energies

Article
Effects of Oxygen Content of Fuels on Combustion
and Emissions of Diesel Engines †
Haiwen Song 1 , Kelly Sison Quinton 1 , Zhijun Peng 2,3, *, Hua Zhao 4 and Nicos Ladommatos 5
Received: 22 October 2015; Accepted: 28 December 2015; Published: 5 January 2016
Academic Editor: Chang Sik Lee
1 Ford Motor Company, Dunton Technical Centre, Basildon SS15 6EE, UK; hsong1@ford.com (H.S.);
kquinto3@ford.com (K.S.Q.)
2 Key State Lab of Engines, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
3 School of Engineering and Technology, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield AL10 9AB, UK
4 School of Engineering and Design, Brunel University, Uxbridge UB8 3PH, UK; hua.zhao@brunel.ac.uk
5 Department of Mechanical Engineering, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK;
n.ladommatos@ucl.ac.uk
* Correspondence: pengzj@tju.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-22-2740-4409
† This paper is an extended version of our paper published in the 12th International Conference on
Combustion and Energy Utilisation, Lancaster, UK, 29 September–3 October 2014.

Abstract: Effects of oxygen content of fuels on combustion characteristics and emissions were
investigated on both an optical single cylinder direct injection (DI) diesel engine and a multi-cylinder
engine. Three fuels were derived from conventional diesel fuel (Finnish City diesel summer grade)
by blending Rapeseed Methyl Ester (RME) or Diglyme and Butyl-Diglyme of different quantities
to make their oxygen content 3%, 3% and 9%, respectively. The experimental results with three
tested fuels show that the fuel spray development was not affected apparently by the oxygenating.
Compared with the base fuel, the ignition delay to pilot injection was shortened by 0%, 11% and
19% for three oxygenated fuels, respectively. The ignition delay to main injection was shortened by
10%, 19% and 38%, respectively. With regard to emissions, the smoke level was reduced by 24% to
90%, depending on fuel properties and engine running conditions. The penalties of increased NOx
emissions and fuel consumption were up to 19% and 24%, respectively.

Keywords: oxygenated fuel; oxygen content; diesel fuel; NOx emissions; smoke

1. Introduction
Adding oxygen-containing chemicals to diesel fuel has been considered to be an effective means
to reduce the particulate emission with small penalties on NOx and fuel consumption. This method
might be one of the simplest and thus well recognized solutions for improving existing diesel engines
to meet increasingly stringent emission regulations. Tens of oxygen-containing hydrocarbons have
been evaluated in relation to compression ignition engine applications [1,2]. The additives can be
divided into two types—biomass products and synthetic products.
Initially motivated by the first oil crises in the 1970s, investigations of the biomass fuels were
aimed at replacing conventional petroleum supplies. Later on, more attention has been focused on
CO2 and PM (Particulate Matter) emissions using renewable, oxygen-containing biomass fuels from
vegetable oils [3,4].
Pure vegetable oils are not suitable for internal combustion engines directly because of their
high viscosity, poor volatility, and low cetane number, which result from the large molecular mass
and chemical structure and cause incomplete combustion and heavy smoke [5]. Therefore, in current
practice, methyl ester is commonly made by combining the vegetable oil with methanol and blended

Energies 2016, 9, 28; doi:10.3390/en9010028 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2016, 9, 28 2 of 12

with normal petroleum fuels. In Europe, RME (Rapeseed Methyl Ester) is already commercially
available for use in vehicles [6]. Currently, most engine manufacturers accept up to 5% RME additive
in normal fossil fuel, without need of basic modification to the engine design. As a re-generable fuel,
RME is more CO2 friendly than conventional diesel fuel [7]. In addition, RME contains no aromatics,
which are contributors to engine particulate emission [8,9]. Because of its approximately 10% [10,11]
oxygen content, low sulfur content, zero aromatics content, and higher cetane number, RME has been
found to be able to lower PM (Particulate Matter) emission, although with possible penalty of higher
NOx emission [12].
With regard to synthetic additives, one potential candidate is diglyme (C6 H14 O3 ), which has
35.8% oxygen content by weight, a density of 943 kg/m3 , cetane number about 112, and heat value
of 32.17 MJ/kg [13]. Another synthetic product, Butyl-Diglyme (C12 H26 O3 ), has higher boiling point
than diglyme. Similar to RME, when synthetic product is added to normal diesel fuel, the presence
of oxygen in the molecule gives them possible improvement on ignition or reduced ignition delay
compared to normal diesel.
The advantage of oxygenates for reducing engine PM emissions is well known. However,
fuel oxygenation could lead to higher NOx emission, as NOx normally increases with oxygen
concentration and combustion temperature in the cylinder [14]. If having adequate optimization
on engine combustion system and on combustion control strategy, blending normal diesel fuel with
oxygenates could produce benefit for improving trade-off between NOx and PM [15,16]. Modern
diesel engines equipped with an electronically controlled injection system, especially common rail
injection system, and EGR (Exhaust Gas Recirculation) system, can provide great flexibility to the
optimization in order to make full use of the advantage of the oxygenated fuels.
While various bio-fuels and synthetic additives are added and will be added into commercial
diesel fuel, it is necessary to understand their influences on air-fuel mixing, engine combustion
processes and consequently on exhaust emissions. The objectives of presented research are to
investigate effects of oxygenated diesel fuel on fuel injection characteristics, engine combustion
and emissions, while different additives also provide different changes to fuel properties, such as
cetane number, etc. The experimental investigations were carried out on an optical test engine and a
four-cylinder production engine, respectively.

2. Experimental Description

2.1. Test Fuels

The reference diesel fuel used in this study was Finnish City diesel (summer grade), named as the
base fuel. Three derivatives that contain different oxygen contents and reached by different mixture
compositions were derived from the base diesel fuel by blending Rapeseed Methyl Ester (RME) or
Diglyme and Butyl-Diglyme with different quantities to make their oxygen content to be 3%, 3% and
9%, respectively. The properties of the four fuels and two oxygenated additives are shown in Tables 1
and 2 respectively.

2.2. Optical Test Apparatus and Conditions

An optical single cylinder test engine equipped with common rail fuel injection system was
employed for the present investigation. The Schematic of the test rig can be seen in Figure 1. The
specially made cylinder was installed in a single cylinder 4-stroke naturally aspirated diesel engine,
which had an extended barrel and an upper piston arrangement to provide optical access into the
piston bowl. The optical path is via an adjustable mirror positioned under the upper piston and a
removable fused-silica window in the piston crown. The engine used a Bosch common rail injection
system, of which the ECU (Engine Control Unit) control program could be accessed via a computer.
Figure 2 shows the picture of the engine and Table 3 lists the main specifications of the optical engine
and its injection system.
Energies 2016, 9, 28 3 of 12

Table 1. Properties of tested fuels.

