14 Why, When and Where To Reference PDF

Faculty of
Management & Law
Why, When and Effective

Learning
How to Reference Service
SOM LEARNING ELS W W W. B R A D F O R D . A C . U K / M A N A G E M E N T/ E L S

Why, When and How to Reference
Contents
SECTION 1: REFERENCING GENERAL INFORMATION ............................................................. 3
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 3
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ‘REFERENCES’ AND ‘BIBLIOGRAPHY’ ....................................... 3
REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................... 4
WHAT NEEDS TO BE REFERENCED? .................................................................................... 4
WHAT DOES NOT NEED TO BE REFERENCED? .................................................................... 4
WHEN TO REFERENCE? ...................................................................................................... 5
HOW TO AVOID PLAGIARISM ............................................................................................ 8
SUMMARISING OTHERS’ IDEAS INTO YOUR OWN WORDS ................................................ 9
THE HARVARD STYLE OF REFERENCING: THE BASIC IDEA ................................................. 10
NOTES ON THE USE OF ONLINE REFERENCES ................................................................... 13
SECTION 2: EXAMPLES ........................................................................................................ 14
BOOKS ............................................................................................................................. 14
CONFERENCE PAPERS ...................................................................................................... 16
GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS ......................................................................................... 17
JOURNAL ARTICLES .......................................................................................................... 18
LECTURES AND COURSE MATERIALS ................................................................................ 20
LEGAL SOURCES ............................................................................................................... 22
MAGAZINES AND TRADE PUBLICATIONS ......................................................................... 25
NEWSPAPERS .................................................................................................................. 25
REPORTS ......................................................................................................................... 27
SOCIAL MEDIA (Blogs, Tweets, Discussion Forums and Wikis) ......................................... 29
STANDARDS .................................................................................................................... 30
THESES ............................................................................................................................ 30
YOUTUBE VIDEOS ............................................................................................................ 30
SECTION 3: FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS ABOUT REFERENCING .................................. 32
EXAMPLE ASSIGNMENT ...................................................................................................... 41

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University of Bradford, Faculty of Management and Law

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SECTION 1: REFERENCING GENERAL INFORMATION

INTRODUCTION
It is an expected academic practice that students will refer to (or cite) the sources of ideas,
data and other evidence in written assignments. There are five main reasons related to your
academic studies why referencing in assignments is important:
1. To support your arguments and give credibility to the information you present in
assignments;
2. As a means of separating your own ideas, perceptions, and experiences from the work
of others;
3. To enable your tutors to check the accuracy and validity of the evidence presented;
4. To enable your tutors and other interested readers to trace the sources you cite and
to use the same evidence for their own purposes;
5. To avoid accusations of plagiarism.
Referencing is also a way of acknowledging the hard work that goes into the research,
preparation, writing and revision of academic texts. Accurate referencing is one way of giving
indirect thanks to this invisible effort and invaluable achievement.
And last, but probably not least from a student perspective, accurate and intelligent
referencing will enhance a good essay and contribute to the marks you gain. Selection of
relevant evidence and accurate referencing is an important element in the marking criteria.
This booklet will:
 Explain when to reference
 Show you how to reference (using the Harvard Style adopted by the University of
Bradford)
 Present examples of different forms of referencing, including some of the less
common sources
 Include an assignment to demonstrate referencing in action
However, if you need help in referencing any source in any assignment, you can contact the
Effective Learning Service for the Faculty of Management and Law, email:
mgt.els@bradford.ac.uk
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ‘REFERENCES’ AND ‘BIBLIOGRAPHY’

The terms ‘References’ and ‘Bibliography’ are often used synonymously, but there is a
difference in meaning between them.
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REFERENCES
References are the items you have read and specifically referred to (cited) in your assignment,
and your list of sources at the end of the assignment will be headed ‘References’.
A bibliography is a list of everything you read in preparation for writing an assignment,
whether or not you referred specifically to it in the assignment. However, if you make a
point of reading selectively you should make use of everything you read by referring directly
to it in your assignments.
Many tutors prefer you to just have this references section, rather than a bibliography. This
enables them to quickly find in your list of references the source you cited and, if necessary,
check the validity of it for themselves.
WHAT NEEDS TO BE REFERENCED?

There are three questions to ask about a source to help you decide if it needs to be
referenced:
1. Has it been presented formally into the public domain in some way?
2. Has it been presented publicly in a tangible form? (This can include printed material,
the Internet, a public talk/lecture, a public performance).
3. Does someone, or an organisation, have an ownership of it? Look for a named author
or writer, or the name of an organisation, including a website or host, that is
presenting the information in question.
If the answer to all these is ‘yes’, then the source should be referenced.
WHAT DOES NOT NEED TO BE REFERENCED?

 Information drawn from a variety of sources to summarise what has happened over a
period of time and when the summary is unlikely to be a cause of dispute or controversy,
for example:
The growth in call centres in the West was encouraged by economic and technological
factors. From the late 1970s, the growth of the service sector focused the attention of
large organisations on communication with customers in more cost effective and
streamlined ways. The logic of call centres was that a centralised approach and
rationalisation of organisational operations would reduce costs, whilst producing a
standard branded image to the world.

4

 When pulling together a range of key ideas that you introduced and referenced earlier in
the assignment.
 When stating or summarising generally undisputed facts or general knowledge
circulating freely in the public domain (common knowledge), e.g. global oil reserves are
finite, and other sources of energy, such as wind or solar power, are therefore being
developed in some countries.
However, it is not wrong to include a reference in these circumstances, and if in doubt you
can always include that.
So, sources that should be referenced can include the obvious things, such as books, journals,
newspapers, and Internet sources, but should also include less obvious sources, such as tutor
handouts, lectures, talks on the radio, and social networking sites, such as YouTube.
However, the important thing is to choose reliable primary and secondary sources that give
credence, authority and support to the ideas and arguments that you present.
Your tutor will suggest a range of reliable sources, and this will be your starting point. You will
find that these recommended texts and other sources will prove to be rich veins of additional
information. If you read particular textbook chapters or lecture materials as a starting point
for research into an assignment topic, often the references from those will point you in the
right direction of other relevant reading.

“To reference or … not to
reference, that is the question.”
WHEN TO REFERENCE?

You should always cite your sources of evidence in assignments in any of the following
situations:
1. To inform the reader of sources of tables, photos, statistics or diagrams presented in
your assignment (either copied in their original form or collated by you)
Example:
… In the mining sector, in order to encourage meaningful economic participation,
the government encourages mining companies to relinquish 15 per cent
ownership of mining assets to historically disadvantaged South Africans (Business
Monitor International 2012)…. Mining in South Africa accounts for about 18 per
cent of gross domestic product (GDP), and 20 per cent of foreign direct
investment (Kearney 2012).
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2. When describing or discussing a theory, model or practice associated with a particular
writer
Example:
The term ‘instrumental or operant conditioning’ is associated with the American
psychologist, Skinner (1956), and describes a process of shaping behaviour by a
variety of means that encourage and reinforce desired behaviour, or discourage
unwanted behaviour.

