: ez Wideband Modulation Techniques 1 Spread Spectrum Techniques (Single Carrier Modulation) + Chips spread spectrum Chapter Outline This sa diferent ype of modulation scheme in which the spread spectrum efecti¢ achieved with the help of a Unique code. The cede repeatedly becomes pseudo: noise (PN) sequences, which must be known at the recalver side to despread the signal again, The advantage of the syslom is the high level of secure ‘communication, intl started formulary applications Because of very large spectum, teats the interfering signals effcienty ster despreading and also exhibits wijamming chatacerisics, Because of good features, this modulation scheme is. utiized in mulieuser environment in terns of code division multiple access (CDMA), Carefuly signed rake receivers ae required {forthe detection of signal back. Rake receivers exploit rmutipath avers. There are two main schemes for ‘spread spectrum technology, direct sequence, and frequency hopping. There are others but are not so ‘opuiar, The features ofthe spread spectrum modulation ‘a8 described in dota inthis chapter Wideband Madulaton Techniques I: Spreod Specrum Techniques (Single Cari Mediation) 323 8.1 SPREAD SPECTRUM MODULATION (SSM) CONCEPT Spread spectrum (SS) techniques were originated to meet the needs of military ‘communications. They are based on signalling schemes (code or sequence) that greatly ‘expand the transmitted spectrum relative to the data rate, Now, the techniques are used for commercial applications also. There is a growing interest in these techniques for use ‘in mobile radio networks and for both communication and positioning applications in satelites. ‘A spread spectrum transmission offers three main advantages over a fixed frequency transmission: 1. Spread-spectrum signals ae highly resistant to noise and interference. The pro- cess of re-ollecting a spread signal spreads out noise and interference, causing them to recede into the background. 2. Spread-spectrum signals ae difficult to interept. A fequency-hop spread-spec- train signal simply sounds like an increase in the background noise to & narrowband receiver 3. Spread-spectrum transmissions can share a frequency band with many types of conventional transmissions with minimal interference. The spread-spectrum sig- nals add minimal noise tothe namrow-frequeney communications and vice versa. ‘Asa result, bandwidth can be utilized more efficiently. Spread spectrum techniques also meet ihe following objectives: + Operation with alow-eneray spectral density + Maltipe-access capability without extemal control + Security (difficult for unauthorized receivers to observe the message) + Antijamming capability + Maitipath protection + Ranging ‘One way of classifying the spread spectrum system is given below. Averaging system In this system, te interference reduction takes place because the interference can be averaged over a large time interval Avoidance system n this system, the reduction of interference occurs because the signal is made to avoid the interference over a large fraction of time. ‘Spread spectrum technique is a wideband modulation technique. Here bandwidth expansion factor is very large. In fet, bandwidth expansion doesnot combat white noise 4s it does in FM, PCM, and other wideband modulation methods, because bandwidth ‘expansion is achieved by something tat is independent ofthe message, rather than being, Uuniguely related to the message. 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Sane itn ot han hinting st a etemies throng tsi Example 8.1 if data rate i 32 Kops and SNR is 0.001(-30 dB), then withthe help of ‘Shannon’s theorem, find out the necessary bandwidth for SSM signal. Comment on your result Sotution NC. 32x10°10%0 Las ua Comment For data rate of 32 kbps, operation with lower value of SNR of -304B is achievable by spreading the signal over a bandwidth of 22 MHz. By using a much wider ‘bandwidth than that of the original data is possible to maintain the channel capacity ‘Without increasing the transmitter output power. It isan extreme example of power- bandwidth trade-off We have = 22H assigned fo different uses to differentiate them. Forte identification of unique user the cade must undergo some operations so hat the data may not be diverted to wrong usce 8.3.1 Autocorrelation Autocorelation is introduced in Chapter 2 isthe procedure by which matching of a Signal is done with self. The autocorrelation should be maximum for the DS or PN codes With ite so that correct PN signal canbe identified from the numberof co-existing signals. The autocorrelation function of a typical PN sequence is shown in Fig, 82, Noto that on a nomnalized basi, it has a maximum value of 1 that repeaeitsel $260 period, but in between these peaks, the level sat a constant value of (1). If, ‘sa very large number, the autocorrelation function is very smal in this region, Reo ‘Aoconalten PN cate “ay | kay Fig, 82 Aulocoreatio function (normaizes) forthe codes with respect to tine The autocorrelation of the spreading waveform (PN signal) o() is represented mathematically as Le feoas na “6 ‘asip i the code period and crepresents a time shift variable, 8.3.2 Partial Autocorrelation R= where Toy The partial autocoreation is similar tothe formula given in Eq. (8.7) but integrated only over 8 portion of Tas maybe over a message bit duration, This is done to avoid long brocessing time for matching purposes. If the partial sequence is autocomelated, then obviously th full sequence willbe autocorrelated because of uniqueness of the code. This is the concept behind the partial autocorrelation. 8.3.3 Cross Correlation Cross correlation is also described in Chapter 2. Difterent signals have different spreading codes. 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Checking for the cyclic shift Forone cyclic shift, ie. k= 1 +H AHAH-L-LH SPHLF1-141-1-1=-1 (summing up al he values) ‘With the eye sift, this sequence will have the same autocorrelation properties, ie. it willbe atwo-valued function, With no shift itis No ané for other cases 1 (think Why), Popular periodic code sequences used in spread-spectrum transmission are: *+ Maximum length sequences + Walsh-Hadamard sequences + Gold codes/sequences + Kasami codes, tc ‘The names ‘pseudo-noise’ (PN) and ‘maximal length? are used in some papers ‘synonyinously, while other authors use the name PN sequences to indicate a very broad lass of sequences, including for instance ML and Gold sequences. 