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World Bank Group. The new versions of the World Bank Group WORLD BANK GROUP
Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines are available at Effective July 1998
http://www.ifc.org/ifcext/enviro.nsf/Content/EnvironmentalGuidelines
Cement Manufacturing
275
276 PROJECT GUIDELINES: INDUSTRY SECTOR GUIDELINES
well maintained can normally achieve generation are sensitive to gas characteristics, such as tem-
of less than 0.2 kilograms of dust per metric ton perature, and to variation in voltage; baghouses
(kg/t) of clinker, using dust recovery systems. are generally regarded as more reliable. The over-
NOx emissions should be controlled by using all costs of the two systems are similar. The choice
proper kiln design, low-NOx burners, and an of system will depend on flue gas characteristics
optimum level of excess air. NOx emissions from and local considerations.
a dry kiln with preheater and precalciner are typi- Both ESPs and baghouses can achieve high lev-
cally 1.5 kg/t of clinker, as against 4.5 kg/t for els of particulate removal from the kiln gas
the wet process. The nitrogen oxide emissions can stream, but good operation and maintenance are
be reduced further, to 0.5 kg/t of clinker, by after- essential for achieving design specifications. Two
burning in a reducing atmosphere, and the en- significant types of control problem can occur:
ergy of the gases can be recovered in a preheater/ (a) complete failure (or automatic shutoff) of sys-
precalciner. tems related to plant shutdown and start-up,
For control of fugitive particulate emissions, power failures, and the like, leading to the emis-
ventilation systems should be used in conjunc- sion of very high levels of particulates for short
tion with hoods and enclosures covering trans- periods of time; and (b) a gradual decrease in the
fer points and conveyors. Drop distances should removal efficiency of the system over time be-
be minimized by the use of adjustable convey- cause of poor maintenance or improper opera-
ors. Dusty areas such as roads should be wetted tion. The lime content of raw materials can be
down to reduce dust generation. Appropriate used to control sulfur oxides.
stormwater and runoff control systems should
be provided to minimize the quantities of sus- Emissions Guidelines
pended material carried off site.
SOx emissions are best controlled by using low- Emissions levels for the design and operation of
sulfur fuels and raw materials. The absorption each project must be established through the en-
capacity of the cement must be assessed to de- vironmental assessment (EA) process on the ba-
termine the quantity of sulfur dioxide emitted, sis of country legislation and the Pollution Prevention
which may be up to about half the sulfur load on and Abatement Handbook, as applied to local con-
the kiln. Precalcining with low-NOx secondary ditions. The emissions levels selected must be
firing can reduce nitrogen oxide emissions. justified in the EA and acceptable to the World
Alkaline dust removed from the kiln gases is Bank Group.
normally disposed of as solid waste. When solid The guidelines given below present emissions
wastes such as pulverized fly ash are used with levels normally acceptable to the World Bank
feedstock, appropriate steps must be taken to Group in making decisions regarding provision
avoid environmental problems from contami- of World Bank Group assistance. Any deviations
nants or trace elements. from these levels must be described in the World
Stormwater systems and storage areas should Bank Group project documentation. The emis-
be designed to minimize washoff of solids. sions levels given here can be consistently
achieved by well-designed, well-operated, and
Treatment Technologies well-maintained pollution control systems.
The guidelines are expressed as concentrations
Mechanical systems such as cyclones trap the to facilitate monitoring. Dilution of air emissions
larger particulates in kiln gases and act as or effluents to achieve these guidelines is un-
preconditioners for downstream collection de- acceptable.
vices. Electrostatic precipitators (ESPs) and fab- All of the maximum levels should be achieved
ric filter systems (baghouses) are the principal for at least 95% of the time that the plant or unit
options for collection and control (achieving over is operating, to be calculated as a proportion of
99% removal efficiency) of fine particulates. ESPs annual operating hours.
Cement Manufacturing 277
Give preference to the dry process with preheat- European Community. 1989. “Technical Note on Best
ers and precalciners. Available Technologies Not Entailing Excessive Cost
for the Manufacture of Cement.” December 7. Pa-
per presented to BAT Exchange of Information
Adopt the following pollution prevention mea-
Committee, Brussels.
sures to minimize air emissions:
Fog, Mogens H., and Kishore L. Nadkarni. 1983. En-
• Install equipment covers and filters for crush- ergy Efficiency and Fuel Substitution in the Cement
ing, grinding, and milling operations. Industry with Emphasis on Developing Countries.
• Use enclosed adjustable conveyors to mini- World Bank Technical Paper 17. Washington, D.C.
mize drop distances.
Sittig, Marshall. 1975. Pollution Control in the Asbestos,
• Wet down intermediate and finished product
Cement, Glass, and Allied Mineral Industries. Park
storage piles. Ridge, N.J.: Noyes Data Corporation.
• Use low-NOx burners with the optimum level
of excess air. United States. 1991. Federal Register, vol. 56, no. 35,
• Use low sulfur fuels in the kiln. February 21. Washington, D.C.: Government Print-
ing Office.
• Operate control systems to achieve the re-
quired emissions levels. World Bank. 1996. “Pollution Prevention and Abate-
ment: Cement Manufacturing.” Draft Technical
Develop a strong unit or division to undertake Background Document. Environment Department,
environmental management responsibilities. Washington, D.C.