3. When giving emphasis to a particular idea that has found a measure of agreement and
support amongst commentators
Example:
In order to make the performance appraisal function effectively, performance
appraisal should also stimulate staff engagement (Pichler 2009), for their
reactions to performance appraisal can be vital for its success (Pichler 2009;
Swiercz et al. 2012). As per previous studies, it was suggested that with staff
involvement in the appraisal process, the employees would be more satisfied with
the appraisal outcome and hence the performance improvement will be followed
afterward (Anderson 1993; Deepa et al. 2014).
Note: The student cites four sources ‐ all much saying the same thing ‐ to emphasise
and give credibility to an important point summarised in the assignment. The use of
multiple authors can add weight to the summary argument, particularly if the idea is a
controversial one. However, citing six sources would be the maximum for this purpose,
and citing two or three is a more usual practice.
Multiple citations should be in chronological order. If some of your sources were
published in the same year, list those ones alphabetically.
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4. To inform the reader of sources of direct quotations or definitions in your assignment
Example:
The main purpose of a performance appraisal is to “assess the past and improve
future performance” (Taylor 2005: 296). This can sometimes be difficult to achieve
as each employee perceives different things regarding each objective.
Note: If the quote is taken from a printed book or journal, you always need to
include the page number so the reader can go straight to that page to find it.
Lengthy quotations (over two lines) should be indented in your assignment as
shown below. You don’t need to use quotation marks in an indented quotation.
Example of indented quotation:
Reich (2001:32) has argued that pay is proportionate to the skill you offer in the
labour market:
If you have been in a job that’s rote or routine…or your job can be done by
computerized machines or by software over the Internet – you’re likely to be
paid less than you used to be paid for doing it…
Reich argues that education and training can be the way forward for people
trapped in a cycle of low‐skill, low‐pay jobs.
5. When paraphrasing another person’s idea or definition that you feel is particularly
significant or likely to be a subject of debate
Example:
We all perceive the world around us in ways that are often unique to us through a
series of personal filters and we ‘construct’ our own versions of reality (Kelly
1955).
(Note: In this example, the student paraphrases an idea that Kelly originally
outlined in 1955. The inverted commas around ‘construct’ suggest this is a
significant word used by Kelly to describe a key concept. By citing the source, the
student is saying ‘this is Kelly’s idea; I am just paraphrasing it’, and thus avoids
accusations of plagiarism.)
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HOW TO AVOID PLAGIARISM

Plagiarism is about copying or acquiring the work of others and, directly or indirectly, claiming
it to be your own independent and original work.
However, applying, analysing, criticising or quoting other people’s work is perfectly
reasonable providing you always:
 Summarize or restate in your own words another person’s work, theories or ideas and
give acknowledgement to that person. This is done by citing your sources and
presenting a list of references;
or
 By always using quotation marks (or if you have to use longer quotes, by indenting
the quotes in your text) to distinguish between the actual words of the writer and
your own words. Once again, you would cite all sources and present full details of
these in your list of references.
Try to keep quotations to a minimum in your assignments. They can, however, be used to
good effect:
o To define a key concept
o When you feel they make a particular point.
For example, informal language might be used for contrast and impact in an
academic assignment ‐ where the style of writing is necessarily more cautious,
formal and detached.
o Where you want to analyse or challenge the quotation in question.
o Where you feel the exact quotation strongly supports your own argument or
point of view.
o When you want to add interest or impact to an introduction or conclusion.

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SUMMARISING OTHERS’ IDEAS INTO YOUR OWN WORDS

In our academic system, paraphrasing shows greater understanding
of a concept and your interpretations of that. This enables the tutor
to assess your analysis of an issue. In the vast majority of your
writing, you should aim to express others’ ideas in your own words,
thus restricting the number of ‘word for word’ direct quotations in
your essay.

Here is an example of how this can be done. The extract below is a paragraph taken from a
journal article. This is followed by a student summary of the extract.
Original text
“While many social scientists will continue to generate generalizations about behaviour
and organizations, these will seldom if ever be so specific to the particular contexts of
practice that they can be applied as if they are scientific laws. Management today need
no longer be based purely on personal experience or conventional belief, but it will
always be based on improvisation. By that I do not mean simply making it up as we go
along, but, rather, the activity of fitting together all the various sources of knowledge
that can inform practice in fruitful and productive ways. As Handal and Lauvas (1987)
argue and as Burgoyne and Stuart’s (1976) research showed, managers learn from many
sources and bring many different sources of knowledge to bear on their work. What
distinguishes the thinking manager from the ‘practical man’ is not that the former applies
the fruits of social science while the latter relies on more or less intelligent forms of
guesswork. Both are engaged in improvisation. But the thinking manager incorporates
the concepts, findings methods and attitudes of the social sciences into the process of
improvisation giving them their rightful place among other sources of insight and
knowledge.” (p.95)
Reference:
Thomas, A.B. (2003) Controversies in Management, 2nd edition. London: Routledge.
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Example of a summary
Thomas (2003) suggests that one can rarely, if ever, generalise people’s behaviour in
organisations, but rather the ‘thinking manager’ should improvise and incorporate a
range of sources to generate wider insight.
In the summary, the student presents what she has decided are the key points of information
from the original text. Note the crucial importance of reading selectively to only use the
most important points for your particular assignment focus.
Some repetition of primary words is inevitable, but the student has rephrased as much as
possible into her own words. She also cites the original source (Thomas 2003). Your aim in
academic writing should be to put the idea or argument into your own words as best you can.

THE HARVARD STYLE OF REFERENCING: THE BASIC IDEA

This author‐date system of referencing is the one adopted by the School of Management, and
is the referencing style that tends to be predominant in most UK higher education
institutions.
The basic idea of the Harvard style is to:
1. Use citations (Author, Year) in the text. In the text of your assignment, you give a partial
reference (called a citation). This is the last name of the author, followed by the year of
publication. If you do not have the author’s name, you use the name of an organisation,
newspaper, journal, or whatever the main source is.
2. Then, at the end of the assignment, you give full details of all the sources in a
‘References’ section. The author’s name and year from the citation help the reader find
the full details of the item in the reference list.

CITATIONS IN THE TEXT
Citations in the text can be introduced in a variety of ways. The two most common forms are:
1. To introduce a point of view in a sentence, and then show the source citation in brackets
at the end.
For example:
Further studies using much larger sample groups also reinforced the validity
of Belbin’s personality identification (Dierendonck and Groen 2008).
10

2. To start the sentence with the author’s name, followed by the date in brackets.
For example:
Dierendonck and Groen (2008) also reinforced the validity of Belbin’s
personality identification, using much larger sample groups.
A combination of these two forms of citation will generally suffice for your
assignment writing.
The important point is to give credit to authors who have influenced your ideas and
arguments, and make it obvious to the reader the source of the evidence presented.
Example

More than two authors, use et al.

Furnham et al. (1993) criticised Belbin, claiming a lack of empirical support for the tests

Belbin uses to calculate an individual’s role. However, after further tests, Fisher et al.

(1996: 66) stated “since Belbin's team role model has both intuitive appeal and empirical

support it would be a great pity if this confusion pitched his constructs into disrepute”, a

view supported by Dulewicz (1995) and Senior (1997). Further studies using much larger

sample groups than Furnham also reinforced the validity of Belbin’s personality

At end of sentence
identification (Dierendonck and Groen 2008).