8.4.3 Maximum Length (ML) Sequences ‘The ML sequences and method ofits generation is described first. PN cade is generated in a maximal length shift register, which is nothing but a linear feedback shift register (LFSR). PN code generators are periodic in thatthe sequence that is produced repeats Wideband Medtlaon Techniques | Spread Specinon Techriqus (Spe Carer Modulation) 331 itself after a period of time. Such a typical periodic sequence generator is shown in Fig. 83(). The smallest time ierement in the sequences of dation is ap nd is known 48 time chip. The total period consists of W, time chips, where the code is generated by ‘a maximal linear PN code generator. The value of N, is ”~ 1, where pis the number of stages inthe code generator. The short length sequences are N,=7, 18,31, 63,127,255, “The reason for using shift register codes is that the period of the PN’ sequence can casly be made very large by increasing the number of register stages, so that apparently itlooks random to the users. “The LFSRecan be implemented in two ways 1. Fibonacci implementation [Fig 83(6)] 2. Galois implementation (Fig. 8.3(¢)} ‘The Fibonacci implementation consists ofa simple shift register in which a binary- ‘weighted modulo-2 sum ofthe taps is fed back to the input. The Galois implementation consists ofa shift register, the contents of which are modified at every step by a binary- ‘weighted value ofthe output stage. Eo — pe? 1 eal Tees Leper =e @ Fig. 63a) Typical PN eade gonerato wih three shit register slages and its application for data spreading, (b} Fabonaal implementation of LFSR, and (c) Galois implementation of LFSR In genera, shi epster implements primitive polynomial: Mg) #20 + aga Dot yt 69) ‘which isthe generator polynomial fora code. Inthe polynomial (2), the coeicient takes on the binary value 0 (ao connection) or 1 (Feedback or connection), Two exceptions are hy and, which are always 1 and thus always connected. Note that is not realy a feedback connection, but rather is the input ofthe shift register. In short, the coefficients h, determine te feedback connections inthe code generator. ‘Thorough inspection reveals that the order ofthe Galois weighs is opposite to tat oF ‘he Fibonaei weights. 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Clearly, (1, 1) is orthogonal to(1, ~ 1). This matrix can be extended using a recursive technique. For X= "user, the mari ifn rm the code mata for 2) wer, according to few) cay] ay es 9) -cray] a 8.4.5 Gold Codes/Gold Sequences Gold sequences have been proposed by Goldin 1967 and 1968, These are constructed by EXOR-ing wo or more m-sequences ofthe same length with each other Ths, fora Gold Sequence of length N. = 2°, one uses two LFSRz, each of length 2° 1. Ifthe LESRs are chosen appropriately, Gold sequences have better cross correlation properties than ‘iaximum length LSER sequences as showin in Table 8.2. Gold (and Kasami) showed that for certain well-chosen m-sequences, the cross correlation only takes on three possible values, ramtly -1, -R,, or R-2. Two such Sequences are called preferred sequences. Here R, depends soley on the length of the LLFSR used, In fac, for an LFSR with p memory ements, Ips odd, Ramey 13) Ifpiseven, Raz] 14) ‘Table 82 Calcuation of css earrlaton of Sot soquances ‘Thus, a Gold sequence formally isan arbitrary pase ofa sequence in the set G(x) defined by Gs,3)= (5,18 y, x Ty, x OPy, xo 7 (6.15) Wideband MadsavonTechnigues |: Spread Spcrum Technique (Single Caer Moduoon) 335 ier 1 denotes the operator that sis vectors eeliclly to the lef by & places, @ x the exclusive OR operator, and x, are maequences of period generated by afore primitive binary polynomials. eis wo know tha th ‘partial eross colton values can be altered by changing the phase ofthe code sequences. In theory then, its posible to find optimal phases, minimize the interference in the desired data signal. However, for K users, cach employing a sequence of period N, there area toal of NK different sets of suence phases possible. ‘A few other sequences are described below. 8.4.6 Quadratic Residue Sequences (q-r) Sequences These sequences have lengths that are prime numbers ofthe form N,= 49-1 = a prime ‘number, where qs an integer. Since prime numbers are faiely distributed and since half of the prime numbers can form quadratic residue sequences, there are many more sequences ofthis type than m-sequences. Is implementation is somewhat complex as itis not generated directly by using shift registers, There are some values of m for which both a-rand m sequences may exist, N,~3, 7,31, 127, 8191, 131071... However, except N, and 7, q-rand m sequences ae distinct. The g-r sequences have the same correlation properties as m-sequences, 8.4.7 Hall Sequences atl sequences also havea length has pine nunber described by N, = 4g-1= 47+ 27 = aime number, where both and rare integers Since both the conditions we tobe satisfied there ae very few all sequences, Ithas same properties as gr sequences bt there is no particular advantage of using sich sequences 8.4.8 Twin-Prime Sequences The twin-prime sequences are those sequences in which the length ofthe sequence is defined by N, = pplp,*2), where both p, and p,*2 are prime numbers. The only ‘advantage oftwin-prime sequences is that it is possible to achieve some lengths that are ‘not readily achieved by aay of other forms; otherwise the implementation is not simple. 8.4.9 Criteria to Select Code/Sequence In synchronous DS-CDMA, the link peeformance is affected by + Multisuser interference * Asynchronous multipath interference arising ftom the delayed signals from the other users as well asthe user imsel herself As the user capacity ofthe channel is limited by the interference, we would like to ‘make the partial cross correlations of eodes small, ideally zero for alltime shifts. The ‘Values thatthe partial cross correlation functions take depend upon the choice of codes. For example, Walsh codes have the desirable property of perfect orthogonality at 20 phase offset but have poor autocorrelation properties for ther phase offsets. 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It 's clear from Fig. 8.9 that the bandwidth ofthe biphase signal tt. Since the message is binary/square wave it will tae similar spectral density but entred on zero. Thus the message signal spectral density is Witbond Medlin Techgs : Spread Specum Techniques (Single Cater Modsten) 339 =o BE] wn The tanh ofthmesage By tht slr onsications wl Vi enue itiscomay tue ony hepsi een prion a te pst nde Sandi ot 2, = Bandit ofthe SSM or PN signa 23, = Bandit he messge sina The procesing gins defined os ran = Teves the aout of spreading of he signal Ith biphse modlatons ul thn th pcesng xin igen by PG=2fulng 620) Forquadiphase modal te proces exn PG" talsiy Example 8.6 If the chip rate ofa DSSS transmitter is 20 Meps, the message bitrates 10 kbps. Find out the processing gain achieved finaly ifthe biphase modulation is used, Solution 1 20x 10° foie” sppigr SSM bandit 8, = 2g = 402108 Message BW = Iitg = 104 Hence, processing gain = B/By = 2y/taig= 4000 ‘Ind, the processing gain can be represented as 10 logy (4000) = 36 dB Example 8.7 A recorded conversation is tobe transmited by a pseudo-nose spread spectrum system. Assume that the spectrum af the speech waveform is bandlimited 10 3 ‘diz and use 128 quantization levels, (8) Find out the chip rate required to obtain a Processing gain of20 dB. (b) Given thatthe sequence length is tobe greater than 5 hours, find out the numberof shift register stages required Solution () Processing gain = 20 dB = Lology PG = PG=10?