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ANALOG CIRCUITS

1 DIODE CIRCUITS

1. INTRODUCTION

The first electronic device to be introduced is called the diode. It is the most fundamental and
simplest semiconductor device but plays a very vital role in electronic system, having
characteristics that closely match those of a simple switch. It will appear in a range of
applications, extending from the simple to the very complex.
Just like resistor, the diode has two terminals; but unlike the resistor which has a linear
relationship between the current flowing through it and voltage appearing across it, the diode
has non-linear V-I characteristics.

2. DC ANALYSIS AND MODELS

Mathematical relationship, or models that describes the voltage current characteristics of

electrical elements allow us to analyse and design circuit without having to fabricate and test
them in the laboratory.
2.1. Ideal Diode
The ideal diode may be considered the most fundamental non-linear circuit element. It is
two terminal devices having the circuit symbol of figure 1(a) and the characteristic in
figure 1(b).

Fig (1): The ideal diode (a) diode circuit symbol (b) i-v characteristics.
The characteristics of the ideal diode can be explained as below:
• If the negative voltage (relative to the reference direction indicated in figure 1.a) is
applied to diode, no current flows and the diode behave as an open circuit as shown
in fig 1(c). Diode operated in this mode are said to reverse biased.

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An ideal diode has zero current when operated in the reverse direction and is said to
be cut-off and simply OFF.
• If a positive current (relative to the reference direction indicated in fig 1.a) is applied
to the ideal diode, zero voltage drop appear across the diode. Diode operated in this
mode are said to forward biased.
An ideal diode behaves as a short circuit in forward direction as shown in fig 1(d), it
passes any current with zero voltage drop. Forward biased diode is said to turn ON or
simply ON.

(c) (d)
Equivdent circuit of diode in the Equivalent circuit of diode in the
revese direction forward direction

From the above description it should be noted that the external circuit must be designed to
limit the forward current through a conducting diode, and reverse voltage across cut off
diode, to predetermined values. Figure 2 shows the two-diode circuit that illustrate this
point.

Figure (2): The modes of operation of ideal diode and the use of an external
circuit to limit the forward current (a) and reverse voltage (b)
From fig 2(a), it can be concluded that diode is conducting thus its voltage drop will be
zero, and the current through it will be determined by the +5V supply and 1 KΩ resistor as
5mA.
From fig 2(b), it can be concluded that diode is in cut off. Thus, its current will be zero,
which is turns means that entire 5V supply will appear as reverse bias across the diode.

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2.2. Load line Analysis

Figure 3: Series diode configuration (a) circuit (b) Characteristics

The simplest diode configuration is shown in figure 3(a) which have characteristics as
shown in figure 3(b)
Applying Kirchhoff’s law to the series circuit of figure 3(a)
E – VD – VR = 0
E = VD + IDR ……………………(i)
If VD = 0V (for finding point A)
E = ID R
E
∴ ID =
R VD = 0V

If ID = 0A (for finding point B)

E = VD = 0.R
 VD = E I
D = 0A

Figure 4: Load line & point of operation of diode.

• A straight line drawn between the two points A & B is known as dc load line of diode
circuits.
• If the level of load resistance is change then intersection on the vertical axis will also
change. This result in the change of slope of load line and a different point of
intersection between the load line and device characteristics.

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• Load line can be defined by a network and characteristic curve defined by the device.
The point of intersection between the two is known as point of operation for this circuit.
It is usually called as quiescent point or Q-point.
• The solution obtained at the intersection of the two curves is same that would be
obtained by a simultaneous mathematical solution of

E VD
ID = −
R R

And ID = I0 (eVD / VT − 1)

2.3. Approximate models

The approximate models is used to investigate a no of series diode configuration with dc
inputs.
• For each configuration the state of each diode must first be determined whether it is
ON or OFF.
• For the conduction region the only difference between silicon diode and the ideal diode
is the vertical shift in the characteristics.
• In general, a diode is in the ‘ON’ state if the current established by the applied sources
is such that its direction matches that of the arrow in the diode symbol, and V D ≥ 0 V
for ideal diode, VD ≥ 0.3 V for germanium diode, VD ≥ 0.7 V for silicon diode.

