Personality and Individual Differences 101 (2016) 22–25

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Personality and Individual Differences

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Short Communication

The role of narcissism in self-promotion on Instagram

Jang Ho Moon a, Eunji Lee b, Jung-Ah Lee b, Tae Rang Choi c, Yongjun Sung b,⁎
a
Department of Public Relations & Advertising, Sookmyung Women's University, Republic of Korea
b
Department of Psychology, Korea University, Republic of Korea
c
Stan Richards School of Advertising & Public Relations, The University of Texas at Austin, United States

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Instagram, the rising photo-sharing social networking site, has gained an enormous amount of global popularity.
Received 27 January 2016 This study examined the relationship between narcissism and Instagram users' self-promoting behavior. A total
Received in revised form 8 April 2016 of 212 active Instagram users in Korea completed an online survey. The results showed that individuals higher in
Accepted 17 May 2016
narcissism tended to post selfies and self-presented photos, update their profile picture more often, and spend
Available online 27 May 2016
more time on Instagram, as compared to their counterparts. They also rated their Instagram profile pictures as
Keywords:
more physically attractive. Additionally, the results showed that Grandiose Exhibitionism positively predicted
Narcissism and Leadership/Authority negatively predicted the frequency of selfie postings and profile picture updates, as
Social networking site (SNS) well as profile picture evaluations. However, Entitlement/Exploitativeness exhibited no effect on any of the
Self-promoting behavior self-promotion behaviors on Instagram.
Instagram © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction identified a three-factor model, in which they proposed Leadership/Au-

Social networking sites (hereafter SNSs), such as Facebook, Twitter,
and Instagram provide a new venue for individuals to present them-
selves and manage their social relationships online. With the emergence
of social technologies available to Internet and smartphone users, SNS-
based communication provides novel venues for self-disclosure, self-
presentation, and impression management (Rui & Stefanone, 2013). In
particular, Instagram, a mobile photo-sharing application, has attracted
SNS users to present themselves via a variety of photographs and short
videos by making the process easier than ever. A recent study indicated
that two key motivations for using Instagram are self-expression and
social interaction, suggesting that Instagram users utilize pictures of
all sorts of things to present their actual and ideal selves, as well as to
maintain social relationships (Lee, Lee, Moon, & Sung, 2015).
A growing body of personality research suggests that narcissism is
one of the most powerful predictors of self-promotional content via so-
cial media (Carpenter, 2012). Narcissism refers to “a personality trait
reflecting a grandiose and inflated self-concept” and is characterized
by an unrealistic positive self-view (Buffardi & Campbell, 2008), espe-
cially of traits, such as status, physical appearance, social popularity,
and intelligence (Campbell, Rudich, & Sedikides, 2002). The most widely
used Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI) has been analyzed repeat-
edly by psychologists to delineate its multidimensional construct
(Emmons, 1984; Raskin & Terry, 1988). Ackerman et al. (2011)
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: jaymoon@sookmyung.ac.kr (J.H. Moon), totgunji@gmail.com
(E. Lee), jahlee92929@gmail.com (J.-A. Lee), sy.t.choi@utexas.edu (T.R. Choi),
sungyj@korea.ac.kr (Y. Sung).
thority (LA), Grandiose/Exhibitionism (GE), and Entitlement/
Exploitativeness (EE) as the three key factors of narcissism. The three
factors differ in terms of being either adaptive or maladaptive forms of
narcissism. Specifically, the LA factor (e.g., “I like having authority over
people”) is regarded as an adaptive type of narcissism, marked by social
boldness, optimism, and a focus on interpersonal relations with others
(Brown, Budzek, & Tamborski, 2009; Emmons, 1984; Hickman,
Watson, & Morris, 1996). Comparatively, maladaptive forms of narcis-
sism, including the GE factor (e.g., I like to look at myself in the mirror)
and the EE factor (e.g., I find it easy to manipulate people), are charac-
terized by an intrapersonal focus on the self, neuroticism, and a willing-
ness to exploit others (Ackerman et al., 2011; Brown et al., 2009).
The rise in levels of narcissism among millennials (Twenge, Konrath,
Foster, Campbell, & Bushman, 2008), in addition to the development of
a variety of SNSs, warrants more academic research regarding the rela-
tionship between narcissism and SNS usage. Empirically, individuals
high in narcissism are very active on SNSs (Ong et al., 2011), and more
likely than their counterparts to display self-promotional content on
their static profiles (Mehdizadeh, 2010). Nevertheless, to the authors'
best knowledge, no studies have investigated the relationship between
narcissism and users' self-promoting behaviors on Instagram. Thus, the
current study focused on the relationship between narcissism and users'
self-promoting behaviors on Instagram, profile picture-related behaviors,
and general Instagram usage. Research shows that nearly half of the
photos posted and shared on Instagram are categorized as “selfies”
(24.2%) or self-presented photos with friends (22.4%) (Hu, Manikonda,
& Kambhampati, 2014). In line with prior literature on this topic, the cur-
rent study hypothesized that narcissism would be positively associated
with the frequency of selfie postings (H1-a), the proportion of selfies