Use double speech marks to indicate the
Provide a page no. for direct
start/finish of the direct quotations.
quotations
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REFERENCES IN FULL AT THE END OF AN ASSIGNMENT
The way the full reference details are presented in this booklet is based on the University
Guidance available at: http://www.bradford.ac.uk/library/help/referencing/
In the References section at the end of an assignment the basic format for listing references
in the Harvard Style is as follows:
1. Start with the last name(s), followed by initials of the author(s), contributor, editor,
producer or speaker. If you do not have the name of an author, start with the name of
the originator. This can be an organisation name, e.g. BBC, or name of a website, e.g.
Prospects.
2. This is followed by the year of publication; put this in brackets. This should be easy to
find on printed documents. With Internet sources, look for a year the item was placed
on the site, or in the absence of this, when the site was last updated, or if unsuccessful
with either of these two, the year you looked at the information.
3. This is followed by the title of the source. The main source is usually emphasised in
italics. The main source would be, for example, the title of a book, name of the
magazine, journal or newspaper etc. Keep this consistent throughout.
4. In most printed items you would give details of the publisher. If the book a second or
subsequent edition, include the edition number. The place of publication is an optional
piece of information but can be included if it is useful.
5. In the case of a journal article, you finish with the reference details of volume,
edition/issue number (if shown) of the journal and the page numbers of where the article
can be found.
6. If the source is available online follows the same basic format as described above,
although the URL or DOI is given. As is the date you looked at the source, e.g. Accessed 5
December 2014.
At the end of the assignment the references are given in one full list alphabetically by last
name of the author(s). The references for the citation example shown on page 11 would be
listed, as follows:

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REFERENCES
Dierendonck, D. and Groen, R. (2008) Belbin revisited: A multitrait‐multimethod
investigation of a team role instrument. European Journal of Work and Organisational
Psychology 20(3) 345‐366.
Dulewicz, V. (1995) A validation of Belbin's team roles from 16PF and OPQ using bosses'
ratings of competence. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology 68(2) 81‐
99.
Fisher, S.G., Macrosson, W.D.K. and Sharp, G. (1996) Further evidence concerning the Belbin
Team Role Self‐perception Inventory. Personnel Review 25(2) 61‐67.
Furnham, A., Steele. H. and Pendleton, D. (1993) A psychometric assessment of the Belbin
Team‐Role Self‐perception Inventory. Journal of Occupational and Organizational
Psychology 66(3) 245‐257.
Senior, B. (1997) Team roles and team performance: is there “really” a link?. Journal of
Occupational and Organizational Psychology 70 241–58.
NOTES ON THE USE OF ONLINE REFERENCES

The Internet is a rich source of information for students. But because anyone can write and
publish information for the Internet you need to use more critical skills to identify if the
source is something you want to use.
Reliable Internet sites can certainly be used and cited in assignments. Always think about how
relevant the source you are using is to your intended purpose. If you are in doubt about the
credibility of a source for academic work, try to find the information in a more reputable
source.
Ask yourself:
 Who wrote it? (Can you find a named author? Is the organisation reputable?)
 Why did they write it? (Are they trying to sell something, discredit or promote
something, or push a specific bias?)
 What did they write? (Is the purpose of the site clear? Can you easily check the facts
they have used?)
 When did they write it? (How current is it? What date was it last updated?)

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SECTION 2: EXAMPLES
BOOKS
SINGLE TOPIC (MONOGRAPH) BOOKS
The last name(s) of the author(s) is listed first, followed by the initial letters of first names;
followed by the year of publication in brackets; followed by the book title (in italics); the
location (town or city) of the publisher is an optional piece of information, and finally the
name of the publisher.
Examples:
Citation: (Cunliffe 2014) or Cunliffe (2014)
Reference:
Cunliffe, A. L. (2014) A very short, fairly interesting and reasonably cheap book about
management. London: Sage Publications.
Citation: (Ford et al. 2008) or Ford et al. (2008) et al. – What do
these mean???
Reference:
Ford, J. Harding, N. and Learmonth, M. (2008) Leadership as identity: constructions
and deconstructions. London: Palgrave.
If a document has one or two authors (or originators) of equal status, both their
names should be given in the citation. If there are more than two, the name of the
first should always be given, but the names of the others may be omitted and replaced
by the term ‘et al.’ (meaning, ‘and others’).
In the ‘References’ section, however, all the authors will be listed, as shown above.
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A CHAPTER FROM AN EDITED BOOK
Some books are not written by a single author, but contain articles or chapters written by
different authors. These are edited collections, sometimes called ‘readers’ and have one or
more editors.
If you make reference to an author in an edited collection, you need to give the last name,
initials, year of publication, title of chapter, name(s) of editor(s), title of book (in italics), then
location of and name of publisher, and page numbers.
It is the title of the book that is
in italics, not the chapter.
Examples:
Citation: (Cornelius et al. 2016) or Cornelius et al. (2016)
Reference:
Cornelius, N., Wallace, J. and Overall, J., (2016) Enhanced stakeholder
engagement and CSR through the UN guiding principles, social media
pressure, and corporate accountability. In Lindgreen, A. (editor) A relational
approach to stakeholder engagement. London: Ashgate. 115‐148.

Citation: (Bass 2001) or Bass (2001)
Reference:
Bass, S. (2001) Working with forest stakeholders. In Evans, J. (editor) The forests
handbook volume 2: applying forest science for sustainable management.
Blackwell Science. 221‐233.

As you are referring to a specific chapter
in a book, give the page numbers of the
chapter in the reference.

E‐BOOKS
This is essentially the same principle as hard copy books, except that if you are using a direct
quote and the book does not have page numbers, you should use the information you do
have – for example, location number or percentage.
A reference to an e‐book should include the following information, in this order:
 Author(s), editor(s) or corporate author.
 The year of publication (in brackets).
 The title and any subtitle (in italics).
 The edition if it is not the first. For example, 2nd ed.
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 Optional. City or town of publication followed by colon:
 Publisher.
 Accessed via (name of provider where you have seen the book)
 [Amount available]
Examples:
Citations: (Erfurt 2012) and (Kuada and Hinson 2014)
References:
Erfurt, J. (2012) Virtual sales process system solutions and algorithm analysis. Gamlingay:
Authors Online [e‐book].
Kuada, J. and Hinson, R. (2014) Service marketing in Ghana: A customer relationship
management approach. London: Adonis & Abbey Publishers Ltd. ProQuest ebrary [e‐
book].
CONFERENCE PAPERS
Reference should include name of presenter, title of paper, status of paper (unpublished
manuscript; working paper); unpublished report, name and place of conference, date
delivered, URL/DOI details, date you accessed the site, and any relevant page numbers.
Citation: (Matthias and Gregory 2015) and (Meier et al. 2014)
Reference:
Matthias, O. and Gregory, I. (2015) Making sense of big data – Can it enhance operations
management and create competitive advantage?. In EUROMA Annual Conference,
Neuchatel, Switzerland, June.
Meier, F., Mangena, M. and Li, J. (2014) Attribution behaviour and corporate governance.
In British Accounting & Finance Association (BAFA) 2014 Annual Conference, London
School of Economics, London, UK, 14‐16 April. http://bafa.ac.uk/ 6 May.
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GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS
Start with the name of the writer or organisation sponsoring the publication, often a
government department. If no identifiable author, start with the title of the publication (in
italics), followed by date of publication, place of publication, name of official publisher, finally
the volume or edition date number, table or page number. Include the URL if it is a dataset
rather than a print publication.
The basic format is:
 Government department/official organisation
 Year
 Title of the publication which must be in italics
 Publisher and place of publication if available
 Web address (if online)
 Accessed and the date you accessed it (if online)
Example of Government document:
Citation: (Department for Business, Innovation and Skills 2015)
Reference:
Department for Business, Innovation and Skills (2015) Guide to the simplified
student loan repayment mode (June 2015).
https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/
file/444413/BIS‐15‐411‐guidance‐to‐the‐student‐loan‐repayment‐model.pdf
Accessed 18 February 2016.
Example of Command Paper:
Citation : (Foreign and Commonwealth Office 2013)
Reference:
Foreign and Commonwealth Office (2013) Good business: implementing the UN
guiding principles on business and human rights. September 2013, Cm 8695
https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/
file/236901/BHR_Action_Plan_‐_final_online_version_1_.pdf.

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JOURNAL ARTICLES
ACADEMIC JOURNAL ARTICLES
Where to find the information you need on a printed academic journal ?

Journal title
Year of publication

Article Title Pages of article

Authors’ names Volume & part: the
number of years the
(In the reference, the
journal has been
last name(s) of
published and
authors are given
number of parts so
first, then their
far.
initials, see below)

Journal articles vary a lot in their page layout – but often the information is available in the
header or footer of the article.
Start with the last name of the author of the article, initials of author, year of publication (in
brackets), title of article , name of the journal or magazine (in italics), volume number and
part number (if applicable) and page numbers.
References to journal articles do not include the name of the publisher or place of
publication, unless there is more than one journal with the same title, e.g. International
Affairs (Moscow) and International Affairs (London).