=100 ‘Now, 128 quantization levels means that 7bits per saruple will be utilize. ‘Also 3 kHz speech signal means that the sampling rate wll be 6 kHz (Nyquist ertri), ‘Message bitrate = sampling rate x bits/sample =A2 kbpsPonponut st saaio001 oye aap senna los um ap oq we ses tp Nop ua swan aio evden, aceop ‘Homa 3 sst0> Fes poxaoar ay Youunys yaya sano wreetnens uy (even yo HY JO} UNOUS) HSS FYE WAKES OLR BIg i PEEL O ET EE = Feaisen =a sn ee ge eeHe-SH 205 I~ Pun yoajo sum oz 05 ayes uontfanoooyne SH (018 BD (1117-11) p00 ast wBoa] uname tp ‘soueysur ei souanbes 2F0> sy w gi poidatmu ase sjoqudS mip sen yy turns peauds (aAz034 DIva) SNOUVUSCISNOD UBAIZORY HinaLoaaS aves BONED Ie Joma ee ‘ned Ssoooid amp £4 poonpas s sous 94 Jo sar ate Pte $f atedue soley 2301s eis ep 21 J0 Aras0303 Di 2a Budde 6g ‘pamppy 1 wouod sous} mp sovayia pusq soured Pie eetl® ip ein Bupeaisop soy soydoyans ou soye iuap soca 2oea1oap soapy eat 22.04! 9 estou suo20q sauanbos Na 2 ta pypennenn Suoq OO Or+ Qu Ou soun0o9q nino sox dawson ye (see) 10+ Oat) « (ese) 9 (oy + 9 (8s = Oa el uve, onze sano pu uompuoo (= (> wis (2 eouenbas Ng porous oo] np Fado es oatoas ogy Ep fuH2uO.Npxcoara cc) O14 Oot)u= ()s eres) OO Os ‘souateponu jo soussaxd uy “zp pons yp sonpoidas youues sonst 4p Jo douanbas [Nd 9 Busou 01 s4]0001Y worse Supeoidsp ous aap von 'G)'>¢OYON « "ep eu 0 aun se us (toyed 24). 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The DSSS is often claimed to have particular properties that ‘makes it fess vulnerable to multipath reception. In particular, the rake receiver architecture allows an optimal combining of energy received over different path with. It avoids wave cancellation (fades) if delayed paths arive with phase differences and appropriately weighs the signals coming in with different signal-to-noise ratios. In short, ‘the rake receiver is designed to optimally detect a DS-CDMA signal transmitted over dispersive multipath channel. ti an extension of the concept of the matched filter as we ‘mentioned in passive method. Inthe matched filter receiver, the signal is correlated witha locally generated copy of the signal waveform. If, however, the signal is distorted by the channel, the receiver Wideband MediotonTecnigus(: Spread Seamum Techniques (Single Comer Modaion) 343 should coreate the incoming signal bya copy of te expected received signa rather han bya copy of transmitted waveform. Thus, the receiver should estimate the delay pofle ‘of the channel and adapt to its locally generated copy according to this estimate ‘The spreading code is chosen to have very small autocorrelation value fr any non zero time offset. This avoids crosstalk between fingers. In practice, the situation i eos ideal, It is not the full periodic autocomelation that determines the crosstalk between signals in different fingers, but rather two partial correlations with contributions from tro consecutive bits or symbols. It has been attempted to find sequences that have satisfactory partial coreation value, but the crosstalk due to partial (non-peodc) correlations remains substantially more difficult to reduce than the effects of periodic correlations. Tn contrast to the second-generation mobile telecommunications standards, the UMTS/W-CDMA infrastructure is capable of handling a ‘soft’ handover, whereby a ‘mobile terminals in contact with multiple base stations atthe same time. This can occur, for example, when a mobile terminal is at a cell border and the signals from all surrounding base stations have near equal strength. The signals from multiple base Stations differentiate themselves in their scrambling code. Thus, to handle the ‘soft handover scenario, rake receiver in the mobile terminal must be capable of correlating the ‘received signal with the individual scrambling codes ofall the base stations involved. Furthermore, the rake receiver is also capable of collecting and using the energy from ‘multipath components ofa signal Jn addition tothe actual signal reception tasks, the rake receiver must also perform 2 setof timing and synchronization tasks. A path searcher performs a correlation ofa fixed set of pilot signals over a sliding window to detect the paths with the strongest signal\ values i th environment. The offsets ofthese path are stored within a control ‘context and are used to generate the required offsets forthe individual rake fingers that descramble and despread the chip rate signals. The path searcher divides itself into a Coarse and a fine searcher, with differing repetition intervals and accuracies. A path tracker is responsible forthe tracking and the resynchonization of the paths that ate currently being received. In short, like a garden rake, the rake receiver gathers the eneruy received over the various delayed propagation paths. According tothe maximum ratio combining principle, the SNR at the output isthe sum of the SNRs in the individual branches, provided that we assume that only AWGN is present (no interference) and codes with a tine offset are truly orthogonal ‘The order of diversity achieved by the rake receiver depends on the number of resolvable paths Z with round fgudlfg) +1 27, ‘where Ta is the maximum delay spread of the multipath channel as deseribed in Chapter 5. Now coming tothe example signal shown in Fig, 8.12 again, in ith finger of the rake, the incoming signal is multiplied with the code sequence synchronized to the signal arriving over path i. 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When the interference is narrowband, increasing the spreading improves the es ergy efficiency: 2. Whea the interference is wideband, such a white noise, increasing the spreading does not improve the energy efficiency because the interference power J in- ‘creases directly with the signal bandwidth B,. Toobtain the bandwidth utilization efficiency B/R, BL B RoR, where Ris the message bitrate ‘The term B/2 is used since this is the equivalent energy bandwidth of the signal. Itis portant o note that B/R increases linearly with spreacing, thus the bandwidth utilization efficiency becomes poorer with the inerease in bandwidth of the spread spectrum, Ifthe interference is narrowband compared to the bandwidth of the spread spectrum signal, (8.42) then combining the resus of Equations (8.41 and(8.2), Bitty sy Jo af, atkale £ [sara tf Nek Fo 643) If the interference is wideband compared to the bandwidth of the spread spectrum signal, then Eq, (8.43) can be written as Bit, hb) £ 5 [t+ fe] nme oan) The quantity J, isthe