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.05.042
0191-8869/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 J.H. Moon et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 101 (2016) 22–25 23

(i.e., a self-portrait photograph that one has taken of oneself; only one
human face is present in the photo) in a photo collection (H1-b), and
the proportion of self-presented photos (i.e., a photograph that one has
taken with others; at least two human faces are in the photo) in a photo
collection (H1-c). With regard to profile pictures, it was hypothesized
that individuals higher in narcissism would update their profile picture
more frequently (H2-a) and evaluate their physical attractiveness in the
current profile picture more positively than those lower in narcissism
(H2-b). Further, it was hypothesized that narcissism scores would posi-
tively correlate with the time spent per day (H3-a), the number of photos
posted (H3-b), the number of followers (H3-c), and the number of follow-
ings (H3-d) on Instagram. Finally, this study examined the relative effects
of the three key components of the NPI (LA, GE, and EE) on self-promoting
behaviors on Instagram.
2. Method
2.1. Participants
An online consumer survey was conducted during a 3-week period
from November to December 2014 in Korea. The sample for this study
was recruited by a major research firm in Asia (Macromill Embrain)
with an office in Seoul, Korea. Potential survey respondents, who were
members of a virtual research panel managed by the research company,
were randomly selected and notified by e-mail of the opportunity to
take part in this study. All participants who completed the survey re-
ceived virtual currency incentives from the research firm.
The initial sample consisted of 239 Instagram users aged 20–39 years.
The final sample size (N = 212; 110 females) reflects a reduction in the
initial number of participants who were eliminated due to incomplete
surveys. The average age of respondents was 28.8 years (SD = 5.28).
2.2. Measures
Narcissism was assessed using a translated version of the 13-item Nar-
cissism Personality Inventory (NPI-13) (Gentile et al., 2013). Respondents
rate how much they agree with the items' descriptions of themselves on a
7-point Likert scale. The NPI-13 yields a total score and three subscale
scores: LA (4 items, α = 0.89), GE (5 items, α = 0.85), and EE (4 items,
α = 0.84). In the present study, the total NPI-13 score, ranging from 13
to 89 (α = 0.95), was used to test the three proposed hypotheses. Higher
scores indicate higher levels of narcissism. In addition, the three separate
subscale scores were employed to examine the relative effects of each fac-
tor of narcissism on self-promoting behavior.
With regard to user behavior, measures were derived from prior SNS
studies (Carpenter, 2012; Moore & McElroy, 2012; Ong et al., 2011). Par-
ticipants were requested to estimate their frequency of selfie postings,
and the percentage of selfies and self-presented photos in their
Instagram accounts. They were asked to report the frequency of profile
picture updates and rate their physical appearance in their current pro-
file picture on three adjectives (attractive, fashionable, and cool) using a
7-point Likert scale. In this study, all respondents reported being in their
current profile picture. A profile picture rating score was obtained by
summing these three self-ratings; Cronbach's alpha was high (0.85). Fi-
nally, the participants were requested to report the amount of time
spent on Instagram per day, the number of all photos posted, the num-
ber of followers, and the number of followings.
3. Results
3.1. Hypotheses tests
To control for the effects of age and gender, partial correlations
among the variables of interest were calculated. As shown in Table 1,
higher scores on the NPI-13 were positively correlated with the fre-
quency of selfie postings (pr = 0.30, p b 0.001), the proportion of selfies
(pr = 0.17, p b 0.05), and the proportion of self-presented photos (pr =
0.14, p b 0.05), supporting H1-a, b, and c. The correlations between nar-
cissism and participants' frequency of profile picture updates (pr =
0.31, p b 0.001), and self-evaluation of their profile picture (pr = 0.49,
p b 0.001) were statistically significant, thereby supporting H2-a and
b. (See Table 1.)
In addition, we observed significant positive correlations between
narcissism and the amount of time spent per day on Instagram (pr =
0.15, p b 0.05), supporting H3-a. However, narcissism was not signifi-
cantly related to the number of all photos posted (H3-b; pr = 0.12,
p = 0.08), the number of followers (H3-c; pr = 0.11, p = 0.11), or the
number of followings (H3-d; pr = 0.08, p = 0.25).
Furthermore, a series of regression analyses were performed to ex-
amine the relative effects of the three factors of narcissism on self-pro-
moting behaviors on Instagram. The proportion of selfies, frequency of
selfie postings, frequency of profile picture updates, and self-evalua-
tions of profile pictures were regressed, respectively, on the average rat-
ings of the three factors of narcissism (See Table 2).
3.1.1. Proportion and frequency of selfie postings
The overall regression model was significant, R2 = 0.07, F(3, 208) =
5.10, p b 0.01. The result of the regression analysis indicated that both
GE (β = 0.35, p b 0.001) and LA (β = −0.35, p b 0.05) were significant
predictors of the proportion of selfies in their Instagram account. How-
ever, EE was not a significant predictor (β = 0.18, p = 0.31). In the anal-
ysis of the frequency of selfie postings, the regression model was also
significant, R2 = 0.15, F(3, 208) = 13.78, p b 0.001, and both GE (β =
0.55, p b 0.001) and LA (β = −0.40, p b 0.01) were found to be signifi-
cant predictors. Yet, EE (β = 0.16, p = 0.33) was not a significant pre-
dictor of selfie-posting frequency.