18

Examples:
Citations: (Harding et al. 2014) and (Hibbert and Cunliffe 2015)
References:
Harding, N., Lee, H. and Ford, J. (2014) Who is the middle manager?. Human Relations
67(10) 1213‐1237.
Hibbert, P. and Cunliffe, A.L. (2015) Responsible management: Engaging moral reflexive
practice through threshold concepts. Journal of Business Ethics 127 177‐188.
ONLINE JOURNAL ARTICLES
Usually you ignore the web address and give the reference as you would for a printed journal
article. You should only use this electronic journal article format when the journal:
 Has no volume, issue and page numbers, or …
 … is not available as a print version at all (or you are not sure), or …
 the article is “forthcoming”, “in press” or “online ahead of print”. In these cases, a
reference to an electronic journal article should include the following information, in
this order:
o Author(s) name. Use family name, followed by initial(s).
o Year of publication (in brackets).
o The title of the article.
o The title of the journal, which must be in italics.
o Volume number and issue number, if available (issue number in brackets).
o Page numbers, if available.
o Web address.
o Accessed followed by the date.
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Example 1: Direct public access to article
Citation: (Lynch 2015)
Reference:
Lynch, T. (2015) International students’ perceptions of university lectures in
English. International Student Experience Journal, Spring‐Summer 3(1).
http://isejournal.weebly.com/uploads/1/6/3/1/16311372/isej_028.01.15_ton
y.pdf Accessed 17 May 2016.
Example 2: Preprint or Open Access copy of an academic journal article or paper
A preprint is a draft, or working paper has not yet been published in a peer‐reviewed journal,
an Open Access copy of the article could be a preprint or it could be a version which has gone
through the process of Peer Review. These are contained and maintained within repositories
and digital copies (or eprints) are made accessible to others.
Repositories may be subject based or from a particular institution. Include a DOI (Digital
Object Identifier) if there is one. For examples,
Citation: (Bertillo and Salando 2013)
Reference:
Bertillo, J and Salando, J. B. (2013) Human resource management practices in an
airline industry: British Airways global perspective
http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2292797 Accessed 27 October 2015.
LECTURES AND COURSE MATERIALS

It is generally considered to be poor practice to reference handouts and lectures if there are
published sources available. Ask your lecturer if you want to reference their lecture and they
may be able to guide you to more appropriate sources.
 Start with name of lecturer: family name, then initials
 Year of publication (in brackets)
 Title of item
 Name of academic module (in italics)
 Name of the department from which the module was delivered
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Citation: (Trouille 2015)
Reference:
Trouille, J. (2015) Lecture 3: Genesis and institutions of the EU. MAN4326M European
Business Management. University of Bradford, Faculty of Management and Law.
You can also refer to module materials given to you by teaching staff. These may be a
primary source, e.g. an explanation written by a lecturer, or more likely, a secondary source,
where a lecturer is quoting what someone else has written.
Examples of citing primary and secondary sources using teaching notes from a course tutor, C.
Low. (imagine that the following extracts are taken from a student’s essay on marketing):
Primary source
When choosing from the mix of promotional activities available to market a
product, the market objectives should be the main driving force. Low (2014)
has suggested four main questions: who is your target group? What do you
want them to do? When do you want them to act? And how much are you
prepared to spend to communicate with them?
Secondary source
Marketing Communications has been defined as a process “through which
an organisation enters into a dialogue with its various audiences” (Fill
2002, as cited in Low 2014: 2). The objective is to influence in a positive way
a particular target audience in its awareness, understanding and actions
towards that organisation and its products or services’.
In both cases, the ‘References’ section would give full details of the course tutor, which is the
source for both these citations, i.e.
Low, C. (2014) Week 6: Marketing Communications. MAN4226 Marketing. University of
Bradford, Faculty of Management and Law.
Regarding the second example (secondary source), you might want to go to the main source,
i.e. Fill, 2002, to enable you to expand on the definition presented or be critical of it. If you did
this, you could then cite Fill directly as a primary source.

21
LEGAL SOURCES
These Harvard guidelines for legal sources are intended for use only by School
of Management students who study some law modules as part of a business degree. These
are not intended for School of Law students, who should only use the OSCOLA system of
referencing. Please consult your Law tutor or the Faculty Librarian if you are in any doubt
about this.
CASES FROM LAW REPORTS
A reference to a Law Report should include the following information, in this order
1. Names of the parties, which must be in italics.
2. Year (in brackets).
3. Volume number.
4. The commonly accepted abbreviated name of the law report series. (For example All
ER for All England Law Reports or FCR for Family Court Reporter ‐ use Cardiff
University ‘Cardiff Index to Legal Abbreviations’ website at
http://www.legalabbrevs.cardiff.ac.uk/searchabbreviation/ for help with
abbreviations if you are unsure).
5. First page of the report.
In the body of the text case names should be in italics.
Example of citation in text
Murphy v Brentwood District Council (1990) 2 All ER 908
When referring to a case for the first time, give its full name and details of where it is found in
the law reports (exactly as it appears in the report). In subsequent references, a case can be
referred to by a shortened name, e.g. Murphy v Brentwood District Council may be referred to
as the Murphy case.
Example of citation in text when using a direct quote
If you give a direct quote, also include the specific page number in the text. i.e.
Murphy v Brentwood District Council (1990) 2 All ER 908: 324
22

Examples of references
Campbell v Mirror Group Newspapers Ltd (2004) 2 All ER 995.
Jarvis v Hampshire County Council (2000) 2 FCR 310.

ACTS OF PARLIAMENT (STATUTES)
An Act of Parliament uses largely the same information in both the citation and the reference.
In the text leave the title of the act and the date in normal text, but in the reference list put it
in italics.
The Title of the Act including the date (ignore the chapter number)
Example of citation in text referring to a whole act
Consumer Rights Act (2015) or (Consumer Rights Act 2015)
Example of a citation in the text referring to a specific section, subsection or paragraph
However if you are referring to a specific part of the act, use the sections, subsections and
Paragraphs to identify it specifically.
For example, if you are citing Section 23, Sub‐section (2) and Paragraph (a) of the Consumer
Rights Act 2015, it would look as below:
In relation to the right to repair or replacement the seller is bound to “do so within a
reasonable time and without significant inconvenience to the consumer” (Consumer Rights
Act 2015 s. 23(2)(a)).
Example of reference
This is the same as the citation, however ensure it is in italics.
Consumer Rights Act 2015

STATUTORY INSTRUMENTS
A reference to a statutory instrument should include the following information, in this order:
1. Name/title and year, which must be in italics.
2. SI year/number (in round brackets).
23
If you accessed the instrument online:
3. Web address
4. "Accessed" followed by the date.
Example of citation in text
In the text, do not include SI number, just the title of the SI.
The Food Safety and Hygiene (England) Regulations (2013) consolidates UK legislation with
regard to EU food safety...
Example of reference
The Food Safety and Hygiene (England) Regulations 2013 (SI 2013/2996)
www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2013/2996/pdfs/uksi_20132996_en.pdf Accessed 29
August 2015.
UK BILLS
A bill is proposed legislation before Parliament. Bills are cited by their name, the
Parliamentary Session, the House of Parliament in which it originated and the running order
assigned to it, and any relevant sections or subsections. HC= House of Commons; HL= House
of Lords.
Citation: (BBC Privatisation Bill 2015‐16)
Reference:
BBC Privatisation Bill 2015‐16 HC‐8, s 9(4).
EC LEGISLATION
European Community (EC) legislation (Regulations, Directives and Decisions), and other
instruments (including Recommendations and Opinions) should be referenced by providing
the legislation type, number and title, then publication details from the Official Journal (OJ) of
the European Communities.
24