Fuel Type Base Fuel Oxy1 Oxy2 Oxy3

Base + Glymes Base + Glymes
Base + RME
Finnish City 3% oxygen 9% oxygen
Energies 2016, 9, 28 
Energies 2016, 9, 28  3% oxygen
Mixture Composition diesel summer 90.7% Base 71.4% Base
70.0% Base
grade 5.0% Digly 15.0% Digly
30.0% RME
Table 1. Properties of tested fuels. 
Table 1. Properties of tested fuels.   
  B-digly
4.3% 13.6% B-digly
Density 15 ˝ C (kg/m3 ) Fuel Type 
Fuel Type  833.7 Base Fuel
Base Fuel
848.2 Oxy1 Oxy1 840.5 Oxy2 Oxy2 854.9Oxy3 Oxy3 
Base + Glymes 
Base + Glymes    Base + Glymes 
  Base + Glymes 
Cetane number 53.3 Finnish City 
Finnish City 
Base + RME 59.5
54.2 Base + RME  3% oxygen 
3% oxygen      72.7 9% oxygen 
9% oxygen     
3% oxygen 
3% oxygen 
˝ 2 Mixture Composition 
Mixture Composition  2.94 diesel summer 
diesel summer 
3.27 70.0% Base  90.7% Base 
90.7% Base      1.99 71.4% Base 
71.4% Base     
Viscosity 40 C (mm /s) 70.0% Base 2.54
grade 
grade  5.0% Digly 
5.0% Digly      15.0% Digly 
15.0% Digly 
Surface tension 20 ˝ C (mN/m) 28 30.0% RME 28.7
29.6 30.0% RME  28.613.6% B‐digly 
4.3% B‐digly  13.6% B‐digly 
4.3% B‐digly 
´5
Compressibility 490 bar (10 /bar) Density 15 °C (kg/m
Density 15 °C (kg/m 3)  3) 
6.22 833.7 
833.7  6.01 848.2 
848.2  - 840.5 
840.5  854.9 
6.39854.9 
Cetane number 
Cetane number  53.3 53.3  54.2 54.2  59.5 59.5  72.7 72.7 
Compressibility 60 bar, 20 ˝ CViscosity 40 °C (mm
´5 /bar)
(10Viscosity 40 °C (mm 6.81
2/s)  2/s)  6.56
2.94 2.94  3.27 3.27  6.87 2.54 2.54  6.981.99 1.99 
Surface tension 20 °C (mN/m) 
Surface tension 20 °C (mN/m)  28  28  29.6 29.6 
Carbon (%) 86.1 83 83.2 28.7 28.7  78 28.6 28.6 
Compressibility 490 bar (10
Compressibility 490 bar (10 −5/bar) 
−5/bar)  6.22 6.22  6.01 6.01  ‐  ‐  6.39 6.39 
Hydrogen (%)
Compressibility 60 bar, 20 °C (10
Compressibility 60 bar, 20 °C (10 14−5/bar) 
−5/bar)  13.3
6.81 6.81  6.56 6.56  13.6 6.87 6.87  5.9 6.98 6.98 
C/H ratio Carbon (%) 
Carbon (%)  6.1 86.1 86.1 
6.2 83  83  6.1 83.2 83.2  5.9 78  78 
Hydrogen (%) 
Hydrogen (%)  14  14  13.3 13.3  13.6 13.6  5.9  5.9 
Lower calorific value (MJ/kg)C/H ratio 
C/H ratio  42.95 41.10
6.1  6.1  6.2  6.2  41.53 6.1  6.1  38.745.9  5.9 
Lower calorific value (MJ/kg) 
Lower calorific value (MJ/kg)  42.95 
42.95  41.10 
41.10  41.53 
41.53  38.74 
38.74 

Table 2. Properties of two oxygenated additives.

Table 2. Properties of two oxygenated additives. 
Table 2. Properties of two oxygenated additives. 

Compound Compound 
Compound  Diglyme
Diglyme 
Diglyme  Butyl-Diglyme
Butyl‐Diglyme 
Butyl‐Diglyme 
Chemical formula 
Chemical formula 
Chemical formula HC
CC66H H314
146O
14 O3
  O3  C CH
H
C1212 26 H
12O   O3 
26 O3
326

Molar mass (g/mol)

Molar mass (g/mol) 
Molar mass (g/mol)  134.18
134.18 
134.18  218.33
218.33 
218.33 