Table 1
Partial correlations among the variables and their means and standard deviations.

Measure 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 M SD

1. NPI-13 – 0.30⁎⁎ 0.17⁎ 0.14⁎ 0.31⁎⁎ 0.49⁎⁎ 0.15⁎ 0.12 0.11 0.08 49.22 14.56
2. Frequency of selfie postings – 0.65⁎⁎ 0.48⁎⁎ 0.64⁎⁎ 0.33⁎⁎ 0.27⁎⁎ 0.15⁎ 0.15⁎ 0.08 3.07 1.63
3. Proportion of selfies – 0.62⁎⁎ 0.46⁎⁎ 0.25⁎⁎ 0.24⁎⁎ 0.09 0.10 0.05 19.25 24.31
4. Proportion of self-presented photos – 0.37⁎⁎ 0.25⁎⁎ 0.19⁎ 0.07 0.13 0.14⁎ 32.08 30.70
5. Frequency of profile picture updates – 0.30⁎⁎ 0.23⁎⁎ 0.23⁎ 0.15⁎ 0.12 3.14 1.55
6. Self-evaluation of profile picture – 0.22⁎⁎ 0.12 0.19⁎ 0.20⁎ 4.35 1.17
7. Time spent per day on Instagram – 0.27⁎⁎ 0.37⁎⁎ 0.25⁎⁎ 30.07 27.51
8. Number of all photos posted – 0.52⁎⁎ 0.39⁎⁎ 61.06 109.92
9. Number of followers – 0.82⁎⁎ 59 85.73
10. Number of followings – 69 96.25

Notes: Control variables: age, gender. M = mean; SD = standard deviation.

⁎⁎ p b 0.01.
⁎ p b 0.05.
24 J.H. Moon et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 101 (2016) 22–25

Table 2
Results of the multiple regression analyses.

Item GE LA EE

B SE β t B SE β t B SE β t

Proportion of selfie postings 7.55 2.84 0.35 2.65⁎⁎ −6.78 3.04 −0.35 −2.22⁎ 3.71 3.63 0.18 1.02
Frequency of selfie postings 0.80 0.18 0.55 4.45⁎ −0.51 0.19 −0.40 −2.27⁎⁎ 0.23 0.23 0.16 0.98
Frequency of profile picture updates 0.52 0.17 0.38 2.97⁎⁎ −0.38 0.19 −0.31 −2.05⁎ 0.35 0.22 0.26 1.54
Self-evaluation of profile picture 0.62 0.12 0.59 5.17⁎⁎⁎ −0.26 0.13 −0.27 −2.00⁎ 0.21 0.15 0.20 1.35

Note: β is the standardized regression coefficient.