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Figure 5: Approximate and ideal semiconductor diode models.

2.4. DC or static resistance
The application of a dc voltage to a circuit containing a semiconductor diode will result in
an operating point on the characteristics curve that will not change with time. At the
operating point, the resistance of the diode can be simply found by finding the
corresponding levels of VD and ID as shown in figure 6
VD
RD =
ID

Figure 6: determining the dc resistance of a diode at a particular operating point.

2.5. Short Trick for Diode ‘ON’ or ‘OFF’ testing
Method-1 Open circuit method
• Open the diode and find anode voltage VA and cathode voltage VK.
• If VA > VK ⎯→ Diode is ON
If VA < VK ⎯→ Diode is OFF
Method-2 Short circuit method
• Assume Diode D is ON and find current through the diode.
• If current direction is from anode to cathode (diode is ON)
If current direction is from cathode to anode (diode is OFF)
Method-3
• If VD = Positive ⎯→ Diode is ON
• If VD = Negative ⎯→ Diode is OFF
Where VD = Voltage across the diode between anode and cathode terminal

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2.6. Series diode configuration with DC inputs

Approximate model is used to investigate several series diode configuration with dc
input.

Figure 7: Series diode configuration

Figure 8: Series diode circuit analysis in forward bias

(a) determining the state of the diode
(b) Substituting the equivalent model for the ON diode.
The state of the diode is first determined by mentally replacing the diode with a resistive
element as shown in figure 8(a). The direction of I is a match with the arrow in the diode
symbol and since E > Vγ (cut in voltage in diode), the diode is in the ‘ON’ state.
Resulting voltage and current levels are as follow:
V D = Vγ
VR = E – Vγ
VR
ID = IR =
R

Figure 9: - Reversing the diode.

Figure 10: (a) Determining the state of the diode

(b) substituting the equivalent model for the off diode.

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In figure (9) the diode of figure (7) has been reversed. Again, mentally replacing the
diode with resistive element as shown in fig 10(a) will reveal that the resulting current
direction does not match the arrow in the circuit, the diode current is 0A and the voltage
across the resistor R is as below
V R = IR R = ID R
=(0A) R = 0V
Example-1: Determine ID, VD2, And V0 for the circuit of figure 11

figure 11
Solutions:
E = 12V > (0.7V + 0.3V) = 1 V
Resulting current has same direction as the arrowheads of the symbols of both diodes.

Figure 11(a)
V0 = E − V1 − V2

= 12V – 0.7V – 0.3V

= 11 V
VR V 11V
ID = IR = = D = = 1.96 mA
R R 5.6K
2.7. Parallel and series-parallel configuration
The method in the section 2.6 can be extended to the analysis of parallel and series-
parallel configuration. For each area of application, simply match the sequential series of
steps applied to series diode configuration.

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Example-2 Determine the current I for the network of figure 12.

Figure 12

Solutions:

Figure 12(a)

Redrawing the network as shown in figure 12(a) reveals that the resulting current

direction is such as to turn ON diode D1 and turn OFF D2. The resulting current I is then

E1 − E2 − VD 20V − 4V − 0.7V
I= =
R 2.2K

= 6.95 mA

Example 3: Determine the currents I1, I2 and ID2 for the network of figure 13

Figure 13

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Solutions:
The applied voltage is such as to turn both diodes ON, as noted by the resulting current
directions in the network of figure 13(a)

Figure: 13 (a)
V 0.7
2
I1 = = = 0.212 mA
R1 3.3

Applying kVL
−V2 + E − V − V =0
1 2

V2 = 10 – 0.7 – 0.7 = 8.6

V2 8.6 V
I2 = = = 1.53 mA
R2 5.6 k

ID2 + I1 = I2

ID2 = I2 − I1

= 1.53 – 0.212
= 1.32 mA

3. TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS OF DIODE CIRCUITS

Transfer characteristics of any circuit or two port networks is the graphical representation of
input and output voltage.
The Transfer characteristics of the any electrical circuit is given as

Figure 14: Transfer characteristics of any electrical circuits

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Example 4: Draw the transfer characteristics of the circuit shown in figure 15 below:

Figure 15
Case 1: [Assume Vγ = 0 V i.e. ideal diode]
Case 2: [Assume Vγ = 0.7 V i.e. silicon diode]
Solution:
(i) For ideal Diode
When Vs > 0 i.e. during positive half cycle. Therefore, diode is ON (conducting)

Figure 15(a)

Vout = 0
⇒
When Vs < 0 i.e. during negative half cycle. Diode is off (non-conducting)

Figure 15(b)

Vout = Vin

Figure 15(c): Transfer characteristics of ideal diode circuit of figure 15

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(ii) For Silicon Diode

When 0 < Vin < 0.7 volt
Diode is off [non-conducting]

Figure 15(d)

Vout = Vin

When Vin > 0.7 volts, diode is ON (conducting)

Figure 15(e)

Vout = 0.7 Volts

When Vin < 0, diode is off (non-conducting)

Figure 15(f)

Vout = Vin

Figure 15(g): Transfer characteristics of Silicon diode circuit of figure 15

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Example 5: Draw the transfer characteristics of the circuit of figure 16 shown below:

Figure 16
(i) [Assume Vy = 0 V]
(ii) [Assume Vy = 0.7 V]
Solution:
(i) When Vin > 0,
Then diode D1 is in forward bias i.e. ON state & diode D 2 is in reverse bias i.e. OFF state.

Figure 16 (a)
Vout = 0 Volts

When Vin < 0, then diode D1 is in reverse bias i.e. in OFF state & diode D2 is in forward bias i.e.
in ON state.

Figure 16(b)
Vout = 0 Volts

Figure 16(c): Transfer characteristics of ideal diode circuit of figure 16

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(ii) When 0 < Vin < 0.7 V, then both diodes D1 & D2 are in reverse bias i.e. in OFF state.

Figure 16(d)
Vout = Vin

When Vin > 0.7 Volts, then diode D1 is in forward bios with Vy = 0.7 Volts and diode D2 is in
reverse bios.

Figure 16(e)
Vout = 0.7 Volts

When 0.7 < Vi < 0, then both diodes D1 & D2 are in reverse bios, i.e. in off state.

Figure 16(f)
Vout = Vin

When Vi < –0.7 volts, then diode D1 is in reverse bios i.e. in OFF state & diode D 2 is in forward
bios i.e. in ON state.

Figure 16(g)
Vout = 0.7 Volts

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Figure 16(h): Transfer characteristics of Silicon diode circuit of figure 16

Contact Potential V0
NAND
V0 = KT ln volts
ni2

or
NAND
V0 = VT ln volts
ni2

Contact potential is a function of doping concentration or impurity atoms.

[The switching time for a general diode is in msec. Therefore, also act as slow switch].
V-I Characteristics
A diode is an active unidirectional of non-linear device.

Figure 16(i): V-I characteristics

Breakdown voltage of diode is the manufactures specification. So, in any type of PN-junction.
1
VBr. 
Doping

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Diode Resistance

Dynamic Resistance of Diode

For small-signal operation, the dynamic or incremental resistance.
dV
r=
dl

dl l eV / VT l+l
= 0 = V 0
dV VT T

VT
 r=
l
l  l0 for a forward current l = 26 mA

rsi > rGe

Temperature Dependence of V-I Characteristics
Reverse saturation current approximately doubles for every 10° rise in temperature if
I0 = I01 at T = T1 then at temperature T, I0 is
I0(T) = I01 × 2(T–T1)/10
For either silicon or Ge at room temperature,
dV
= −2.5mV/ C
dT
Width of depletion layer when diode is open circuited
In an open circuited diode, the depletion layer width
W = WN + WP

2𝜀 1 1
𝑊=√ ( + )𝑉
𝑞 𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐷 0

where, 𝜀 = 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟
𝜀 = Absolute permittivity of free space
𝜀0 = 8.854 × 10–12 F/n
𝜀𝑟 = Relative permittivity of dielectric medium
q = 1.6 × 10–19 coulomb
V0 = Contact potential

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Equation of width of depletion layer when diode is reverse biased.