Molecular structure    
Molecular structure
Molecular structure

The fuel injection and combustion processes in the engine cylinder were recorded with a high‐speed 
The fuel injection and combustion processes in the engine cylinder were recorded with a high‐speed 
The fuel injection and combustion processes in the engine cylinder were recorded with a
MEMRECAMfx K3 color video camera (North American Corporate, Glenview, IL, USA) at a framing 
MEMRECAMfx K3 color video camera (North American Corporate, Glenview, IL, USA) at a framing 
high-speed MEMRECAMfx K3 color video camera (North American Corporate, Glenview, IL, USA) at
rate of 10,000 frames per second. To illuminate the fuel spray, a CU15 type copper vapor laser (Oxford 
rate of 10,000 frames per second. To illuminate the fuel spray, a CU15 type copper vapor laser (Oxford 
a framing rate ofLasers Ltd., Didcot, UK) supplied by Oxford Laser was used. In‐cylinder pressure was sampled at 
10,000 frames per second. To illuminate the fuel spray, a CU15 type copper vapor
Lasers Ltd., Didcot, UK) supplied by Oxford Laser was used. In‐cylinder pressure was sampled at 
laser (Oxford Lasers 0.2 °CA resolution for heat release analysis by averaging 100 continuous working cycles. The visible 
0.2 °CA resolution for heat release analysis by averaging 100 continuous working cycles. The visible 
Ltd., Didcot, UK) supplied by Oxford Laser was used. In-cylinder pressure was
sampled at 0.2 ˝ CA fuel spray development process, the ignition, and flame development processes were recorded with 
fuel spray development process, the ignition, and flame development processes were recorded with 
resolution for heat release analysis by averaging 100 continuous working cycles.
the high‐speed camera and stored in the computer. The spray penetration development, the visible 
the high‐speed camera and stored in the computer. The spray penetration development, the visible 
The visible fuel spray development process, the ignition, and flame development processes were
ignition, 
ignition,  and and  visible 
visible  flame 
flame  development 
development  processes 
processes  were 
were  afterwards 
afterwards  analyzed 
analyzed  with 
with  the the  computer 
computer 
recorded with thesoftware named ImageProPlus4.1 (Media Cybernetics Inc., Rockville, MD, USA). 
high-speed camera and stored in the computer. The spray penetration development,
software named ImageProPlus4.1 (Media Cybernetics Inc., Rockville, MD, USA). 
the visible ignition, In Table 4, the test conditions are summarized. In order to make the tests comparable for the 
and visible flame development processes were afterwards analyzed with the
In Table 4, the test conditions are summarized. In order to make the tests comparable for the 
computer software named ImageProPlus4.1 (Media Cybernetics Inc., Rockville, MD, USA).
different fuels, test condition settings were kept as identical as possible for all four fuels. The nominal 
different fuels, test condition settings were kept as identical as possible for all four fuels. The nominal 
In Table 4, the engine speed was set at 1600 rpm. In practice, the actual speed had variances up to 50 rpm, because, 
engine speed was set at 1600 rpm. In practice, the actual speed had variances up to 50 rpm, because, 
test conditions are summarized. In order to make the tests comparable for the
in order to get a stabilized precise speed of 1600 rpm, it would have taken some time and this would 
in order to get a stabilized precise speed of 1600 rpm, it would have taken some time and this would 
different fuels, test condition settings were kept as identical as possible for all four fuels. The nominal
have resulted in undesirable accumulation of soot on the optical windows through which the spray 
have resulted in undesirable accumulation of soot on the optical windows through which the spray 
engine speed wasand combustion were being photographed. 
setand combustion were being photographed. 
at 1600 rpm. In practice, the actual  speed  
had variances up to 50 rpm, because, in
order to get a stabilized precise speed of 1600 rpm, it would have taken some time and this would
In all tests, the engine speed varied within the range of 1600 to 1650 rpm. The pressure in the 
In all tests, the engine speed varied within the range of 1600 to 1650 rpm. The pressure in the 
have resulted in common rail of the injection system was set at 1000 bar. In all tests, the electronic command for the 
undesirable accumulation of soot on the optical windows through which the spray
common rail of the injection system was set at 1000 bar. In all tests, the electronic command for the 
werepilot injection start was set at 30 °CA BTDC (Before Top Dead Centre), with pilot injection quantity 
and combustion pilot injection start was set at 30 °CA BTDC (Before Top Dead Centre), with pilot injection quantity 
being photographed.
In all tests, the of 5 mm
of 5 mm 3 per cycle, which was equivalent to between 4.2 and 4.3 mg per cycle, depending on the fuel 
engine
3 per cycle, which was equivalent to between 4.2 and 4.3 mg per cycle, depending on the fuel 
speed varied within the range of 1600 to 1650 rpm. The pressure in the
density. Because of the different densities and heat values, the energy contained in the 5 mm
density. Because of the different densities and heat values, the energy contained in the 5 mm 3 pilot 
3 pilot 
common rail of the injection system was set at 1000 bar. In all tests, the electronic command for the
delivery 
delivery  for for  Oxy1, 
Oxy1,  Oxy2 
Oxy2  and 
and  Oxy3 
Oxy3  were 
were  2.5%, 
2.5%,  2.8% 
2.8%  and 
and  7.7% 
7.7%  lower 
lower  than 
than  that 
that  of  of 
the the  base 
base  fuel, 
fuel, 
pilot injection start was set at 30 ˝ CA BTDC (Before Top Dead Centre), with pilot injection quantity
respectively. The main injection was set to start at 10 °CA BTDC, though visible main injection from 
respectively. The main injection was set to start at 10 °CA BTDC, though visible main injection from 
of 5 mm3 per cycle, which was equivalent to between 4.2 and 4.3 mg per cycle, depending on the
the images was seen to start at around 6.8 °CA BTDC. The main injection fuel quantity was adjusted 
the images was seen to start at around 6.8 °CA BTDC. The main injection fuel quantity was adjusted 
fuel density. Because of the different densities and heat values, the energy contained in the 5 mm3
so that the air/fuel ratio was kept at 20:1 for all the fuels. Due to the optical access modifications of 
so that the air/fuel ratio was kept at 20:1 for all the fuels. Due to the optical access modifications of 
pilot delivery forthe  the 
Oxy1, Ricardo 
Ricardo 
Oxy2 Hydra 
Hydra  engine, 
andengine, 
Oxy3 the 
the 
were compression 
compression 
2.5%, 2.8% ratio 
ratio 
andwas was 
7.7% reduced 
reduced 
lower to  15.88. 
to  than
15.88.  Thus, 
that Thus, 
ofthe the 
the intake 
intake 
base air  air 
was 
fuel, was 
heated to 100 °C to ensure smooth ignition and combustion. The differences in the fuel viscosities and 
heated to 100 °C to ensure smooth ignition and combustion. The differences in the fuel viscosities and 
˝
respectively. The main injection was set to start at 10 CA BTDC, though visible main injection from
other features can be neglected in regard to the injection rate, i.e., the same injection map was used in 
other features can be neglected in regard to the injection rate, i.e., the same injection map was used in 
the images was seen to start at around 6.8 ˝ CA BTDC. The main injection fuel quantity was adjusted
determining the injection durations. 
determining the injection durations. 
so that the air/fuel ratio was kept at 20:1 for all the fuels. Due to the optical access modifications
of the Ricardo Hydra engine, the compression ratio was reduced to 15.88. Thus, the intake air was
3  3 
Energies 2016, 9, 28 4 of 12

heated to 100 ˝ C to ensure smooth ignition and combustion. The differences in the fuel viscosities and
other features can be neglected in regard to the injection rate, i.e., the same injection map was used in
determining the injection durations.
Energies 2016, 9, 28 
Energies 2016, 9, 28 

 
 
Figure 1. Schematics of test engine with optical access to the combustion chamber. 
Figure 1. Schematics of test engine with optical access to the combustion chamber.
Figure 1. Schematics of test engine with optical access to the combustion chamber. 

 
Figure 2. Test engine with optical window, etc.   
Figure 2. Test engine with optical window, etc. 
Figure
 
2. Test engine with optical window, etc.
 

4 
4 
Energies 2016, 9, 28 5 of 12

Table 3. Specifications of optical test engine.