Citation: (Council Regulation 2015/478)
Reference:
Council Regulation (EU) 2015/478 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11
March 2015 on common rules for imports Official Journal L 83, 27.3.2015, p. 16–33.
MAGAZINES AND TRADE PUBLICATIONS

The same sequence of referencing academic journals applies to magazines with a general
readership.
 If there is an author, start with his or her last name, followed by their initials
 If there is no author name, start with the name of the magazine (in italics)
 The title of the article
 If you started with the author’s name, give the title of the magazine at this point (in
italics)
 Then full details of the specific date the magazine was published
 Page numbers
Citation: (Chahal 2016)
Reference:
Chahal, M. (2016) Brand strategy, data and customer experience are marketers’ new
priorities, Marketing Week. 9, May.
http://www.marketingweek.com/2016/05/09/importance‐of‐brand‐strategy‐
data‐and‐customer‐experience‐have‐grown‐at‐highest‐rate‐for‐marketers/
Accessed 17 May 2016.
NEWSPAPERS
The order of referencing is:
 Name(s) of Journalist, if shown. If name of writer not given, start with the name of the
newspaper (in italics)
 The year of publication (in brackets)
 The title of article
 The title of the newspaper, which must be in italics, if not shown as the first item
25
 The day and month of publication
 The section of the paper (where available) e.g. review sections, supplements
 Page number of the article
Example: With a journalists name
Citation: (Skypala 2005)
Reference:
Skypala, P. (2005) Shooting the rapids of pension liabilities. Financial Times, 12
December, Fund Management section 3.
Example: No author’s name shown
Citation: (Financial Times 2005)
Reference:
Financial Times (2005) Helping fashion to embrace IT. Financial Times, FT Companies
& Markets supplement, 12 December, 24.
ONLINE NEWSPAPER ARTICLES
For online newspaper articles, where you cannot get pagination or where the article may only
have appeared in the online version of the paper, include the Web address and Accessed
followed by the date the document was accessed.
 Author(s) of the article. Use family name, followed by initial(s).
 The year of publication (in brackets).
 The title of the article.
 The title of the newspaper, which must be in italics.
 The day and month of publication.
 Web address.
 Accessed followed by the date the document was accessed.
Citation: (Elliott 2015)
Reference:
Elliott, L. (2015) Huge disparity in job creation between North and South – ONS report.
Guardian, 9 October. http://www.theguardian.com/society/2015/oct/09/job‐
creation‐employment‐growth‐north‐south‐england‐recession‐ons‐report Accessed 9
October 2015.
26

REPORTS
COMPANY ANNUAL REPORTS
Company annual reports often involve multiple authors and rarely show their names. If they
do, however, start with these. But if not, start with the company name, then give the year,
then full title (in italics), if it’s available online include the web address and the date you
accessed it.
Citation: (Cable and Wireless 2014)
Reference:
Cable and Wireless (2014) A year of transformation and growth: Annual Report 2014/15.
http://www.cwc.com/live/annual‐
report/downloads/Cable%20%26%20Wireless%20Annual%20Report.pdf Accessed 9
October 2015.
GOVERNMENT REPORTS
You should always give the full official title of the report in a reference. You can also use an
abbreviation for an organisation as author in the citation, but make sure what you use in the
citation is the same as the author you use in the full reference. If you are referring to many
organisations known by abbreviations it is sometimes useful to include a glossary of their
names, and the first time you refer to an organisation include the organisation name in full
i.e.: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD).
Citation: (European Commission 2012) and (ILO 2014)
References:
European Commission (2012) Towards better access to scientific information: Boosting
the benefits of public investments in research COM(2012) 401.
ILO (2014) World of work report: Developing with jobs Geneva: International Labour
Organization.
MARKET RESEARCH REPORTS
 Start with name of author (if shown): family name, then initials
 If no name of author, start with name of report
27
 Full title of report, including sub‐section or sub‐title information (in italics) and edition
number
 Report or paper number, Volume, sections, page number (if applicable)
 Place of publication
 Name of publisher
 Report number (must be exactly as it is given in the document)
If you found the report on the internet (i.e. Google), you should also include the following
information:
 Web address
 Date accessed
Citation: (Key Note 2015)
Reference:
Key Note (2015) Ecommerce: the internet grocery market 9th edition. Richmond‐upon‐
Thames: Key Note Market Reports.
STATISTICS DATA
You can use SUMMON to gain access to many useful statistical databases, e.g. Financial
Analysis Made Easy (FAME), Thomson One etc. The database for statistical and company
specific information should always be named, its publisher, along with the title of report, and
date information was published or last updated.
However, if the database is password protected there is no point in giving the URL address;
you only give URL addresses in references if the site is publicly accessible.
The first example shows how you reference data from the FAME database that focuses on
just one company.
The second example shows a citation and the reference when FAME was used to gather and
collate data on three separate companies.
Citation: (Dixons Carphone PLC 2014)
Reference:
Dixons Carphone PLC (2014) Company report: Profile. Bureau Van Dijk Electronic
Publishers.
28

Citation: (FAME Database 2015)
Reference:
FAME: Financial Analysis Made Easy (2015) Compilation derived from: Company
Annual Reports: PC World; Currys; UniEuro. Bureau Van Dijk Electronic
Publishers.
Citation: (OECD 2015)
Reference:
OECD (2015) OECD economic outlook no 98: Imports of goods and services growth.
Extracted OECD.stat database.
Citation: (Office for National Statistics 2015)
Reference:
Office for National Statistics (2015) Labour productivity, Q2 2015 Dataset. 2
October. London: The Stationery Office.
http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/productivity/labour‐productivity/q2‐
2015/tsd‐lpq22015.htm Accessed 9 October 2015.
SOCIAL MEDIA (Blogs, Tweets, Discussion Forums and Wikis)

Information found on social media can also be used if they contribute in a significant way to
any assignment, and you may be encouraged to include them in reflections on group‐work. If
you do use information from this type of source for your essay, it needs to be supported by
other academic sources.
If the name of the author is shown, start with this (if it is a twitter name use the @
beforehand: @ewenicealamb). If not, start with the name of the blog. Give the title of the
item or article, name of the blog, date of posting of item, the URL address and when you
accessed the article.
Citation: (Spicer 2012)
Reference:
Spicer, D. (2012) Employee engagement is not just for Christmas... five tips for all year
round success. Bradford University School of Management Blog [blog]. 17 Dec 2012.
http://blogs.brad.ac.uk/management/experts/2012/12/employee‐engagement‐is‐not‐
just‐for‐christmas%E2%80%A6five‐tips‐for‐all‐year‐round‐success/ Accessed 18 Feb
2016.
29
STANDARDS
In the full reference:
1. Start with the issuing body, e.g. British Standards Institution
2. Year of publication
3. Number and title of the standard (in italics)
If the standard was accessed online:
4. Web address
5. Accessed date
Citation: (British Standards Institution 2013)
Reference:
British Standards Institution (2013) BS ISO/IEC 27001:2013: Information technology:
security techniques: information security management systems: requirements.
http://bsol.bsigroup.com Accessed 22 July 2014.
THESES
The same basic format for Harvard referencing applies for referencing other unpublished
sources: start with the name of the author year it was submitted in brackets. The title of the
dissertation or thesis in italics the degree it was submitted as part of and finally University or
Institution from which it was awarded.
Citation: (Sedgley 2013)
Reference:
Sedgley, M.T. (2013) Learning journeys with international students in UK higher
education. PhD Thesis. University of Bradford.
YOUTUBE VIDEOS
A reference to an online video, for example Youtube videos, should include the following
information, in this order:
 Author(s), or corporate author(s) (if they can be identified). Use family name, followed
by initial(s). This can be the screen name or user name of the person who posted the
video.
30

 Year of publication (in brackets).
 The title of the Online Video, which must be in italics.
 [video] in square brackets.
 Optional Publisher, for example production company
 Web address.
 Accessed, followed by the date you saw the video

Citation: (Sedgley 2012)
Reference:
Sedgley, M. (2012) ELS Assignment Success Workshop ‐ What is critical analysis? [video]
University of Bradford, Faculty of Management and Law.
http://youtu.be/cSLup2wEZ34 Accessed 24 August 2015.