spectral density of the interferng signal, 8.10.4 Near-Far Problem and Power Control ‘Near-far problem in spread spectrum system relates to the problem of very strong Signals atthe receiver swamping out the effects of weaker signals. This problem is Widebond ModuatonTechiques Spreed Spectrum Techniques (Single Coir Modan) 351 From, | Two Detected power fi (A 8 Fig. 8.16 Noar-far problem scenaio Jn.CDMA systems orather ear honefite networks, hi cmmonly solved by 2 1 ‘souonbas-yy ayy, yomsouel opo> Na q uaAlsp S] wun) ut yorys sozysaquuss Kouorbayyredip & jo suxeur q paystydasosce s; Burddoy ouanbay 24,7 J0 Jamod oy paejau axe s2auanbos Nig pub jonved soyeoUaG aouanbas INa 4 poresous? sf asnvsaq snorago st z 30 spaod Soyouenbasy Jo sequin Bunyeut 20} wosea a, wo}sKS wos ut pasn Apuessocou OU Stouanbal asqp ie YROKALE “40 zamod v éiensn st doy Sow yeuStsotp yorya 140 sofouonbey Jo Joquna aq, (ors) eciany =") S¢uonemp diyo om ‘sn *) uoneanp ng afessoxu Aso ut soy Sousnbayy °¥ 318220) Yon 2494 pasaptsuog st ways dog ej &“uoKBUSNA Jo sasodind 10g avjndod Was apeu sey a8eyueape ‘Sep ‘otoys.Cue pane] oq ued speuuuoyasous SRW SSfauA 30} Ne|MOMLeG VNC “SL un aionos ss sy wojqozd sj-arau om ‘iosn souassj ap st qs Sovonboy, sues orp UI yuustRR aus) snbraro, wnidads pooids 5 senbupe) vrionpeyy puogapin, AP Aus 10 yy 9) um 2 Uy Ye Jo pn pus yf sxsw HO HUN YoU FOI aan ave) “yah 44 somo yoes on porean 18 "swore aq aBessour on pus sq aessou yo Joqumm ap“; uoneunp suey 24, 20 tun po}opo tp Sump sma vu poyussuen axe au snotsai ap ut poreauinose su eBessou oi yo ry esas apoo i w Jo sono ka pooojs ss uaa? any ‘osoyo st ny 10] tu seonm a “poxfau W|ApoUaIgBUOSEaL Ku Aq sfessou "ya paejppow sos a ato suo pura aus yore SuLNC2-yy wONMaL aoe {peo pare at sovonbas-u Jo yun paw sos. "ouonboo 0 Wa 30 ops ayo 1569219 uo pap2ep 81 sojs Jo s9qum pra ou, [Ce)ze'g la} os oun py oy Pepumpgns sau yoe> po swear se uo seca oi! poptrp ssw au oy, ‘spovyour ore gus 7785 do xn gus pooS.9pun 9 we s¥aou0o Huddy ou ‘ONIEOH AWLL 218 OUST ue BasSoard iy wp ap OS ag pouibar 7 URI HBR 81H EP EI'Sh = S9LZE = 002,01 x vo'RL = "ad = Da 8 Butsoo0xd 2 Sun} oy sda 19 8. = 0082 x 957 x91 x8 =" ‘Tous wnnoods peouds j44 om Jo pprapueg (a) serouonbay Furddoyjo.oqumi oy «952 = anje pays nous zo mod yy aqetio in, © “wnon = upey = “ny =" cunts Fuyddoy Couonbay og day 6st =00r2 > e291 eoit= "ard = 94 104%] 01 = ap sp me Sussoo0ud non oN ‘ney sdq gore =" (e) soymes Tous tumszoads poo 4424 J0 pape ap mo pug (@) 710 temod v oq on st oquim sp panos sjouonbasyo sequuna sees oy) 0 pay (8) dP Sp = we Buss2000g gwore1}djmu Kouonbang 9) 19 afessou 1d sdopy operas sa, 9st358 WielessCommuntcavon Solution PG = B/B,,= 2M for biphase modulation system = PG =8 x 105200 = 2500 = 2M=33.97 4B > M = 1250=total numberof slots Itis not power of 2 but as bandwidth must not exceed 8 MHz, we shall choose M = 1024 (previous lowest power of 2). Now, Sf= 2° = ¢= 10 bits are required from the code generator to control the ON/ OFF switching time, PG will now be 2M = 2048 =3348 (This value does not differ much from the previous value of PG) 8.13 COMPARISON OF SPREAD SPECTRUM MODULATION METHODS ‘Table 84 compares the direct sequenee, frequency hopping, and time hopping methods, Table 84 Comparison of spread spectrum modulation methods "Frequency Hopping Method Tine Hopping Wethod Avera type oles pe ‘ire pe Segl-airsyemfratines Difeethoprg cars. oe latino Sing calrbultareite at eret tines Sinplstineeratin Cpl inpleesitiontecausete Inport sinker tan Ft “yeas ered Long eoqston bre Storteogisonte Leng segton te Naat pie Noneo-trption "Narr pclnvedety oper tin sycorizatin ABS ig 2 at eee * astrie andan. * iets anon tapes = Highton fey ofa tee bing perma +s eeatodet + Cantopegannesto svi + Use wn tasnitris average econo speci overeat pean + Best sini gine pat ‘iS a "Reis iditancomelnit = Ntuttlo nase den soaewanent + Fascodeeneatrregied + Erarcameten roid + Leng sequence teatied 2 LS innate! weandrangerste —* Erorcaecion needed " Synceoniaon iver roqed Cante jammed easy anc isnot sed garry 8.14 HYBRID SPREAD SPECTRUM SYSTEMS ‘The use of hybrid techniques attempts to capitalize upon the advantage of a particular ‘method while avoiding the disadvantages. For example, evaluation of ditect sequence and ‘Wideband Modan Teciniues | Spread Specrum Techniques (Sige Crier Madation) 359 frequency hopping shows that both of those techniques have thir specific advantages ‘and disadvantages. Direct sequence, on one hand, suffers heavily from the near-fer effect, which makes this technique har to apply to systems without the ability of power control. On the other hand, its implementation is inexpensive. The PIV code generators are easy fo implement and the spreading operation itself can be simply performed by EXOR-ports, Frequency hopping effectively suppresses the near—far effect and reduces the need for power control. However, implementation ofthe (fast) hopping frequency synthesizer required for @ reasonable spreading gain is more problematic in terms of hhigher silicon cost and increased power consumption, Applying both techniques allows for combining their advantages while disadvantages ccan be reduced. This results in a reasonable near-far resistance at an acceptable hardware cost, Many different hybrid combinations are possible. Some of them are PNIFH, PN/TH, FH/TH, and PNIFHVTHL While designing a hybrid system, the designer should make the choice of applying either fast or slow frequency hopping, The fast frequency hopping inereases the cost of the frequency synthesizer but provides more protection against the neat-far effect, The slow frequency hopping combines a less expensive synthesizer with a worse near-far ‘ejection andthe need for a more powerful error correction scheme (several symbols are {ost during a ‘hit’ jamming). Such considerations can be applied to other types of systems also. ‘Example 8.13 A PN/FH hybrid spread spectrum system has the following parameters: Message bit rate = 9600 bps after error correction coding PN code rate = 1,53,600 chips per second Chips per hop = 16 Hops per message bit =1 ‘Number of hopping frequencies used = 4096 (@) Find out the processing gain. (b) Find out the bandwidth of the spread spectrum signal Solution (@) PN code rate= 153,600 bps, which isthe spacing between the two frequencies [Number of hopping frequencies, M'= 4096 Hopping rate=153600/16 = 9600 hops per second B, = Mf, = 4096 x 153600 = 629 MHz ‘Now, PG = 629 x 10°/9600= 65536 PG in dB = 10 logy PG = 10log9 (65536) 8.16 4B al is 629 MHz without RF multiplication factor.