RICARDO Hydra Single Cylinder 4-Stroke Naturally Aspirated

Engine Type
Diesel Engine with Modified Ford Puma Cylinder Head
Bore 86 mm
Stroke 86 mm
Connecting rod length 154 mm
Compression ratio 15.88
Diameter/depth of piston bowl 43.4/11.6 mm
Number of valves 4
Injection system type Bosch common-rail, Direct injection, single central injector
High pressure fuel pump Bosch common rail pump
Number of nozzle orifices 6
Nozzle orifice diameter/length 0.149/1.0 mm
Nozzle orifice cone angle 170˝
Injection control unit model ETK 3.1

Table 4. Operation conditions of the optical test engine.

Test No. 031115 030115 021128 020708

Fuel Base Oxy1 Oxy2 Oxy3
Ambient Pressure (mmHg) 740.3 763.5 751.55 754.55
Ambient Temperature (˝ C) 20 20 20 21
Engine Intake Temperature (˝ C) 100 100 100 100
Engine Speed (rpm) 1608 1617 1623 1646
Injection Pressure (bar) 1000 1000 1000 1000
Injection Quantity (mm3 ¨ (mg)/cycle) 5 (4.2) 5 (4.2) 5 (4.2) 5 (4.3)
Pilot, Main Injection Timings (˝ CA BTDC) 30, 10 30, 10 30, 10 30, 10
Air/Fuel Ratio by Mass 20.2 20.5 20.4 19.9

2.3. Emissions Test Apparatus and Conditions

Emissions tests were conducted on a Ford Puma 4-cylinder, 16-valve turbocharged diesel engine
(Ford Motor Company, Basildon, UK) equipped with 1600 bar common rail injection system. The
engine has 1998.23 cc swept volume with both bore and stroke of 86 mm. The compression ratio is 18.2.
Test conditions of emissions test are listed in Table 5. All three tests were operated without EGR, though
the engine has an intercooled EGR system. The exhaust emissions, such as hydrocarbons, nitrogen
oxides, and carbon oxides, were measured with Horiba gas analyzers (MEXA-9100D) (Horiba UK Ltd.,
Northampton, UK). Smoke was detected by an AVL smoke meter based on the filter paper method.

Table 5. Emissions test conditions.

Engine Speed Pilot Injection Timing Start of Main Injection

Test No. Torque (Nm)
(rpm) (˝ CA BTDC) (˝ CA BTDC)
1 2000 148 30 1.69
2 2000 236 No pilot injection 3.00
3 4000 170 No pilot injection 10.75

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Fuel Spray Characteristics

Figure 3 shows the pictures selected from the series of videos taken with the high-speed camera.
From the pictures, it can be seen that, generally, the visible start of combustion for the oxygenated fuels
Energies 2016, 9, 28 6 of 12

took place earlier than that for the base fuel. All combustion starts around cylinder wall where there
is most appropriate air-fuel ratio for auto-ignition at the beginning. Afterward, at TDC (Top Dead
Centre), the flames for the oxygenated fuels had dispersed more uniformly. Few differences can be
distinguished by eye in the processes of fuel spray and combustion.
Energies 2016, 9, 28 

Energies 2016, 9, 28 

 
Figure 3. Visible fuel spray and combustion processes for different fuels. 
Figure 3. Visible fuel spray and combustion processes for different fuels.
Figure 4 shows the measured fuel spray tip penetration development for various fuels on time   
basis. The values illustrated in the plots are the ratio of the spray length to the full distance between 
Figure 3. Visible fuel spray and combustion processes for different fuels. 
Figure 4 shows the measured fuel spray tip penetration development for various fuels on time
the nozzle orifice and the combustion chamber wall. It seems that the spray of the Oxy1 fuel, which 
basis. The has 
values
the  illustrated
highest  in the
viscosity,  plots are
developed  the
the  ratio whereas 
slowest,  of the spray length
the  Oxy3  fuel to the full
spray,  due distance between the
to  its  lowest 
Figure 4 shows the measured fuel spray tip penetration development for various fuels on time 
nozzle orifice and the combustion chamber wall. It seems that the spray of the Oxy1 fuel, which has
viscosity, developed the quickest. No obvious difference between the spray development speeds for 
basis. The values illustrated in the plots are the ratio of the spray length to the full distance between 
the highestthe base and the Oxy2 fuels is observed. 
the nozzle orifice and the combustion chamber wall. It seems that the spray of the Oxy1 fuel, which 
viscosity, developed the slowest, whereas the Oxy3 fuel spray, due to its lowest viscosity,
developedhas 
thethe  highest  viscosity,  developed  the  slowest,  whereas  the  Oxy3  fuel  spray,  due  to  its  lowest 
quickest. No obvious difference between the spray development speeds for the base
viscosity, developed the quickest. No obvious difference between the spray development speeds for 
and the Oxy2 fuels is observed.
the base and the Oxy2 fuels is observed. 

 
Figure 4. Fuel spray developments. 