2𝜀 1 1
𝑊=√ ( + ) (𝑉0 + 𝑉𝑅𝐵 )
𝑞 𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐷

Space Charge Region

Figure 16(j): Space Charge region

V0 = contact potential barrier voltage < 1 V.

w = width of depletion layer.
1
W
Doping

• Depletion layer is also called space-charge region or transition region.

• Within depletion layer the mobile charge carriers are zero.
• Depletion layer consists of ions and covalent bonds.

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• It also consists of immobile charged particles.

• Depletion layer consists of negative ions (acceptor) on p-side and positive ions (donor) on
N-side.
• Depletion layer will oppose majority carriers.
• It will not oppose minority carriers in carrying the junction.
• Electric field intensity ‘E 0’ is maximum at the junction and
• Contact potential/potential hill/barrier voltage and is always less than 1.

4. DIODE: THE SMALL SIGNAL MODEL

There are many applications in which a diode is biased to operate at a point on the forward i-
v characteristics and small ac signal is superimposed on DC quantities. For this situation, firstly
the DC operating point (VD and ID) will be determine. Then for small signal operation around
the DC bias point, the diode is best modelled by a resistance equal to the inverse of the slope
of the tangent to the exponential i-v characteristic at the bias point.

Figure 17: Development of the diode small signal model

The diode equation is,
VD / VT
ID = Io ( e – 1)
V / V
ID ≃ I0 e D T
Where, ID = Dc bias current
The total instantaneous diode voltage is,
VD(t) =VD + Vd (t)
Correspondingly, the total instantaneous diode current is,
V / V
iD(t) = I0 e D T
(VD + Vd(t)]/ VT
⇒ iD(t) = I0 e

⇒ iD(t) = I0 eVD / VT .eVd(t)/ VT

⇒ iD(t) = ID eVd(t)/ VT

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Now if amplitude of the signal Vd(t) is kept sufficiently small such that
Vd(t)
 1
VT
Vd (t)
Then iD (t) ≃ ID (1 + )
ηVT

ID
⇒ iD (t) = ID + V (t)
VT d
Thus, superimposed on the dc current ID, there are a small signal current component directly
proportional to the signal voltage Vd(t). That is
iD(t) = ID + id(t)
ID
∴ id(t)= V (t)
VT d
= g Vd(t)
Hence, diode small signal conductance.
ID
g=
VT
The inverse of this parameter is the diode small signal resistance or incremental resistance, r d
VT
rd =
ID
Incremental resistance is inversely proportional to the dc bias current.
Example 6: Consider the circuit shown in figure 18

Figure 18
For each diode η = 2, V γ = 0.7V, dc forward resistance of diode is Rf = 0 Ω. Assuming initially
when S is open, V0 = 4.2 V; for this condition find the incremental resistance in the circuit.
Solutions:
Current through each diode in the given circuit is
10 − V0 10 − 4.2
I= =
1K 1K
= 5.8 mA

So incremental resistance of each diode is

VT
rd =
I
2  25.9 mV
= = 8.93 Ω
5.8 mA

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So total incremental resistance of the circuit is

= 3rd
= 36.79 Ω
Example 7
In the circuit shown below, assume that voltage drop across a forward biased diode is 0.7 V.
The thermal voltage VT = KT/q = 25 mV. The small signal input voltage Vi = Vp cos(ωt), where
Vp = 200 mV

Figure 19
i) Find bias current IDC through the diodes
ii) Find the ac output voltage Vac.
Solution:
Given, forward voltage drops of diode = 0.7V
KT
Thermal voltage, VT = = 25 mV
q
Input signal Vi = Vp cos (ωt)
Where Vp = 200 mV
DC Analysis
AC voltage is short circuited, and all the diode is replaced by their cut in voltage
The modified circuit is given as below,

Figure 19 (a)
VDC = 4 × 0.7 = 2.8 V
12.7 − 2.8
IDC = = 0.1 mA
990 

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AC Analysis
DC voltage is short circuited, and all the diode is replaced by ac resistance of diode.
VT
rac = (Assume η = 1)
I
25 mV
rac = = 2.5 
0.1 mA

Modified circuit given below:

Figure 19 (b)
4rac
Vac =  Vi
R + 4rac

4  2.5
=  Vi
990 + 4  2.5
10 Vi 1
= = V
1000 100 i

1
= ×200 cos ωt
100
Vac = 2 cos ωt mV

5. CLIPPER

Diode network that can clip of a portion of the input signal without distorting the remaining
part of the alternating waveform is known as Clipper.
There are two general categories of clippers
a) Series clipper
b) Parallel Clipper
The series configuration is defined as one where the diode is in series with the load, while the
parallel configuration has the diode in a branch parallel to the load.
5.1. Series Clipper
(i) Unbiased Clipper
The response of series configuration of fig 20 (a) to a variety of alternating waveform is
provided in fig 20 (b)

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Figure 20 (a)

Figure 20 (b)
From figure 20(a), Anode voltage of diode VA = Vi and Cathode voltage VK = 0
Therefore, for positive half cycle VA > VK, which means diode is forward biased and act
as short circuit.
For negative half cycle VA < VK, which means diode is reverse biased and act as open
circuits.
(ii) Biased clipper
The addition of a dc supply that can have a pronounced effect on the output of a clipper
is shown in figure 21
There is no general procedure for analysing network such as the type in fig 20, but there
are a few points to keep in mind while solving this problem.
• Make a mental sketch of the response of the network based on the
direction of the diode and the applied voltage levels.

Figure 21: Series clipper with a dc supply

For the given network, the direction of diode suggest that the signal Vi must be positive
to turn it ON. The dc supply further requires that the voltage V i be greater than V to turn
ON the diode. The negative region of the input signal is pressuring the diode into the OFF
state, supported further by the dc supply.

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• Determine the applied voltage (transition voltage) that will cause a change
in state for the diode.
For the ideal diode the transition between states will occur on the characteristics, where
Vd = 0 V and id = 0A. Applying the condition id = 0 at Vd = 0 to the network of figure 21
will result in the configuration of figure 21 (a), where it is recognized that the level of V i
that will cause a transition in state is Vi = V

Fig 21 (a): determining the transition level for the circuit of fig 21.
For an input voltage greater than V volts the diode is in the short circuit state, while input
voltage less than V volts it is in the open circuit or off state.
• Be continually aware of the defined terminals and polarity of V0.
When the diode is in the short circuit state, such as shown in fig 21(b), the output voltage
V0 can be determined by applying KVL in the clockwise direction.

Figure 21 (b)
Vi – V – V0 = 0
∴ V 0 = Vi – V
• It can be helpful to sketch the input signal above the output and determine the
output and determine the output at instantaneous values of the input.

Figure 21 (c)

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For an instantaneous value of Vi the input can be treated as a dc supply of that value and
corresponding dc value of the output determined.
For instant at Vi = Vm
For Vm > V, diode is short circuit and V0 = Vm – V
When diode change state, and Vi = – Vm
Then V0 = 0 V
And now complete the curve for V0 that can be shown in figure 21 (c).
5.2. Parallel Clipper
The network of figure 22 is the simplest of parallel diode configuration with the output for
the same input as discussed earlier. The analysis of parallel configuration is very similar
to that applied to series configurations.

Figure 22: Parallel clipper circuits

Figure 22(a): Response of parallel Clipper.

5.3. Summary of series & parallel clipper

6. Positive Negative

Simple series clippers (Ideal diode)

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Based series Clippers (Ideal Diodes)

6. CLAMPER

The clamping network is one that will clamp a signal to a different dc level. The network consists
of a capacitor, a diode and a resistor element and an independent dc supply to introduce on
additional shift.
The magnitude of R and C must be chosen such that the time constant  = RC is large enough
to ensure that the voltage across the capacitor does not discharge significantly during the
interval the diode is non conducting.
There are basically two type of clamper

6.1. Negative clamper

Fig 23(a): Ideal clamper circuit

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Fig 23(b): waveform

When the input is positive, diode operates in forward bias and capacitor charge through
diode. If diode is ideal it behaves as short circuit and therefore capacitor charge up to the
peak input Vm.
When input becomes negative, capacitor should discharge but discharge path is not
available so capacitor voltage will continue to remain V m. Therefore, once capacitor is
fully charged its voltage Vm irrespective of the input being positive or negative.
Applying KVL
–Vi + Vm + V0 = 0
V 0 = Vi – V m
= Vi + (– Vm)
Hence circuit adds dc voltage of –Vm. So, the output will be a square waveform for given
input whose value varies from 0 to – 2Vm.
Positive peak of output waveform touches 0V level or positive peak gets clamped to 0V.
Since a negative clamper is clamping positive peak to 0V so it is called positive peak
clamper.
• If diode has cut in voltage Vγ then it should be replaced with series connection of ideal
diode and battery Vγ.