31
SECTION 3: FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS ABOUT REFERENCING

Should I include page numbers from books or other sources in the
citations?

Many books have a dominant core message, perspective or argument.
Authors build their arguments around these cores by presenting evidence and examples to
back up their perspectives or by rebutting counter‐arguments. If you wish to offer evidence
in your assignment that summarise these essential core perspectives, then a page number is
not necessary.
However, if you use and include a quotation from the book, you will need to include a page
number in the citation:
The main purpose of a performance appraisal is to “assess the past and improve
future performance” (Taylor 2005: 296). This can sometimes be difficult to achieve as
each employee perceives different things regarding each objective.

The source has no date. How can I reference this?

Older books and some other sources may not show a date of publication. In that event, you
can use (no date).
If it is a website and the information seems to be up to date, you could guess the publication
date as the current or recent year, or make a best guess at a date.

The author of the book I read mentions another author. How do I
reference this second author?

This is called SECONDARY REFERENCING. Typically, you will be reading a chapter in a book
and the author will mention an interesting piece of research done by someone else, or
provide a useful fact for your assignment, then give a citation, naming another writer or
writers.
32

You have two choices in this situation. You can find and read the source mentioned, and
check out the accuracy of the summary given by the author you first read – this is the
recommended option ‐ and then you can refer directly to the original author, as you have
read the source yourself.
However, if you find it difficult to access the primary source, and you are confident the
secondary source author has accurately paraphrased or quoted the original author and when
you do not need great depth of analysis on what that primary author has written, you can use
these secondary sources.
For example, Marjorie DeVault in her article mapping invisible work refers to Ivan Illich, who
refers to ‘shadow work’: tasks in society that were once the responsibility of extended
families and close communities.
If you only read Marjorie DeVault’s article, but did not read Illich’s original, you could write:
“Ivan Illich (1981), summarised in DeVault (2014: 778) has suggested that ‘shadow
work’…..
or
“Illich (1981) has suggested that ‘shadow work’ refers to tasks in society that were
once the responsibility of extended families and close communities (in DeVault 2014:
778).
or
“DeVault (2014: 778) refers to the work of Ivan Illich (1981), who coined the term
‘shadow work’ to suggest that ….”

The full reference must give details of the source you looked at, i.e.
DeVault, M. (2014) Mapping invisible work : conceptual tools for social justice projects.
Sociological Forum 29(4) 775‐790.

It is not strictly necessary to give the year of Illich’s book. However, it can be useful to the
reader to give this detail, as there may be more than one Illich book listed in the primary
source.

33
SECONDARY REFERENCING ON THE INTERNET
You will also encounter many Internet sources that summarise or quote indirectly the words
of others. You would treat these Internet sources as secondary sources.
For example, on the ‘Friends of the Earth’ (FOE) Internet site, the FOE quote the Executive
Director of Corpwatch and author, Joshua Karliner, as saying that
“…51 of the 100 world's largest economies are corporations”.
If you were unable to locate the primary source (i.e. Joshua Karliner), to check the accuracy of
this quotation, you could cite the Friends of the Earth site (although this would not be as
reliable as checking out the primary source).
The citation and reference would be as follows:
Citation: (Karliner, as cited by Friends of the Earth, 2005)
Reference:
Friends of the Earth (2005) Corporates: Corporate Power.
http://www.foe.co.uk/campaigns/corporates/issues/corporate_power/
Accessed 13 December 2005.

How do I reference texts from an author that has published more
than once in the same year?

You use letters a, b, c and onward in your citations to differentiate between the different
sources; for example:
Social learning practice in Room 101 (an international student learning space at the
University of Bradford) has demonstrated the importance of people‐focused, social
components in learning (Allhouse 2014a).
Later in the assignment you might want to refer to same author, different source, same year
again, e.g.
By placing an emphasis on interaction between peers and with staff, the overall
learning experience of individuals is enhanced, thereby increasing the engagement
level (Allhouse 2014b).
In the references, you would then link the two different sources to the citation:
34

Allhouse, M. (2014a) Room 101: The social SAC. Studies in Self‐Access Learning Journal
5(3) 265‐276. https://sisaljournal.files.wordpress.com/2009/12/issue‐5‐3.pdf
Accessed 6 Oct 2015.
Allhouse, M. (2014b) Researching the new Room 101: “A safe haven for me to learn”.
Studies in Self‐Access Learning Journal 5(4) 466‐479.
https://sisaljournal.files.wordpress.com/2009/12/allhouse.pdf Accessed 6 Oct
2015.

Same author – different books – but similar points made in each one
You might on occasions want to refer to two or more books that an author has written in a
single citation – as the same argument may have been presented by the author on more than
one occasion. You can cite the author with the earlier works listed first, e.g. (Cottrell 2001;
2005; 2008).

I read a book in my own language. How do I reference this?
Do I need to give an English translation of the title?

You should give details of the source you looked at, which will include the title and author, in
the language concerned.
It is recommended to add an English translation [in square brackets] immediately after,
particularly if the book was originally published in non‐European characters, e.g. Chinese,
Arabic. For example:
Citation in text: (Sung et al. 2015)
In the references:
Sung, L., Yao, Q. and Tu, T. (2015) 众筹可以这样玩 [Equity crowd‐funding].
Chongquing Publishing Group.

35

What punctuation and capitalisation style should I use in

referencing?

PUNCTUATION
The recommendation is for no punctuation within the brackets containing a citation, e.g.
(Creswell 2007). If you use multiple citations to support a point, use a semicolon between
each source, e.g. (Alvesson and Ashcraft 2012; Elliott and Robinson 2012; Maitliss 2012).

TITLES
The spelling of the original title should be retained, e.g. Americanization of words in titles
should be retained.

CAPITALISATION
The title should be typed in sentence case, so capitalise the first word and any names,
countries or organisation names.

Example:
Chan, S.P. (2015) China's credit‐fuelled expansion 'unsustainable' as country faces delicate
transition to safer growth. The Telegraph, 5 October.
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/china‐business/11912518/Chinas‐credit‐fuelled‐
expansion‐unsustainable‐as‐country‐faces‐delicate‐transition‐to‐safer‐growth.html
Accessed 6 October 2015.
Mangena, M., Li, J. and Tauringana, V. (2016) Disentangling the effects of corporate disclosure
on the cost of equity capital: A study of the role of intellectual capital disclosure. Journal
of Accounting, Auditing & Finance 31(1) 3‐27.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0148558X14541443 Accessed 16 May 2016.

36


Some writers cite more than one author in support of a particular
point of view. When should I do this?

A number of authors can be cited in support of particularly important points that you want to
make or to support contentious arguments presented by others.
See examples in page 6 of this booklet (example 3).

Are quotations and citations in the text included in the word
count?

Yes. If you decide to use quotations for emphasis or to make a particular point you take
‘ownership’ of them, and you must include them in your word count.
Citations in your text are also included in the word count.
However, your list of references is not included in the word count.

How do I anonymise the company name in my essay?