‘S89q Us uo}goud sp yuna 0} jo.qu09 Jemod Jo spo\pow ax 4oipio you 0) ouoSompro ave xieur YspENY ; 280 py sogoudsj-mau 2) 3 EHML “ET gy g uv m Sopeo a my easton“ wanes o 946 00 ans as pose SSS “plone w 1 SS5c1 8 S65 nO wr MOH “Zp. sounbos plop pu apes Peuis dix sou y yrR lg Usaaooes ayer B “eousnbas “py Jo Aygens omy ssnosiqy i lu soyejosi0024p Jo 2ouryrodan amps eA “TY ensued ut Sggcr 10} | ‘tpedoyour -tedard uonejauoooyne paumbas ay ant)“ wojdx> sanssoas axes ayy s20p MOH “OT AWA, soquunu ppo wo st aouonbas {818} 29 wed Buyssoooud ay plnoys Ky, 21p Jo yy ayp ep axs0sqQ s0}BIDU > to futsseooud 26) uonenba amp 2a}19p 9p09 Nd 9B8-2a1y ajquuns Aue UBisoq “p i kip wor pue jeudis uoewoyu! ap pue apanarype 29 uo Bupeaids oy) 1 3 wuts NgJo wnnseds peanatoarp amp Pury “6 “os oe 1g afvssom pur ayes dryp Jo uo, sioedse sy ye yap sans wan 0995 Jo wawrartnbas 24 24 PINOY WHA “¢ -sods peaids eouanbas yeanp paseq won, 42509 YI e]npous ssmyduupenb oyp yeiep ut ssnosiq{ “gut pueworougo éypenoods souiosag wiarsks — “os92 Jo ynsai 2 urnayoods peasds your 40s nox ubo ORY -zZ A unapods peaids din e2'g il soonpord woip Suippe pue opoo sa1p0 ue qumpads yesueHeN O49 4q 2po0 Aue Susidnjaw yop Buoys Aq yo Suypeauds Ky puwysiapun NOK op YAN “Tp ——— NN NOY Hh LL po ‘AN age esr aa Yano: ore ai seovenboy,o sus pnb “soya jc mqun ym opel os @ NA 21a sesndjovaenpou fverbeyeeuy upper Sg oatey cera, nq Egos 9 nized pee dao aw ve Basen =i seSeuesresp use oj pue Sues sy Kg popooE a Bupsens Jo neoee sel coo | UMN fini 84} JO SOBEIUEAPE BYE Oye} 0} eUOP S| SKIL “Suipeauds .0} uowpucd paynbas es! siqy | ‘3we}s/s HL 10 Ha Na J0 oneUQWOD 2X ‘ajenyg 6) 09 Loup sey rus 821 dey Butsn peubjsep oq ues swojeks pughy ay w Seren canna ‘9900 Nd Jo eq 9p 8 uogeanp dug “dio $2 unouy 2 wow 218 Uo Pepep ave sos ey 'Buxsoy au Um sesyewys aeaym aouanbos Wopue! yng Ba, royce waste ou 5] as0dind Bupeards oj posn apao au, fu sayew Yoru "uoyeroue6 Kavenboy Buld Sudip pus ‘poyou punky ‘powsus sua) onrormnarooamgsods “ou Jo} pagnbos ove siomsownuhs 91809 © puuddoy sway sxe SpO\gOUe WES JOM Prauds dau patonyoe s ononpay souosajoiy oqussiyu 2}459p 34 eth on one woged Bsoyy poem 812660 -pegous Gutow, KovonbO}, PUP Bone S250 aos pu opempou ovonbay BUN ssn} Qe04 O54 Ades No 219 "powiou Gudéon fousnbey ow VL a souenbos ayy a2 spoUaL NSS Of OA, $1 ue Buyscooxd agp ‘ese sp upon sf Aouonbay xp yy 1240 ppUApuN amp us gpelas oo NE UWE ‘Suapeoids winsoeds ep sonawoe ‘sna S14 pure uuoaxea ous waA18 © Jo woNeanp amp st, Yor Ul pz'g Bi Ul uMoys sou Duiensbrenomin mS SSSd mL & ot tp acne ome we ain pue Aowonbay ay wooo dnsuonops ai, suo}A UonrUMUD w pose ose ‘uy eeu ‘2781 J04By Jo epo0 a1y sean y esnede $13 os sepes ut anbrayoay uouroo es] 3 BOWL, “yppraputeg axp peasds 9 puns Pounbos 81 Jono Mod pue_wiasts 350 wou soe 26s evouentco wo 100) “uss zope ne 1 YBNOULL YP 1 waroMd srouse © 81 wojgad Jee w yp 21 ueNDe uogeMpow wnnoods ponds a 2p Jo wonenpou ouanbaty koa sayin ways wnsnoads peaide dnp yee Sq ‘ssoys sy umseyp weys4s ayy, unayods peaids diyo sasnwps1-Z0§-A.a PHepUmS 94, WNALDIdS CVa4dS AIH SLB o a i Se 19E (veaeynpowy won aus) sanbuapay wnmads poasds:)sonduipey uonoppoyy puqepNA veceoumuuey se QE362. Wireless Communication 14, What are the stops of receiving the spread spectrum signal atthe receiver? 15, What do you mean by partial cortelation? Why is pata corelation important forthe take receiver rather than full correlation? 16. Comment on the SNR of DSSS system, Can you say that enti-amming character- istics of DSSS depend upon the available SNR? How can the SNR be improved in that case? 17. Compare the DSSS and FHSS types of systems with thei pros and cons. Find out the existing systems/Standards in which these schemes are utilized. 18. Draw te block diagram of a PNIFH hy brid sytem and compare it wth the block diagram of FHSS system, Why are hybrid methods suitable many times inspite of their complexity? 19. In FHSS systems, what are the param eters ufon which the processing gain de. pends? 20, Why is ime hopping not much used prat- cally? 21, Explain that FHITH type systems are nothngbut chirped spread spectrum. —K NN POEL; LL 1. T£48 Kbps data stream isto be transmitted Using spread spectrum modulation method, find out the channel bandwidth required When SNR=0,1, 0.01, and 0.001, 2. Show that the periodic PN signal normal- ized autocorrelation function correspond ing tothe binary case with equal probabil ity of I's and 0's (+1 and~1) and with N= is ofthe form as shown in Fig, 8.25 a Fig, 8.25 3. 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Loss information signals and degradations Communications ~ Many common multiplexing schemes (described in the next chapter) are inherently orthogonal. Time division multiplexing (TDM) allows transmission ofthe multiple signals ‘over single channel by assigning unique time slots foreach ofthe information signals Daring each time slo, one and only one information sigral is transmited, thus preventing any interference between the multiple interference sources. Because of these, TDM is «thogona in nature. Ofcourse, time synchronization problemi the Jimi Inthe frequency doniain, most FDM systems are orthogonal inthe sense that each of the separate transmission signals is well spaced out in frequency, preventing the ~ Although the above tvo methods preserve orogonaliy with compromise, te teem OFDM reserves a special feature. Iti orthogonal FOM in whieh the subcarriers are spaced 28 close a is theoretically possible maintaining orthogonality between then, Here, saving of spectrum is achieved. The OFDM arranges the subcartiers in the frequency domain by allocating partly the information = gnels onto diferent subcarriers. ‘Single information streani oF Fame is split into multiplz symbols and each symbol or a srouy of symbols wil. be astigaed a separate carrier. All the split information is then ‘eansmited in paral through multiple caries eomanaea There are two ways in which The-subarrers are assigned. Consider one OFDM frame dnd ast of subcarriers assigned tit ring between these 1. Read the btslsymbol and assign one scarier it. Then ead another group of bits per symbol and assign another carrier that is orthogonal to the previous one and continue. 