⁎⁎⁎ p b 0.001.
⁎⁎ p b 0.01.
⁎ p b 0.05.

3.1.2. Profile picture update and evaluation
Both GE (β = 0.38, p b 0.01) and LA (β = − 0.31, p b 0.05) were
found to be significant predictors of profile picture updates (R2 =
0.13, F(3, 208) = 10.64, p b 0.001). Finally, similar results were found
for the profile picture evaluation. That is, both GE (β = 0.59,
p b 0.001) and LA (β = − 0.27, p b 0.05) were significant predictors
(R2 = 0.30, F(3, 208) = 29.93, p b 0.001). However, EE was not a signif-
icant predictor of profile picture updates or evaluation (p N 0.10).
4. Discussion
This study examined the relationships among narcissism and self-
promoting behaviors on Instagram. Our study confirmed that more nar-
cissistic individuals tend to post selfies and self-presented photos and
update their profile picture more often as compared to less narcissistic
individuals (Fox & Rooney, 2015). In addition, more narcissistic individ-
uals rated their Instagram profile pictures as more physically attractive,
lending some support to the notion that more narcissistic people are
concerned about their physical appearance (Vazire, Naumann,
Rentfrow, & Gosling, 2008). Finally, users with higher levels of narcis-
sism tend to spend more time on Instagram, supporting the current un-
derstanding of the relationship between narcissism and SNS behavior
(Mehdizadeh, 2010). Notably, narcissism was not associated with the
total number of photos posted. These results are consistent with those
of Ong et al. (2011) whereas, they contradict those of Buffardi and
Campbell (2008), thereby calling for additional research.
More importantly, our regression analyses showed that regardless of
the dependent variables, the results were consistent. That is, GE was sig-
nificant in predicting the proportion of selfies, frequency of selfie post-
ings, frequency of profile picture updates, and profile picture
evaluations in Instagram. Our findings are consistent with those of
prior research (Ackerman et al., 2011; Carpenter, 2012), suggesting
that individuals high in GE tend to have a more inflated self-view and
are more likely to express a somewhat distorted self-concept via a vari-
ety of SNSs. Wright (2012) suggested that, unlike those high in LA, nar-
cissists with high GE try to compensate for low self-esteem through self-
promoting behaviors online, especially via selfies on SNSs.
Further, the LA factor was a significant but negative predictor of all
the self-promoting variables. As discussed, LA is regarded as an adaptive
type of narcissism, marked by social boldness, optimism, and a focus on
interpersonal relatedness to others, suggesting that individuals high in
LA value social relationships. Thus, they are less likely to promote them-
selves using pictures and SNSs than are those high in GE. As they have
relatively higher levels of self-esteem, they do not see a strong need
for online self-promotion, especially on Instagram (Sedikides, Rudich,
Gregg, Kumashiro, & Rusbult, 2004). Thus, additional research with
the LA subscale of the NPI is needed for a more comprehensive under-
standing of the links between narcissism and self-promoting behaviors
online.
Finally, the EE factor was not a significant predictor of any of the de-
pendent variables. As a form of maladaptive narcissism, those high in EE
tend to underevaluate others to increase their low self-esteem
(Ackerman et al., 2011). Thus, future research should examine the rela-
tionship between EE and Instagram users' evaluations and reactions to
others' selfies and self-promoting behavior online. For example, fol-
low-up research might empirically examine whether individuals who
are high in EE read, comment, or “like” others posts (including varied
self-promotional content, such as selfies).
It is worth noting that the current study is limited by the use of the
shorter measure of trait narcissism, the NPI-13. Future research
employing the longer version (40-items) of the NPI is needed. Another
limitation is the use of self-reported data for measuring participants'
self-promoting behaviors on Instagram. Further investigations with ac-
tual measures of self-promoting behaviors on social media are
necessary.
Despite these limitations, the current study provided evidence that
personality, and narcissism in particular, might account for various
self-promoting behaviors on Instagram. In addition, the findings of
this study call for additional studies examining the relative impact of
the three sub-components of narcissism. Such findings should help re-
searchers and practitioners alike further appreciate the important con-
cept of narcissism as an individual difference factor as well as its
impact on self-promoting behaviors on social media.
Author disclosure statement
No competing financial interests exist.
Acknowledgement
This research was supported by the Sookmyung Women's Universi-
ty Research Grant (#1-1503-0065).
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