Whist you would normally name the organisation, remember to anonymise documents from
your host institution if you have been advised to keep it confidential (for your placement
reports, work reports etc.) use “Host Organisation” as the author and publisher, but include
details of the source that you used.
Citation: (Host Organisation 2015)
Reference:
Host Organisation (2015) Competency framework for middle managers. [HR
documentation] Host Organisation.

37
When should I cite my company as a source of information?

The basic principle is to cite your company when the source document is available in the
public domain, e.g. company reports, corporate website data. Internal information, e.g.
departmental reports, company meetings minutes need not be cited. But do be aware of the
potential need to protect confidentiality for these.

In my assignment, how can I distinguish my own opinions from

those in published sources?

Students often want to include their own view on an assignment topic, but are not sure how
to do this, particularly in essays where their tutors have advised them not to use the first
person term, ‘I’. It is important to be aware of conventions in academic writing on how to
distinguish the ideas of others from your own.
Here are some phrases that could be used:
When citing the work of others: When suggesting that the idea is your own:
 It has been argued… (state by whom)  It may be argued that…
 XYZ has argued/asserted/implied  It can be argued that…
 XYZ has suggested/stated/claimed  Arguably,…
 Recent evidence suggests… (state who  The problem with this perspective is,
has suggested it). however, that…
 It has been shown by (state by whom)  Another perspective on this topic is
that… that….
 Strong evidence was found by (state by  It may/might/could be that…
whom) that…  One question that needs to be asked
 A positive correlation was found by is…
(state by whom) between …  However, a contradiction to this
 The relationship between X and Y has argument could/might/may be/is
been explored by (state by whom) that…
38

The phrases in the right hand column, if presented unreferenced, would suggest to the
tutor that the ideas and views were your own (albeit based on a wide reading of the topic).
These personal comments could also be linked with evidence from sources that connect with,
and reinforce, your own perspective.
So you could start a sentence with your own view, and then use supporting evidence to
support these, e.g. “It can be argued that…” (and later) “The work of Smith (2008) supports
this view to a large extent, as her work suggests…”
39
QUIZ
Before you look at some example assignments that show referencing in action, try
answering the questions in this referencing quiz.
Look at the following situations that can occur when writing assignments and decide if a
citation is needed at that point in the assignment. (See page 50 for answers.)
Yes No
1. You include tables, photos, statistics and diagrams in your
assignment. These may be items directly copied or which
have been a source of collation for you.
2. When describing or discussing a theory, model or practice
associated with a particular writer.
3. You summarise information drawn from a variety of
sources about what has happened over a period of time
and when the summary is unlikely to be a cause of
dispute or controversy.
4. To give weight or credibility to an argument that you
believe is important and that you summarise in your
assignment.
5. When giving emphasis to a particular idea that has found
a measure of agreement and support amongst
commentators.
6. When pulling together a range of key ideas that you
introduced and referenced earlier in the assignment.
7. When stating or summarising obvious facts and when
there is unlikely to be any significant disagreement with
your statements or summaries.
8. When using quotations in your assignment.
9. If you copy and paste items from the Internet where no
author’s name is shown.
10. When paraphrasing or summarising (in your own words)
another person’s idea that you feel is particularly
significant or likely to be a subject of debate.

40

EXAMPLE ASSIGNMENT
(This is an example of a high‐grade essay, written in a traditional style, of the level expected at
postgraduate level and which demonstrates referencing in action.)

Essay Title:
The European Union should be focused on the free market, rather than the social
dimension and workers’ rights.
Introduction
This essay argues that since it is not the function of free markets to guarantee full
employment, the social dimension of the European Employment Strategy (EES) inevitably
brings it into conflict with the full liberalisation of the labour supply. The essay begins by
considering how current EU policies continue to be influenced by both the original philosophy
of the EU and the respective policies of various member states. It is important to note here
that the promotion of workplace rights was seen as an important bulwark against the kinds of
political and economic volatility that destabilized pre‐war Europe. The essay then considers
how subsequent changes, especially those in the post 2008‐9 financial and economic
environment, have impacted upon the balance between market liberalisation and social
welfare provision. This is clearly illustrated in the EU’s attempted stimulation of private sector
employment, exemplified in its support for SMEs.
EU Policies
As Velluti (2010:2) observes, the new EES is focused on “Striking a balance between the free
labour market and the protection of the worker’s interests. These objectives accord well with
the current process of re‐conceptualisation of the notion of ‘social’.” Social responsibility and
its overall political implications were arguably at the centre of the European Union’s original
philosophy and approach to workers’ rights (Warleigh 2003). The de‐stabilisation of the
German economy (amongst others), contingent upon global recession, facilitated the rise of
nationalist policies that ultimately triggered World War Two (Greer 2006). The same
philosophy underpinned the continuing enlargement of the EU, including the accession of the
41
‘A8’ states, i.e. Slovenia, Slovakia, Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Hungary, Estonia, and the Czech
Republic (European Commission 2009). Also relevant here is the European Neighbourhood
Policy (ENP) which fosters links with surrounding states, e.g. Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus,
Georgia, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, the Republic of Moldova, Morocco, and the Ukraine
(European Commission 2009). All of these developments highlight the drive towards the
harmonisation of international relations through the liberalisation of markets, including the
labour market. As discussed further below, economic and political changes have rendered the
goal of harmonisation much more elusive, if not impossible.
There were however limits, even in the integration promulgated amongst the founding
member states; these were driven by profound differences in national employment policy
and practice. As Warleigh (2003:16) argues, the EU’s founders promoted an “elite‐centred
welfare generation”, initiating an uneven process of integration. In Germany, for example,
there are both political and structural variables to be taken into account (Hall and Soskice
2004). Like most political leaders, Chancellor Merkel has attempted to align market
liberalisation and socially responsible economics (Hall and Soskice 2004). However, the
structure of the German economy also promotes a degree of social responsibility; both trade
unions and business associations are organised around respective sectors of the economy for
the purposes of wage coordination and corporate collaboration (Hall and Soskice 2004). Since
both labour and employers’ organisations exercise influence in the political sphere, the
dismantling of these frameworks (in favour of unfettered liberalisation of labour markets)
would be difficult (Green and Paterson 2005).
The Role of SMEs (small and medium‐sized enterprises employing 250 staff or under) in EU
Market Liberalisation
As both economic problems and political pressures have lowered the funding available for
public sector employment, EU employment policy has focused on the creation of private
sector employment (Salais et al. 2012). The inherent problems illustrate the incompatibility of
Community‐wide labour policy and free labour markets. The nature of the EES means that it
encourages SME employment within socially managed parameters, hampering the
42