7, willbe the uration of symbol inthis case. Do this in parallel 2. Read the bitsord ofthe whole OFDM ame and then form « matex in which cach element fit represents one word. The whole fare is represented i ems oftime vs frequency plot (a2 D lice in which each point of atic represents word. (Sometimes, word is also referred toes symbols and there i diference between symbol and OFDM symbol—symbols athe elements of OFDM sym bol) Frequency axis wil suport the otal number of carters to be assigned othe ‘OFDM symbols and time axis will represent OFDNT Smbol duration tat is formed by breaking the OFDM frame into blocks and each block prolonged to OFDM symbol duration 7, These blocks contsinone or more symbols Th, the statement that “OFDM isa block modulation scheme’ willbe ue. Figure 9.1 represents atypical case of carrer esignment according to this method. The block duration willbe er theSerao-pralelonveson proce Ths he efetve bit duration and hence the duration between to consecutive pulses on? al parle fines is prolonged. Bis/symbo areas per the mapping scheme wed) ‘The OFDM signals are made up ofa sum of sinusoids. each representing a modulated subcarrier. Figure 9.1 shows a typical case of 4 subcactiers and 3 symbols/carrier (a block of 3 symbols will be assigned one subcarrier). ie. 3 symbols modulating 8 subcrre. Hence, the bit/symbol and sybolsarrerisnecessary to pre-dcide or pln, Wideband Modulation Techniques 2: OFDM (Muldcarier Medulotion) 367 Froqunsy (ssa 6s 595) Osi oe ; BP ra | | Sie a ad jlo Jno @ % pr l a 7 OF tock 8, Ste weeny Sect, So peel orn at ‘ Sereg oan matos 5s panenin j Seite cer Tee Symbol or 8 PSK Fig. 9.4 (@) Late representation and caer assignment planning and (b) concept of cari fequenay allocation tothe sybels atypical case which tree ym bols are assigned toa cari), seril-o-paralll conversion, ad mapping info ‘fequency domain components after meduaton such thatthe total OFDM fame can be bron up appropriately matching the total number ofsubcates tobe assigned to it , 9.1.1 Orthogonality and Subcarrier Setting in the Spectrum ‘wopioic signal are orthogonal whe the integral oftheir product, overone prio is qual o zero and they have itepal number of eles nthe fundamental peiod 1 he Peak fhe next camer must occur atthe null of he previous eat. 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Since the system i inet we can integrate the result by taking the integral of each frequency component separately and then combining the results by adding the two sub-inteprals. The two fequen:y components after the mixing fave an integer numberof eycles over the period and so the sub-ntegral over each component willbe zero, asthe integral of a sinusoid overt entre period is zero. Both the subintogral are ero and so the resting addition of thetwo will also be zero. Thus, we have established tat the fequency components are orthogonal to each other Another way to view the orthogonality property of OFDM signals isto look tits Spectrum. tis known tat time limited signal isnot bandliited and vce versa Whea ie main pulse shaped signal is mapped in Frequency doin, isa sinc shape, which compresses wien mul-bit symbols are modulating wih each larger size of OFDMT symbol, then a better spectrum wilizai ‘sbearrets can Be placed nearer asthe peak Of a narvow subearr that channel decides the subcarrier spacing. E has a peak at the ¢ frequency and us evenly spaced wih a frequency gap equal tothe car shown inFig.93,—— —— Fig. 25 Orthogonal signals inthe frequency detain: peak of one ‘signal ocous a he nul of nearer subeaier The sine shape has a narrow main obe that decays fastand many sidelobes. Becéuse ‘he Subshannels are vrymarow, they act as samples ofthe pecru, Tis willbe shown in the mathematical part. When the spectrum sting is done for IDF stage, the speetrum snot teated as continuous as shown in Figures). and 9S buts considered in Wideband Modulation Techniques 2: OFDM (Multcarer Modulation) 371 terms of discrete samples. The sampled spectrum is shown with ‘o's in Fig. 9.4(a). Ifthe DFT is time synchronized, the frequency samples of the DFT correspond to just the peaks of the subcarriers, Thus, the overlapping frequency region between subcarriers does not affect the receiver, itis very helpful to interpret subcarrier signals as vectors in the signal space. Vector signals can be added, multiplied by a scalar, ‘expanded into a base, and many more properties can be considered. sxample 9.1 A 64 Kbps voice frame is to be modulated by OFDM scheme. The uration of OFDM symbol is 1000 ps. Total of 32 subcarriers are to be assigned to this frame, Find out (a) themull-to-nul subchannel bandwidth assuming square signal, (b) the total bandwidth occupied, and (©) the number of bits in OFDM frame. ‘Solution (a) T,= symbol duration = 1000 ps So, Af subcarrier spacing = VT, = 1/1000 ys = 0.001 MEz= 100 k#z = Null-to-tull subchannel bandwidth =200 KF (sine shape) (b) N= number of subcarriers = 32 = ‘Transmission bandwidth = (N, + 1) x Af= Nx Af 32% 100 5200 KH (©) Bitduration= 1/(64 x LO") =15.625 ps > No. of bits per frame = 1900/15.625 bits 9.1.2 FDM vs Orthogonal FDM ‘Some difference’ between FDM and orthogonal FDM are as follows: + The OFDM signals must be time and frequency synchronized, which isnot neces- sary in case of FDM. + FDM isa single-carier oriented system while OFDM is mulicarir system. + FDM transmission signals need to have a large frequency guard-band between channels in comparison to OFDM to prevent [CI interferencety voy ‘05 “C'y/t = %Z) aes wp puogaseg oy Jo aionuy 9) st poled joquiss aij ‘uonuoju ees 24) 205 s3H0YS Keane 99 pou logan ‘sore ep wy 4 Wonmuuoyur ase e YppHApUBA PE ome spung pre aayy, EUAN sto jusoefpe wv oienuen uso soy v alayys aonds # apracud oy waptapug J91e9 Y>e9 ‘aang peood 99 isnt pueg pron’ ‘sonvexd ul uny2ods jo woryzin Wuta4}o 305 “imoqyfiou 901 1uasepe oq toys J1zeo Ya pm pariosse yap a ‘Se2Pf “ursaldnmur woisayp Ausnboy ps [| Sussnes omg ag|Ss0N se oso] se SLID pargnpou Suroojd sopnjou suoyskssoures-oj2us ut innoeds oypes jo osm UO! suueyshg s0uID-e/6UIs LZ" su] woueoqunOD 2Pomau e w siasn souuo-a|fuls [euoHUAAKIO ay) smOUS. 1 voneaoqe Aovenbary xomer-aGus 16 B14 5 aang ~Aassonip ayy iojdxa Karp se ‘sjaye [auueyD ayy puristpiar ueo sompazor srayseo ojdninyy “uorporidde owt WAIO. ‘9 s990| pur oNe|Na|e LAA 40} unAHOAE ip patuasaud &ayny, pur 5]005 ‘961 ‘uy "Uap aajos oF afaissod you ozo yoy 4 “LEAL Jo wonmuame;dut peydip oy a Sim eoroaypr or anp paseep sex voneiuowojdius woysés op yng “anbruysoy WOW w2faiye ue se 5,09 pur S,05 21 UF pumore Kpeaue sex WIGIO Jo ajdiound fa, Yong siea6 map ASNl PYCLEO Ws PaaMpOnI Sea ‘po Atos st plaouoD zxsTeDA AD ip qBnotpyy -ad4) says0o-o/8uys Jo are swoysKs uorpeoruMUWeD feUOKUDANOD Ty SWHISAS UARUVOILIN SA TIONIS 2°6 "ADI OO SPHNpHNG Jo BUIAES eH, “7101 00€ = 0¢ + 057 = 05 +055 94 1 MpvapaER perdnaoo jos am “0g 24 0g Sasuxaxdde 9g IM SIouNeD feuD#oxpIO ep 22H ‘uroeds ap “ptapueg JousBSqNS Se ZF OOT JO MipLMpuRR oUNE ap HUN.pIstOC siaaio> pouotioysi0 107 TeAsoyo pen mows ZH 005 = $% O91 94 TM sHPEpUEG potdnooo FO 4 suoyst doyano-o}Suns 407 (Cuosuoduos ayunvoxdde ys ajdurea Sronyge we sft] OUP ous synsax a asueo1go ‘Passio Jou are Seuayps Uo}e|NpoUHFSAdS aio :310N) omnes “aos Joe} 0} an yppospueg wy Tses ap yo pug pu sse>. om Hq {ut pprmpueg pordnano ayn redo “aipo yea 09 Aeuodoyuo pened axe state any ‘aus aif “store asap any ps auiayas saLLRo-ofIs eq FOREMPoUL 240 YoED caveat paoerd are sjouueyo zp 0} any ‘909 foods ip FmBopIwOD 7 aduTEN ELE (uonampoyy sousenny) waxO 7 Sanbpay vonorpory puogapAN sonbyuoe si 0} paseduos wanye Ayeneds Quo (a) Joquepqna 0} snp Bukas (9) pve wonenpou sPRPAY | anp Dukes wnRZeE |e) ove fepods a OURALUES-NQUO =A ROY $6 Bly was Wray = sermretes UL Ue ge meen YUL i womne T se 06s Suvi 6q umacods