 
6 
Figure 4. Fuel spray developments. 
Figure 4. Fuel spray developments.

6 
Energies 2016, 9, 28 7 of 12

3.2. Ignition and Flame Development

Due to the low level of incandescence, the flame can hardly be seen on the video pictures before
the ignition after the main injection, although heat release analysis confirms that combustion did occur
before the Energies 2016, 9, 28 
main injection started. From the video pictures in Figure 3, it can be seen that the fuel sprays
of the main injection impinged the wall of the combustion chamber, vaporized, and mixed with air.
3.2. Ignition and Flame Development 
After that, ignition occurred within the mixture near the combustion chamber wall around the fuel
Due to the low level of incandescence, the flame can hardly be seen on the video pictures before 
spray jet while injection was still continuing. The flame fragments formed at the early combustion stage
the  ignition  after  the  main  injection,  although  heat  release  analysis  confirms  that  combustion  did 
spread and, simultaneously, forced by the swirl movement of the air charge, moved circumferentially
occur before the main injection started. From the video pictures in Figure 3, it can be seen that the 
along the fuel sprays of the main injection impinged the wall of the combustion chamber, vaporized, and mixed 
combustion chamber wall, encountered the adjacent ones and merged with each other. In
with air. After that, ignition occurred within the mixture near the combustion chamber wall around 
addition, the flames appeared to spread upstream along the sprays towards the injector. In this manner,
the  fuel  spray  jet  while  injection  was  still  continuing.  The  flame  fragments  formed  at  the  early 
the flame increased its occupation volume until reaching maxima in the combustion chamber space
combustion stage spread and, simultaneously, forced by the swirl movement of the air charge, moved 
before combustion started
circumferentially  to deplete.
along  the  combustion  chamber  wall,  encountered  the adjacent  ones and  merged 
The area of the combustion chamber covered by the flames during the combustion period
with each other. In addition, the flames appeared to spread upstream along the sprays towards the 
injector. on
was measured In  this 
the manner, 
picturesthe taken
flame  increased 
with theits high-speed
occupation  volume  until using
camera reaching 
themaxima  in  the  software
computer
combustion chamber space before combustion started to deplete. 
ImageProPlus4.1. These areas covered by flames are shown, for the different fuels, in Figure 5.
The area of the combustion chamber covered by the flames during the combustion period was 
The Oxy3 measured 
fuel seems on to bepictures 
the  startingtaken 
to combust
with  the earlier thancamera 
high‐speed  the other fuels
using  the  and to have
computer  burned longer
software 
with bigger flame area. It should be noted that the measurement of the flame silhouette area shows
ImageProPlus4.1. These areas covered by flames are shown, for the different fuels, in Figure 5. The 
Oxy3 fuel seems to be starting to combust earlier than the other fuels and to have burned longer with 
more qualitatively rather than quantitatively the trends of the combustion development process. This
bigger flame area. It should be noted that the measurement of the flame silhouette area shows more 
is because the silhouette is two-dimensional and cannot, therefore, represent the depth of the flame
qualitatively rather than quantitatively the trends of the combustion development process. This is 
and, thus, because the silhouette is two‐dimensional and cannot, therefore, represent the depth of the flame and, 
the three-dimensional volume of the flame in the bowl. Furthermore, the area measurement
does not include
thus,  the  flame density or
three‐dimensional  brightness
volume  information,
of  the  flame  which is alsothe area 
in  the  bowl. Furthermore,  an important indicator for
measurement 
combustion.does not include flame density or brightness information, which is also an important indicator for 
In addition, some inevitable soot contamination on the optical window surface tends to
combustion. In addition, some inevitable soot contamination on the optical window surface tends to 
affect the accuracy of the measurement of the flame occupation area.
affect the accuracy of the measurement of the flame occupation area. 

 
Figure 5. Flame developments. 
Figure 5. Flame developments.
3.3. Ignition Delay 
3.3. Ignition Delay
Ignition delay discussed in this paper is defined as the period from the start of the electronic 
command of injection to the forthcoming valley on the heat release (net) rate curve (dQ/dθ)min, which 
Ignition
was delay discussed
taken  as  the  start  of in this paperThe 
combustion).  is heat 
defined asrate 
release  thecurves, 
period from
which  thecalculated 
were  start of from 
the electronic
 
commandin‐cylinder 
of injection to thecurves, 
pressure  forthcoming valley
are  plotted  on the
in  Figure  heatpilot 
6.  The  release (net)injection 
and  main  rate curve (dQ/dθ)
ignition  delays, min , which
was takendefined as above, are shown in Figures 7 and 8, respectively. From Figures 7 and 8, it can be seen that 
as the start of combustion). The heat release rate curves, which were calculated from
the  Oxy1  fuel  had  similar  pilot  ignition  delay  to  the  base  fuel,  before  the  cylinder  temperature 
in-cylinder pressure curves, are plotted in Figure 6. The pilot and main injection ignition delays,
building  up.  However,  although  with  the  same  3%  oxygen  content,  the  Oxy2  shortened  the  pilot 
defined asignition delay by 11% on time basis, proving its higher cetane number. This might be due to the fact 
above, are shown in Figures 7 and 8 respectively. From Figures 7 and 8 it can be seen that
the Oxy1 fuel had similar pilot ignition delay to the base fuel, before the cylinder temperature building
that the RME additive in the Oxy1 fuel has higher specific heat and higher density, which slows the 
evaporation 
up. However, althoughof  the 
with fuel 
thedroplets 
same 3% and oxygen
thus  suppress 
content, the the
increase 
Oxy2of  the  fuel  cetane 
shortened number. 
the pilot  
ignition delay
The oxygenate additives have, through the increases of the cetane number, affected ignition delay 
by 11% on time basis, proving its higher cetane number. This might be due to the fact that the RME
period remarkably. 
additive in the Oxy1 fuel has higher specific heat and 7 
higher density, which slows the evaporation of
the fuel droplets and thus suppress the increase of the fuel cetane number. The oxygenate additives
have, through the increases of the cetane number, affected ignition delay period remarkably.
Energies 2016, 9, 28 8 of 12
Energies 2016, 9, 28 
Energies 2016, 9, 28 
Energies 2016, 9, 28 

 
 
Figure 6. In‐cylinder trace and net heat release rates.   
Figure 6. In-cylinder trace and net heat release rates.
Figure 6. In‐cylinder trace and net heat release rates. 
Figure 6. In‐cylinder trace and net heat release rates. 

 
 
Figure 7. Ignition delays to pilot injection.   
Figure 7. Ignition delays to pilot injection. 
Figure 7. Ignition delays to pilot injection.
Figure 7. Ignition delays to pilot injection. 

 
 
Figure 8. Ignition delays to main injection.   
Figure 8. Ignition delays to main injection. 
Figure 8. Ignition delays to main injection. 
Figure 8. Ignition delays to main injection.
Compared with the base fuel, the main injection ignition delay under the test conditions was 
Compared with the base fuel, the main injection ignition delay under the test conditions was 
shortened  by  7%,  14%  and  41%,  on  time  basis,  for  the  fuels  Oxy1,  Oxy2  and  Oxy3,  respectively. 
Compared with the base fuel, the main injection ignition delay under the test conditions was 
shortened  by  7%,  14%  and  41%,  on  time  basis,  for  the  fuels  Oxy1,  Oxy2  and  Oxy3,  respectively. 
Although Oxy1 and Oxy2 fuels have the same oxygen content, the latter has higher cetane number 
shortened  by  7%,  14%  and  41%,  on  time  basis,  for  the  fuels  Oxy1,  Oxy2  and  Oxy3,  respectively. 
Although Oxy1 and Oxy2 fuels have the same oxygen content, the latter has higher cetane number 
owing to its different mixture composition. In other words, the diglyme and butyl‐diglyme additives 
Although Oxy1 and Oxy2 fuels have the same oxygen content, the latter has higher cetane number 
owing to its different mixture composition. In other words, the diglyme and butyl‐diglyme additives 
owing to its different mixture composition. In other words, the diglyme and butyl‐diglyme additives 
8 
8 
8 
Energies 2016, 9, 28 9 of 12

