulence model is able to handle, without approximation, nonlinear
required and the turbulent transport off#_ has to be reactions and the effect of variable density on con-
modelled--usually by gradient diffusion, Neverthe- vection.
less, nonlinear reactions can still be handled without
approximation, and the approach may be adequate 8.2.3. Model improvements
for simple flows. A solution algorithm for the
modelled composition transport equation is de- Several aspects of the modelling need to be refined,
scribed in Section 7.2. but we identify two areas in particular need of further
study.
The treatment of scalar dissipation by the improved
stochastic mixing is only partially satisfactory.
8.2. Discussion Prandtl or Schmidt number effects are not accounted
In the following four subsections we discuss: the for nor can the model be justified when reaction times
inherent limitations of one-point closures; the are of the order of the Kolmogorov time scale (or
advantages of the pdf approach compared to other smaller).
one-point closures; aspects of the modelling in need of As discussed in Section 5.7.4, the large density
improvement; and the computational requirements of variations encountered in flows of interest undoubt-
the solution algorithm. edly have a significant influence on the modelled
terms. But little is known about the nature and mag-
8.2.1. Limitations of one-point closures nitude of variable-density effects.
The joint pdf method--in common with most other In addressing these and other modelling questions,
turbulence modelsl°'lt--is a one-point closure. The we expect that direct numerical simulations of homo-
joint pdf contains no length-scale or time-scale in- geneous turbulence 129-~31 will play a central role. In
formation (see Section 2.9). In modelling the joint pdf the past, modelling has been guided by theory and
equation, the time scale z has to be specified either experimental data. But it is now possible to solve the
directly, or indirectly through a modelled transport governing flow equations for homogeneous turbu-
equation for e. The direct specification of scale lence at Reynolds numbers comparable to those of
information is only possible in simple flows, and the wind-tunnel experiments. From the computed flow
validity of the modelled dissipation equation has often fields, multi-point statistical information can be
been called into question (e.g. Ref. 102). In addition, as extracted, and this provides an additional source of
discussed in Section 5.7.3, one-point closures are guidance to modelling. In the joint pdf equation, the
incapable of cor.rectly determining the scalar dissi- modelling is most naturally viewed in Lagrangian
pation rate--at least in grid turbulence. terms. While Lagrangian statistics are extremely diffi-
These inherent problems do not invalidate the cult to obtain experimentally, it is relatively easy to
approach. For simple shear flows, for example, the use obtain them from direct numerical simulations.~ 31
of the modelled dissipation equation is justifiable, 1°2
and the scalar dissipation time scale appears to be 8.2.4. Computationalconsiderations
simply proportional to r . t l 3 For more complex The usefulness of the pdf approach depends on the
flows--with rapidly changing scales--the modelling is existence of a practicable means of solving the
less secure, but the magnitudes of the errors resulting modelled equations. Many Monte Carlo calculations
from the modelling inadequacies have yet to be have been performed, both for the velocity-com-
quantified, tSeveral multi-point pdf methods have position joint pdf 42 46 and for the composition joint
been suggested.) t°a- 1o7 pdf. 27-32 Typical computational requirements are
Pdf methods for turbulent flows 191
50,000 words of storage, and 5 min of CPU time on a 24. POPE,S. B., Combust. Flame 27, 299 (1976).
mainframe computer. 25. JANICKA,J., KOLBE,W. and KOLLMANN,W., Proc. Heat
Transf Fluid Mech. Inst., 296-312, Stanford University
None of the calculations referenced above are for Press (1978).
the general three-dimensional case for which the 26. J^~CKA, J., KOLBE, W. and KOLLMANN,W., J. Non-
solution algorithm has been described (Section 6): the equilib. Thermodyn. 4, 47 (1978).
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flame. .6 Nevertheless, the modest computer require- 13-45 (1984).
28. POPE,S. B., E~hteenth Symposium (lntl) on Combustion,
ments for the calculations performed give every 1001-1010, The Combustion Institute (1981).
reason to suppose that the M o n t e Carlo method will 29. McNuTT, D. G., M.S. Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of
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30. SHI~KAR, S. V. and CHEVRAY,R., Third Symposium on
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Acknowledgments--For comments and suggestions on the 31. GM, P., SImONANO,W. A. and POPE,S. B., Combust. Sci.
first version of this paper, I am grateful to Professors W. Technol. 37, 59-78 (1984).
Kollmann, P. A, Libby and W. C. Reynolds as well as to the 32. PopE, S. B., Combust. Sci. Technol. 25, 159 (1981).
editor and reviewers. I am grateful to D. C. Haworth for 33. Doexzo, C., Phys. Fluids 18, 397 (1975).
providing suggestions and corrections on the revised version, 34. KOLLMANN,W. and JANICKA,J., Phys. Fluids 25, 1755-
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for her careful and patient typing of the paper. Symposium on Turbulence, University of Missouri-Rolla
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Technology and at Cornell University. It was supported in 36. WU, M.-Z. and O'BRIEN, E. E., Combust. Sci. Technol.
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