ap Burdeys sosswon “npHpueg [ouLeEyS 240 ut pyar ae ro fy A Tren comoonnunon scam zg374 Wirtess Communion increases, T,. must decrease and vice versa. Ina multipath environment, a shorter symbol period leads to a greater chance of intersymbol interference. This occurs when a delayed Yersion of symbol arrives during the processing period of syanbol n+1, Mcary schemes with higher value of M provides better spectral efficiency and data rate atthe cost of SNR. 9.2.2 Multicarrier Systems ‘The OFDM, a multicerier system, addresses both the problems of single-carier system ‘mentioned above. The basic idea of OFDM is to divide the available spectrum into Several subchannels (or subcarriers). By making all subchannels narrowband, they experience almost flat fading, which makes equalization very simple, The OFDM Provides a DSP-based technique allowing the bandwidths of modulated carriers to overlap without interference. Bandwidth and spectral efficiency is achieved compared to single-carrier systom. To obtain a high spectral efficiency, the frequency responses of the subchannels are overlapping and orthogonal. This orthogonality can be completely maintained, even though the signal passes through the time-dispersive channel, by introducing cyclic prefix as described later on. I also supports a high data rate due to Serial-to-parallel conversion of symnbols acquiting long symbol duration, thus helping ¢liminate ISI, Time and frequency synchronization i te main limitation of multicarier systems, 9.2.3 Data Transmission in a Multipath Environment by Single-carier and Multicarrier Systems Multipath environment means a time-dispersive channel. In typical radio channels, maltipath propagation occurs because of multiple reflections of the transmitted signal ‘The various propagation paths are characterized by different delays and this leads to a time dispersive behaviour of the channel. Intersymbol interference is caused and has to be taken care of in radio transmission systems (refer to Chapter 8). As far as single-carie digital transmission is concerned, ifthe data rate is low and the ‘symbol duration is large as compared to the maximum delay ofthe channel, it can be Possible to cope up withthe resulting ISI without any ecuaization, As the distance range oF the data rate of the system increases, IST becomes more severe and channel equalization has tobe provided. To have equalization inthis situation, complicated tasks {ike channet estimation, filter coefficient calculation, ec, are required with computational complexity. Adaptive equalizers were the better sclution till now. The altemate transmission technique using mukicarier modulation (MCM) with orthogonal frequency division multiplexing is better than the above approach, The idea of OFDM is to convert the high-rate data stream to many low-rate data streams that are transmitted ina parallel ‘way over many subchannels. Thus, in each subchannel, the symbol duration is large as ‘compared to the maximum delay ofthe chanel and ISTcan be handled. ‘The common representation of the multipath channelis the channel impulse response (CIR), which is the response at the receiver if a single narrow pulse is tran ig, 9.8). Indteetly itis the power delay profile, which we have described in Chapter 5 ‘Widebond Moduloton Techniques 2: OFDM (Mulicorier Modulation) 375, coding 1 Figures 9810910, T= rata wih Pad Rivas porpesely fo represent single carer and ‘me’ for multicarrier), Rye = symbol rate, and if ) tea ely ofthe get pth ih eget to the earliest path. | = 2 recived symbol can theoretical be influenced bY Tya/Tre previous symbols. eee This infuene his fo be estimated =4 go cr hen ge pu vrais compenstedfrin the eee: For singe : ree on sons nan IS fal ~ ve are vals. 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This is done by extracting the pilot subcariers, Pilot information ean be set in time domain rin froqueney domain an accordingly time or frequency domain methods are utilized to estimate the channel. | Ench ofthe important stages are explained in deal inthe next few sections. Figure | 9.14 represents all thse stages 9.3.1 Serial-to-Paralle! 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In Addition, also note that the frequency separation between each pair of delta is Proportional to inverse ofthe symbol duration 9.3.3 Guard Period Te IStisaommon problem ound inhigh ata ate commtiation osu whe the anomisson interferes with ita and the receiver cant decode te tenomssion corey Thi is bemase asthe data rat increases, the ine ration betwee te consective pulses decease ForavoiingISh te ube tne aon old be peer than the maximum delay of the channel The IS is one of he major debe of pt sngle-aeansmissionasiscse enon To wo ir gud nals Provided along wt edt pti sot the Ite! ceve inte gu eral cin be removed aera and he dt can be reve. Ore ofthe mot ino ropes of OFDM esis igh elo business pst nlp dl spread Tis sere every lng sol parol tse compte path dey, whish innizs the intsymbainefrence, The el of !uipat busines canbe ater inreasd by etn af gud prod beeen the tans sym The gl peroallows time formal sgn fom te ono sombolodicavay before theinfnmaion om thcuent symbol sare. Peet Syrtel aries at Wideband Modulation Techniques 2: OFDM (Mulicarier Meduaton) 383, fective guard period to use isa cyclic extension ofthe symbol. Ifa mirror in time atthe end ofthe symbol waveform is put atthe start of the symbol asthe guard perio, his effectively extends the length ofthe symbol, while maintaining the orthogonality ofthe ‘waveform. Using eycli extended symbol, multipath immunity as well as symbol time synchronization tolerance canbe achieved. ‘Transmitting a eyelic prefix ofthe data during guard interval transforms the linearly convoltive chanel into circularly convolutive channel. enc, the channel equalization problem is simplified. Specifically, chaanel equalization i the frequency domain can be done using one tap filters. This is because cylicprefixing makes the channel matrix circulant, whichis diagonalized by the IDFT and DFT operation. “The added guard interval and its effec in reducing IST are shown in Figures 9.17 and 98, ‘As long as the multipath delay echoes stay within the guard period duration, thre is strictly no limitation regarding the signal level ofthe echoes: they may even exceed the sional level ofthe shorter pth. The signal energy from all paths add up atthe input the receiver, and since the FFT is energy conservative, the whole available power feeds the decoder IF the delay spread is longer then the guaed interval, then they begin to cause inter symbol interference, However, provided the echoes ar suficiently small they do noteause significant problems, Ths i true most ofthe time, as multipath echoes delayed longer than the guard period they wil have been reflected from very distant objec 1 embod duaton tore aya ‘usin Das per eet [SR = ‘loa Reccies SN | ‘Setiearfornce ih cyte roc Fig. 47 Concept of removal of muligath effect due fo guard interval aon in each symbol bck by padding copy of part af he symbol (Phase errors ae main in guard intewval)jeg obs 138 618 Sid unos 0) 4 es oy Guy 6s vosianwood é ee we sg reufis nao pimeoses dO sue verbo ou, WaLHO emp ‘Kj2anrewoyyy “sporpou uorsionuos Aouanbayj Zojeue Husn Kouanboxy mse [euNy ofp 0} posea.oU! 