Compared with the base fuel, the main injection ignition delay under the test conditions was
shortened by 7%, 14% and 41%, on time basis, for the fuels Oxy1, Oxy2 and Oxy3, respectively.
Although Oxy1 and Oxy2 fuels have the same oxygen content, the latter has higher cetane number
Energies 2016, 9, 28 
owing to its different mixture composition. In other words, the diglyme and butyl-diglyme
additives
in  Oxy2  in Oxy2 increase
increase  the ignitability
the  ignitability  of  the offuel 
the fuel
more more
than than
the the RMEadditive 
RME  additive because 
because diglyme
diglyme   
and
and  butyl-diglyme
butyl‐diglyme  have have  only
only  single
single  bonds
bonds  between
between  their
their C-atoms
C‐atoms andand O-atoms. In a 
O‐atoms.  In  a study 
study by by 
Westbrook et al. [17], it was concluded that oxygenated additives containing
Westbrook et al. [17], it was concluded that oxygenated additives containing single bonds between  single bonds between
Energies 2016, 9, 28 
C-atoms
C‐atoms  andand  O-atoms
O‐atoms  are are  more
more effective
effective onon reducing
reducing sootsoot emissions
emissions thanthan compounds
compounds containing
containing 
double bonds between C-atoms and O-atoms such as RME. In addition,
double bonds between C‐atoms and O‐atoms such as RME. In addition, larger amount of diglyme  larger amount
in  Oxy2  increase  the  ignitability  of  the  fuel  more  than  the  RME  additive  because  diglyme  of diglyme
 
and butyl-diglyme additives make Oxy3 fuel even more ignitable. Figures
and butyl‐diglyme additives make Oxy3 fuel even more ignitable. Figures 9 and 10 show the ignition  9 and 10 show
and  butyl‐diglyme  have  only  single  bonds  between  their  C‐atoms  and  O‐atoms.  In  a  study  by  the ignition
delays vs.
delays fuel
fuel oxygen content and cetane number, respectively. The The 
ignition delaydelay 
Westbrook et al. [17], it was concluded that oxygenated additives containing single bonds between 
vs.  oxygen  content  and  cetane  number,  respectively.  ignition  has a has 
roughly linear
a  roughly 
C‐atoms 
relationship with and 
the O‐atoms 
cetane are  more  effective  on  reducing  soot  emissions  than  compounds  containing 
number.
linear relationship with the cetane number. 
double bonds between C‐atoms and O‐atoms such as RME. In addition, larger amount of diglyme 
and butyl‐diglyme additives make Oxy3 fuel even more ignitable. Figures 9 and 10 show the ignition 
delays  vs.  fuel  oxygen  content  and  cetane  number,  respectively.  The  ignition  delay  has  a  roughly 
linear relationship with the cetane number. 

 
 
Figure 9. Ignition delays (to main injection) as function of fuel oxygen content. 
Figure 9. Ignition delays (to main injection) as function of fuel oxygen content.
Figure 9. Ignition delays (to main injection) as function of fuel oxygen content. 

 
 
Figure 10. Ignition delays (to main injection) as function of fuel cetane number. 
Figure 10. Ignition delays (to main injection) as function of fuel cetane number.
Figure 10. Ignition delays (to main injection) as function of fuel cetane number. 
3.4. Emissions TEST 
3.4. Emissions TEST
Figure 11 illustrate positive effect of the oxygenated fuels on the reduction of smoke level of the 
3.4. Emissions TEST 
engine running under the three conditions, compared with the Base fuel. It can be seen that in Test 1, 
Figure 11 illustrate positive effect of the oxygenated fuels on the reduction of smoke level of the
which operated at 2000 rpm and 148 Nm of load, the engine smoke level was reduced remarkably by 
Figure 11 illustrate positive effect of the oxygenated fuels on the reduction of smoke level of the 
engine running under the three conditions, compared with the Base fuel. It can be seen that in Test
from  56% (Oxy1)  to  91% (Oxy3); at  high  speed and high load  Test  3 (4000  rpm  and 170 Nm),  the 
engine running under the three conditions, compared with the Base fuel. It can be seen that in Test 1, 
1, whicheffects became smaller, to the range of 24% (Oxy2) to 56% (Oxy3). Corresponding to the reduction of 
operated at 2000 rpm and 148 Nm of load, the engine smoke level was reduced remarkably
which operated at 2000 rpm and 148 Nm of load, the engine smoke level was reduced remarkably by 
by fromthe smoke level, the NO
56% (Oxy1) to 91% (Oxy3); at high speed and high load Test 3 (4000 rpm and 170 Nm), the
x increases by using the oxygenated fuels in Test 3 were under 8%, in Test 1 
from  56% (Oxy1) 
effects became to  91% (Oxy3); at 
smaller, to the range ofhigh  24%speed and high load 
(Oxy2) to 56% (Oxy3).Test  3 (4000  rpm to
Corresponding and 170 Nm), 
the reductionthe 
and Test 2 (2000 rpm and 236 Nm) increased by 9% (Oxy1) to 19% (Oxy3). In Figure 12, it shows the  of
effects became smaller, to the range of 24% (Oxy2) to 56% (Oxy3). Corresponding to the reduction of 
trade‐off between NO  emissions and smoke. Apart from the base fuel, Oxy3 has the best performance 
the smoke level, the NOx increases by using the oxygenated fuels in Test 3 were under 8%, in Test 1
x

and Testfor overcoming the trade‐off, compared to Oxy1 and Oxy2. 
the smoke level, the NO
2 (2000 rpm andx increases by using the oxygenated fuels in Test 3 were under 8%, in Test 1 
236 Nm) increased by 9% (Oxy1) to 19% (Oxy3). In Figure 12, it shows the
Owing  to  its  higher  oxygen  content,  the  Oxy3  fuel  had  lower  smoke  level  but  higher  NOx 
and Test 2 (2000 rpm and 236 Nm) increased by 9% (Oxy1) to 19% (Oxy3). In Figure 12, it shows the 
emission than the other two oxygenated fuels in Test 1 and Test 2, whereas its NOx emission was 
trade‐off between NOx emissions and smoke. Apart from the base fuel, Oxy3 has the best performance 
similar to those for the other two fuels in Test 3. The reason why the NOx emission for the Oxy3 fuel 
for overcoming the trade‐off, compared to Oxy1 and Oxy2. 
Owing  to  its  higher  oxygen  content,  the  Oxy3  9  fuel  had  lower  smoke  level  but  higher  NOx 
emission than the other two oxygenated fuels in Test 1 and Test 2, whereas its NOx emission was 
Energies 2016, 9, 28 10 of 12