entrepreneurial functions crucial to SME growth (Suder 2008). One area where the EU has
sought to promote employment through the private sector is through the encouragement of
SMEs (Suder 2008). This is driven partly by the perception that SMEs are crucial to the growth
of GDP and employment (Deakins and Freel 2006). Within the EU, this perception has some
justification; in 2008, 99 per cent of all European companies (23 million enterprises) were
SMEs with turnovers not exceeding 50 million euros (Suder 2008). Crucially, an estimated 140
million Europeans work in these types of businesses (Suder 2008). Correspondingly, measures
such as the EU Charter for Small Enterprises (2005) are intended to promote the interests of
these types of businesses.
The European Commission (2012) has developed measures to support the European SME
sector in four main categories; funding opportunities targeted at key themes; structural funds
targeted at residual needs; permanent financial instruments; and support for the
international expansion of SMEs. Structural funding for SMEs is overseen by the European
Social Fund (ESF) and European Regional Development Fund (ERDF), and some firms can also
receive one‐off contributions. For example, international expansion into Latin America is
supported by the AL‐Invest IV fund. The EU’s Understanding China programme encourages
SME engagement with partners in the People’s Republic of China. Risk‐capital operations are
supported by the Neighbourhood Investment Facility. These initiatives may be seen as part of
the EU’s response to the scarcity of investment capital following the 2008‐9 financial crash.
The EU administration had accepted that the nature of the EU trading environment can
inhibit private sector employment (European Commission 2005). As Suder (2008:98) explains,
SMEs often trade on a pan‐European scale, and are “exposed to large‐scale competition and
market harmonisation rules formulated for all actors within a single market”. Consequently,
SMEs have to absorb many of the on‐costs created by EU employment rights and social
protection. The problem here is that governments are notoriously poor at interpreting
and/or supporting the kinds of entrepreneurial activity which feature in a high proportion of
SMEs (Deakins and Freel 2006). Moreover, higher rates of SME entry are usually accompanied
by higher exit rates (ibid).
43
Conclusion
In conclusion, it may be argued that since the social dimensions of employment policy vary
between member states, those determining EU employment policy are unlikely to find a
universal solution. As discussed, the German preference for workplace co‐determination
implies a residual place for workers’ rights that would probably inhibit a totally free labour
market. Meanwhile, the unfettered operation of liberalised labour markets remains
incompatible with the social dimensions of the entire European Community project;
theoretically, free labour markets operate without concern for factors such as
unemployment, contingent social problems, and political instability. This is the antithesis of
the original European Community philosophy, which originated in the desire to avoid such
contingencies. Correspondingly, the attempted stimulation of private sector employment
through initiatives such as SME stimulation marks the limits of its movement towards market
liberalisation.
References
Deakins, D. and Freel, M.S. (2006) Entrepreneurship and small firms. Basingstoke: McGraw‐
Hill.
European Commission (2005) Report on the implementation of the European Charter for Small
Enterprises in the member states of the European Union. Luxembourg: EU Publications.
European Commission (2009) Implementation of the European Neighbourhood Policy in 2008.
Brussels.
European Commission (2012) European Union support programmes for SMEs.
http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/newsroom/cf/itemdetail.cfm?item_id=5778&lang=en&tpa
_id=174 Accessed 30 October 2014.
44

Green, S. and Paterson, W. (2005) Introduction. In Green, S. and Paterson, W. (editors)
Governance in Contemporary Germany: The semi‐sovereign state revisited. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press. 1‐20.
Greer, S. (2006) The European Convention on Human Rights: Achievements, problems and
prospects. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Hall, P. and Soskice, D. (2004) Varieties of capitalism: The institutional foundations of
comparative advantage. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Salais, R., Rogowski, R. and Whiteside, N. (2012) Introduction. In Rogowski, R., Salais, R. and
Whiteside, N. (editors) Transforming European Employment Policy: Labour market
transitions and the promotion of capability. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar. 1‐24.
Suder, G. (2008) Doing business in Europe. London: Sage.
Velluti, S. (2010) New governance and the European Employment Strategy. Abingdon:
Routledge.
Warleigh, A. (2003) Democracy in the European Union. London: Sage.

45
ANSWERS TO THE QUIZ
You had to decide whether a citation in the text was needed in the following situations.
Yes No
1. You include tables, photos, statistics and diagrams in √
your assignment. These may be items directly copied or
which have been a source of collation for you.
2. When describing or discussing a theory, model or √
practice associated with a particular writer.
3. You summarise information drawn from a variety of √
sources about what has happened over a period of time
and when the summary is unlikely to be a cause of
dispute or controversy.
4. To give weight or credibility to an argument that you √
believe is important and that you summarise in your
assignment.
5. When giving emphasis to a particular idea that has √
found a measure of agreement and support amongst
commentators.
6. When pulling together a range of key ideas that you √
introduced and referenced earlier in the assignment.
7. When stating or summarising obvious facts and when √
there is unlikely to be any significant disagreement with
your statements or summaries.
8. When using quotations in your assignment. √
9. If you copy and paste items from the Internet where √
no author’s name is shown. (You should cite the name
of the Organisation or website).
10. When paraphrasing or summarising (in your own √

words) another person’s idea that you feel is
particularly significant or likely to be a subject of
debate.

46

FURTHER READING
These are all the titles in booklets in the ‘Effective Learning’ series:
1. Return to Part‐time Study
2. Return to Full‐time Study
3. The First Semester
4. Time Management
5. Accelerated Learning
6. 20 Tips for Effective Learning
7. Six Steps to Effective Reading
8. Effective Note Making
9. Effective Writing
10. Essay Writing (1) stages of essay writing
11. Essay Writing (2) planning and structuring your essays
12. Essay Writing (3) finding your own voice in essays
13. Essay writing (4): Ten ways to liven your essays
14. Why, When and How to Reference
15. Report Writing
16. Pass Your Exams
17. Your Assignment Results – and how to improve them
18. Presentations
19. Group Work
20. Introduction to Research and Research Methods
21. Foundations of Good Research
22. Writing Your Management Project Report or Dissertation

You can download any of these from the ELS website:
http://www.bradford.ac.uk/management/student‐services‐and‐facilities/effective‐learning‐
service/booklets/
The booklets can also be found in the Faculty of Management and Law library, in the foyer of
the Airedale Building and the Cartwright Building.

47

NEED HELP WITH REFERENCING?
If you need help in referencing any source in an assignment, you can contact
Effective Learning Service for the Faculty of Management and Law.
Email: mgt.els@bradford.ac.uk
Telephone: (01274) 234320 and (01274) 234952
Visit: Room 0.11 and Room 0.12, Yvette Jacobson Building, the Faculty of
Management and Law

RECOMMENDED INTERNET SITES ON REFERENCING
LearnHigher site: A site that offers an overview of referencing practice generally:
www.learnhigher.ac.uk
For referencing legal sources: The Oxford Standard for Citation of Legal Authorities at
http://denning.law.ox.ac.uk/published/oscola.shtml
For information on how to avoid plagiarism: The Plagiarism Advisory Service at
http://www.jiscpas.ac.uk/

OTHER USEFUL STUDY SKILLS GUIDES
Cottrell, S. (2003) The study skills handbook. London: Palgrave.
(This book contains lots of bite‐sized chunks of advice and information presented in a lively
and visually interesting way. This is an excellent general study skills guide for all
undergraduate or postgraduate students).
Giles, K. and Hedge, N. (1998) The manager’s good study guide. Milton Keynes: Open
University Press.
(This is a study skills guide written for business studies students and contains advice and
information presented in a clear, readable and subject‐specific way).

© Effective Learning Service, University of Bradford, Faculty of Management and Law
First edition 2007
Second edition June 2016
48

Faculty of
Management & Law
Effective Learning Service
Room 0.11 and 0.12,

Yvette Jacobson Building
01274 234320
mgt.els@bradford.ac.uk
www.bradford.ac.uk/management/els

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Why, When and Effective

SOM LEARNING ELS W W W. B R A D F O R D . A C . U K / M A N A G E M E N T/ E L S

SECTION 1: REFERENCING GENERAL INFORMATION

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ‘REFERENCES’ AND ‘BIBLIOGRAPHY’

WHAT NEEDS TO BE REFERENCED?

WHAT DOES NOT NEED TO BE REFERENCED?

HOW TO AVOID PLAGIARISM

SUMMARISING OTHERS’ IDEAS INTO YOUR OWN WORDS

THE HARVARD STYLE OF REFERENCING: THE BASIC IDEA

NOTES ON THE USE OF ONLINE REFERENCES

LECTURES AND COURSE MATERIALS

MAGAZINES AND TRADE PUBLICATIONS

SOCIAL MEDIA (Blogs, Tweets, Discussion Forums and Wikis)

SECTION 3: FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS ABOUT REFERENCING

10. When paraphrasing or summarising (in your own √

Effective Learning Service

Room 0.11 and 0.12,

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