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Ether wy, the selsted techni: would have oivolv some form of near AM or QAM (possibly implemented with amine). RF Modulation ‘The ouput of the OFDM modulator generates a baseban¢ signa, which must be mixed Po the reuied tansmision fequnes. This can be implemented using an analog (cng or ial up converters shove in Figures 920 and 921 Beth echniues Perform the sane operation. However, te perfomanof te digital medlaon wil end ‘more accurate du to improved matching between the processing ofthe I and channels and the phase a ase accuracy of the digital 12 modulator, In both the figures, the Jevels are shown mentioning whether the signal isin analog form or digital form. ‘Andes feats areal Digit | Anaiog Fig. 920. RF modulation of complex BF meson of complex basoard OFOM snug entogtcigus Ike Wary {cos ‘ao Compe s ‘roi Slat ——_ {+g JP 00% es Ea & ” Dos brea Fin 821 mtn lone OFM sna sy da cnn Wideband Moduloton Techniques 2: OFDM (Mulicarier Moduatn) 387 ‘The role of interpolation filter isto increase the sampling rate for better analog conversion. In digital techniques direct digital synthesizer (DDS) is used that can onerate the required discrete RF cartier by controlling the phase of samples and then ‘converts into an analog form. Most of the latest ASIC designs use DDS for RF carrier ‘generation that can generate very high carrier frequencies. ‘After RE conversion and transmission, the transmitted signal will get corrupted by the various channel effects and then it will be received by the receiver, 9.3.8 OFDM Signal Reception and Demodulation ‘The reesived RF signal is down-converted and also converted into digital form. The guard period is removed in case of eyclie prefix. Demodulation is done to get back the required setting in the frequency domain (jst as transmitter). For that the offset removal is requited. The subcarrier offset condition is shown in Fig. 9.22. The receiver basically does the reverse operation to the transmitter. The FFT of each OFDM symbol is performed to find the original transmitted spectrum, The phase angle of cach transmission cartier is then evaluated and converted back to the data word by demodulating the received phase (demapping). The data words ae then split back to the same pattern as the original bits to have the serial data again by parallel-to-serial conversion, camer of yo Dope ect ‘OFDIK ombegena swears sutcariedpacing vers of OFDM sybeldraton Fig 8.22 Carr offset condon athe ecsver end (oss of ehagonay) ‘The following steps may be taken to demodulate the OFDM: + Partition the input stream into vectors representing each symbol period + Take the FFT of each symbol period vector. + Extract the carrier FFT bins and calculate the phase of each, + Calculate the phase difference, from one symbol period to the next, for each car + Decode each phase into binary dat. + Sort the data into the appropriate order,pea pues apousie ones anya EL jy ung geuop Kuna a uae ‘aqp pu saizmoqns pawooye ye swuod compe] sod se poyusuen axe sjoquiks wep ox, 201407 0} Burpsoooy sBuyjes wosjoeds weysks WAI (ose pues) star pyctgo = 99 (w) sq ped. 29) woneinpoU asyed = " aastiq Lal = sou ado =H ayduesaum= «ay oe (co*sazz)*™ & to own at uoypjuesesdey uowog ew Was0 “spreauye paquosops1 pur maysAs icy Jo ansst we vod west Buddy somod yea “Aouayogy9 sessed ood Aina wl Bupnsas yuauino surg yBAy 1ueysUO> WL JOYCE oH ‘sy ynsar an] “syvad amp Bupuorsyp prone oy afues syueudp a8rn] 6 axsy 1 sey JOU seauyf a4 eR) suboU ST "BH sf of oMod oBeID4e-o1-yBOd a Os ‘dn our sprostuts 2 oy wo Buypuadop sno00 Sew sad apna dure 9830} 19a “uomIppe uf "woneorg de eau, Sosmmbad af Je 1B] IBS HAY Jo sYPeGMEAP am JO 2uD 210M 20} 2q Kew woneynpou amp pue 'sonsta}eerey> Sounbayy yeusSu0 ayy UE Msa sfuo] ou prom eusis tp jo 14 We own ‘Payrpou 30 pada steprajdwe otp Juss 2p Jo tuatuoa o4p ouyp Aexp Se eu ydoy oq suoNeLEA opaytue avg yeyp weodw ‘toa st aude xvod wou Jo au ax Ssox9 Ao fess pungaseg PLO wewoP ‘un Jo apmyjdure at sjouueyogns om [840 wormppe yy “apraydive SuLCzwa sey jeudts AO 9 VN 9q>s1 9 sfouEyaqns oy je Buyppe Aq ueIOp au axp Ut porsad joquuss WO au0 oyes0U98 on pouuoyod st 1441 ue ‘pay st Suddews joquiss op soy (Cain yun, Sjiezedss pougap are w pus y sqqeHsea ows amp 9H) ‘snewsujew ueN® yon poyjuco Gomes ug 3s) 6 Bld suo Wag 364 0115 = 2 (01 yonbo 2g ou Ses 30 Sout "y) 24g La = W Awana 91009 WL JO Wl = ayduespuod (J 00) fauonbay = 3 uot 68. 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Thus, within the symbol duration following signal of the nth OFDM symbol block is formed: l= Fae E Susele- mt) 10 ‘The total continuous-time signal consisting of all OFDM bloeks is Meck 3 Tie & S Ssaetem eu) Wideband Moduoton Tecviques 2: OFDM (Multcarer Modulation) 391 ‘Thus, by modulation, a rectangular symbol blocks are applied to each OFDM carrier ‘The shaping is applied to each symbol block. ll shaping functions differ by one symbot period, Due tothe rectangular pulses applied to subcarriers, the spectra ofthe subcarriers are sine-functions, eg. forthe Kh subcarrier: GCA) = T sine (RTF kA) where sine x = 9.12) “The spectra of the subcarrier overlap, a shown in Figure 9.5 OFDM spectrum, but the subcarrier signals are mutually orthogonal and modulation symbols S, can be recovered by a correlation technique as shown in Eq. 9.13). Correlation between the two consecutive shaping functions g(t) and g() = (ees) = Jee d= ies 0.13) or Sue FE (at a) @.14) where (0 is the conjugate of g,0). In practical applications, the OFDM signa (is generated ina first step asa diserete time signal inthe digital signal procesing par of the transmitter. Since the bandwidth of an OFDM system is H”= 1, Af the signal must be sampled withthe sampling time d= VIV= UN.Af Lets introduce one more ter ior th sample. The samples ofthe signal are writen a8 Sy, 0, Le N-l Vis equa incase of IFFT bin of N-pint Without zero peding and can be easulsted as sun Fe DSc @.13) “This equation describes exactly the inverse diserete Fourier transform (IDF), which is typically implemented as an IFFT. After IFFT, futher signal processing can be applied toavoid out-of-band radiation, Out-of-band radiation can oocur if amplitude peaks ofthe ‘OFDM signal are limited by the power amplifier and can occur to the side lobes of the subearrier spectra. Finally, the signal is D/A converted and transmitted. 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