trade-off between NOx emissions and smoke. Apart from the base fuel, Oxy3 has the best performance
for overcoming the trade-off, compared to Oxy1 and Oxy2.
Energies 2016, 9, 28 
Owing to its higher oxygen content, the Oxy3 fuel had lower smoke level but higher NOx emission
than the other two oxygenated fuels in Test 1 and Test 2, whereas its NOx emission was similar to
in Test 3 was not higher than those for the Oxy1 and Oxy2 fuels might be that its lower heat value 
those for the other two fuels in Test 3. The reason why the NOx emission for the Oxy3 fuel in Test 3
was  Energies 2016, 9, 28 
more  dominant  and  thus  lowered  the  Oxy2
maximum 
was not higher than those for the Oxy1 and fuels combustion 
might be thattemperature 
its lower heat at  value
the  high 
wasengine 
more
speed and load, and the corresponding relatively advanced injection timing. In addition, in Test 3, 
dominant and thus lowered the maximum combustion temperature at the high engine speed and load,
in Test 3 was not higher than those for the Oxy1 and Oxy2 fuels might be that its lower heat value 
the Oxy3 fuel has substantially lower smoke levels than the other fuels, while its NO
and thewas  more  dominant 
corresponding and  thus advanced
relatively lowered  the  maximum 
injection combustion 
timing. temperature 
In addition, at  the 
in Test 3, high  x emission is 
engine 
the Oxy3 fuel has
similar to those for the Oxy1 and Oxy2 fuels, indicating that Oxy3 would have the best NO
speed and load, and the corresponding relatively advanced injection timing. In addition, in Test 3,  x‐moke 
substantially lower smoke levels than the other fuels, while its NOx emission is similar to those for
the Oxy3 fuel has substantially lower smoke levels than the other fuels, while its NOx emission is 
trade‐off by changing some operating parameter, such as EGR rate or/and injection timing selections. 
the Oxy1 and Oxy2 fuels, indicating that Oxy3 would have the best NOx -moke trade-off by changing
similar to those for the Oxy1 and Oxy2 fuels, indicating that Oxy3 would have the best NOx‐moke 
some operating parameter, such as EGR rate or/and injection timing selections.
trade‐off by changing some operating parameter, such as EGR rate or/and injection timing selections. 

 
 
Figure  11.  Effects  of  oxygen  content  on  NOx  emission  and  smoke  based  on  four  tested  fuels   
Figure 11. Effects of 
of oxygen 
oxygen content 
content on 
on NONOxx  emission 
emission and 
and smoke 
smoke based 
based on 
Figure (Test 1—2000 rpm and 148 Nm; Test 2—2000 rpm and 236 Nm; Test 3—4000 rpm and 170 Nm). 
11.  Effects  on four
four  tested
tested  fuels
fuels   
(Test 1—2000 rpm and 148 Nm; Test 2—2000 rpm and 236 Nm; Test 3—4000 rpm and 170 Nm).
(Test 1—2000 rpm and 148 Nm; Test 2—2000 rpm and 236 Nm; Test 3—4000 rpm and 170 Nm). 

 
Figure  12.  Smoke  as  function  of  NOx  emissions  based  on  four  tested  fuels  (Test  1—2000  rpm  and   
148 Nm; Test 2—2000 rpm and 236 Nm; Test 3—4000 rpm and 170 Nm). 
 
As  seen  in  Figure  13,  in  all  three  tests,  the  oxygenated  fuels  had  higher  SFC  (Specific  Fuel 
Figure  12.  Smoke 
Smoke as  function  ofof  NO
NOx  emissions  based  on  four  tested  fuels  (Test  1—2000  rpm  and   
Consumption) than the corresponding values for the base fuel. This trend is the most significant in 
as function
Figure 12. x emissions based on four tested fuels (Test 1—2000 rpm and
148 Nm; Test 2—2000 rpm and 236 Nm; Test 3—4000 rpm and 170 Nm). 
148Test 3. Considering the differences in the heat values of the fuels, Figure 14 compares the specific 
Nm; Test 2—2000 rpm and 236 Nm; Test 3—4000 rpm and 170 Nm).
energy  consumptions  for  the  various  fuels.  It  can  be seen  that, in Test  1 and  Test  2, SEC  (Specific 
As Energy Consumption) for the oxygenated fuels does not change much compared with those for the 
seen  in  Figure  13,  in  all  three  tests,  the  oxygenated  fuels  had  higher  SFC  (Specific  Fuel 
Asbase fuel. However, in Test 3, the oxygenated fuels still have higher SEC than the base fuel, especially 
seen in Figure 13, in all three tests, the oxygenated fuels had higher SFC (Specific Fuel
Consumption) than the corresponding values for the base fuel. This trend is the most significant in 
Consumption) than the corresponding values for the base fuel. This trend is the most significant in
for the Oxy3 fuel. This might be because that at the fixed injection timing, the injection period and 
Test 3. Considering the differences in the heat values of the fuels, Figure 14 compares the specific 
Test 3. combustion period for the oxygenated fuels were prolonged due to their lower heat values, and thus 
Considering the differences in the heat values of the fuels, Figure 14 compares the specific
energy lowered 
consumptions  for  the efficiency. 
the  combustion 
various  The fuels.  It  can parameters 
be seen  that, in Test  1 and  Test  2, SEC  (Specific 
energy consumptions for the various fuels. Itinjection 
can be seen that, in and  EGR 
Test ratio Test
1 and should  be  optimized 
2, SEC (Specific Energy
Energy Consumption) for the oxygenated fuels does not change much compared with those for the 
according to the properties of the oxygenated fuels. 
Consumption) for the oxygenated fuels does not change much compared with those for the base fuel.
base fuel. However, in Test 3, the oxygenated fuels still have higher SEC than the base fuel, especially 
However, in Test 3, the oxygenated fuels still have higher SEC than the base fuel, especially for the
for the Oxy3 fuel. This might be because that at the fixed injection timing, the injection period and 
Oxy3 fuel. This might be because that at the fixed injection timing, the injection period and combustion
combustion period for the oxygenated fuels were prolonged due to their lower heat values, and thus 
period for the oxygenated fuels were prolonged due to their lower heat values, and thus lowered the
lowered  the  combustion  efficiency.  The  injection  parameters  and  EGR  ratio  should  be  optimized 
10 
according to the properties of the oxygenated fuels. 
Energies 2016, 9, 28 11 of 12

combustion efficiency. The injection parameters and EGR ratio should be optimized according to the
properties of the oxygenated fuels.
Energies 2016, 9, 28 
Energies 2016, 9, 28 

 
 
Figure 13. Effects of oxygen content on fuel consumption, based on four tested fuels (Test 1—2000 rpm 
Figure Figure 13. Effects of oxygen content on fuel consumption, based on four tested fuels (Test 1—2000 rpm 
13. Effects of oxygen content on fuel consumption, based on four tested fuels (Test 1—2000 rpm
and 148 Nm; Test 2—2000 rpm and 236 Nm; Test 3—4000 rpm and 170 Nm) 
and 148and 148 Nm; Test 2—2000 rpm and 236 Nm; Test 3—4000 rpm and 170 Nm) 
Nm; Test 2—2000 rpm and 236 Nm; Test 3—4000 rpm and 170 Nm)

12
12

11
11
SEC (MJ/kWh)
SEC (MJ/kWh)

10 Oxy2
10 Oxy2
Oxy1
Oxy1 SEC - Test 1
SEC - Test 1
9
9 SEC - Test 2
SEC - Test 2
SEC - Test 3
8 SEC - Test 3
8
0 2 4 6 8 10
0 2 4 6 8 10
Oxygen content (%)
Oxygen content (%)  
 
Figure 14. Effects of oxygen content on energy consumption, based on four tested fuels (Test 1—2000 rpm 
Figure Figure 14. Effects of oxygen content on energy consumption, based on four tested fuels (Test 1—2000 rpm 
14. Effects of oxygen content on energy consumption, based on four tested fuels
and 148 Nm; Test 2—2000 rpm and 236 Nm; Test 3—4000 rpm and 170 Nm). 
and 148 Nm; Test 2—2000 rpm and 236 Nm; Test 3—4000 rpm and 170 Nm). 
(Test 1—2000 rpm and 148 Nm; Test 2—2000 rpm and 236 Nm; Test 3—4000 rpm and 170 Nm).
4. Conclusions 
4. Conclusions 
4. Conclusions
 The oxygenating additives had no significant influence on the fuel spray development rate. 
 The oxygenating additives had no significant influence on the fuel spray development rate. 
‚ 
The Under the engine settings listed in Table 4, the Oxy1, Oxy2 and Oxy3 fuels shortened the pilot 
oxygenating additives had no significant influence on the fuel spray development rate.
 Under the engine settings listed in Table 4, the Oxy1, Oxy2 and Oxy3 fuels shortened the pilot 
ignition delay by 0%, 11% and 19%, respectively, and the main ignition delay was shortened by 
‚ Under the engine settings listed in Table 4, the Oxy1, Oxy2 and Oxy3 fuels shortened the pilot
ignition delay by 0%, 11% and 19%, respectively, and the main ignition delay was shortened by 
8%, 19% and 38%, respectively. Although the Oxy1 fuel and the Oxy2 fuel have the same oxygen 
ignition delay by 0%, 11% and 19%, respectively, and the main ignition delay was shortened by
8%, 19% and 38%, respectively. Although the Oxy1 fuel and the Oxy2 fuel have the same oxygen 
content, they still have slight differences in ignition delay due to different bonds between C‐atoms 
8%, 19% content, they still have slight differences in ignition delay due to different bonds between C‐atoms 
and 38%, respectively. Although the Oxy1 fuel and the Oxy2 fuel have the same oxygen
and O‐atoms in molecular structures, which have resulted in their different cetane numbers. 
content, and O‐atoms in molecular structures, which have resulted in their different cetane numbers. 
they still have slight differences in ignition delay due to different bonds between C-atoms
 With pilot injection, the Oxy3 fuel seemed to have longer big‐flame‐area combustion period and 
 With pilot injection, the Oxy3 fuel seemed to have longer big‐flame‐area combustion period and 
and O-atoms in molecular structures, which have resulted in their different cetane numbers.
lower peak cylinder pressure, probably due to smaller fuel accumulation during the shortened 
lower peak cylinder pressure, probably due to smaller fuel accumulation during the shortened 
‚ Withignition delay. 
pilot injection, the Oxy3 fuel seemed to have longer big-flame-area combustion period and
ignition delay. 

lower In general, the oxygen content in the three oxygenated fuels lowered the smoke, with NO
peak cylinder pressure, probably due to smaller fuel accumulation during the shortened x and 
 In general, the oxygen content in the three oxygenated fuels lowered the smoke, with NO x and 
fuel 
ignition consumption 
delay. penalties.  By  optimizing  other  operating  parameters  for  reducing  peak 
fuel  consumption  penalties.  By  optimizing  other  operating  parameters  for  reducing  peak 
combustion temperature, such as reducing injection pressure, retarding injection timings, and 
‚ In general, the oxygen content in the three oxygenated fuels lowered the smoke, with NOx and fuel
combustion temperature, such as reducing injection pressure, retarding injection timings, and 
increasing EGR ratio, these penalties are expected to be minimized. 
increasing EGR ratio, these penalties are expected to be minimized. 
consumption penalties. By optimizing other operating parameters for reducing peak combustion
 Oxy3 fuel, which has obviously higher oxygen content than the other test fuels, seems to have 
 Oxy3 fuel, which has obviously higher oxygen content than the other test fuels, seems to have 
temperature, such as reducing injection pressure, retarding injection timings, and increasing EGR
the best potential for balancing NO x‐PM emission trade‐off. As it can reduce smoke but increase 
ratio,NO the best potential for balancing NO
these x‐PM emission trade‐off. As it can reduce smoke but increase 
penalties are expected to be minimized.
x emissions, higher EGR rate or lower injection pressure will be helpful to achieve acceptable 
NOx emissions, higher EGR rate or lower injection pressure will be helpful to achieve acceptable 
‚ Oxy3smoke and NO
fuel, which has obviously higher oxygen content than the other test fuels, seems to have
x emissions. 
smoke and NOx emissions. 
the best potential for balancing NOx -PM emission trade-off. As it can reduce smoke but increase
11 
11 
Energies 2016, 9, 28 12 of 12

NOx emissions, higher EGR rate or lower injection pressure will be helpful to achieve acceptable
smoke and NOx emissions.

Author Contributions: The experimental work and data analysis were mainly completed by Haiwen Song,
Kelly Sison Quinton, and Zhijun Peng, with supervisions from Hua Zhao and Nicos Ladommatos.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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