Figure 24 (a)

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When input is +Ve, capacitor changes through diode up to a maximum voltage of V m –

Vγ
∴ V0 = Vi = (Vm – Vγ)
V0 = Vi + (–Vm + Vγ)
Hence, circuit add dc voltage equal to – (Vm – Vγ)

Figure 24 (b): Waveform

6.2. Positive clamper
• When input is negative diode gets forward biased and capacitor charges through diode
up to peak input Vm
• When input becomes positive capacitor will not be able to discharge as discharge path
is not present. Therefore, voltage across the capacitor remains Vm irrespective of input
being +Vm or –Vm

Figure 25(a): Positive clamper circuit

Applying KVL
V 0 = Vi + Vm

Figure 25(b): Waveform

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• The negative peak output gets clamped to 0 volts therefore positive clamper is
also called negative clamper.
• It diode has cut in voltage Vγ then capacitor changes to a voltage (Vm – Vγ)
∴ V0 = Vi + (Vm – Vγ)
Hence added dc voltage is Vm – Vγ

Fig 25 (c): Output waveform when diode has cut in voltage.

7. VOLTAGE MULTIPLIER

Voltage Multiplier circuits are employed to maintain a relatively low transformer peak voltage
while stepping up the peak output voltage to two, three, four or many times the peak rectified
voltage.
7.1. Voltage doubler

Figure 26 (a): Voltage doubler circuit

Vi is any alternating waveform
Suppose it is a square waveform of amplitude ± Vm
Case I
When the input is negative D, gets forward biased then capacitor C, charge through D1 upto
voltage Vm
Case II
When the input is positive on +Vm
Then voltage across AB is
VAB = Vm + Vm = 2Vm
Diode D2 operates in forward bias and C2 charges through D2 upto voltage 2Vm
It capacitor are fully charged or circuit is in steady state then voltage Vm will present across C 1
and 2Vm across C2.
Therefore V0 = DC voltage of 2Vm

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7.2. Voltage tripler/Quadrupler

Figure 26 (b): Voltage tripler/Quadrupler circuit

In operation capacitor C1 charge through diode D1 to a peak voltage Vm, during the
positive half cycle. Capacitor C2 changes to twice the peak voltage 2V m developed by the
sum of the voltage across capacitor C1 during negative half cycle.
During positive half cycle, diode D 3 conducts and voltage across capacitor C2 charges
capacitor C3 to the same 2Vm peak voltage. On the negative half cycle, diode D 2 and D4
conduct with capacitor C3, charging C4 to 2Vm.
The voltage across capacitor C2 is 2Vm , across C1 and C3 it is 3Vm and across C2 and C4 it
is 4 Vm. If additional sections of diode and capacitor are used, each capacitor will be
charged to 2Vm. Measuring from the top will provide odd multiple of V m at the output
whereas from bottom will provide even multiple of the peak voltage Vm.
Example 8
Determine V0 for the network shown in figure 27, in which silicon diode have cut in voltage
0.7V

Figure 27
Solution:
The transition voltage can first be determined by applying the condition i d = 0A at Vd =
VD = 0.7 V
And obtaining the network of fig 27 (a).
KVL:
V i + VT – V = 0
Vi = V – VT = 4V – 0.7V = 3.3 V

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Fig 27 (a): determining the transition level for the above network
For input voltage > 3.3 V
Diode will open circuit and V0 = Vi
For input voltage < 3.3 V
Diode will be short circuit and
V0 = 4V – 0.7V = 3.3 V
Output waveform will be given as below

Example-9
In the circuit shown in figure dc value at the output is

Figure 28
Solution:
For the given clamper circuit, make diode short and calculate maximum voltage across
capacitor.
– Vi + VC = 0.7V + 0.3 = 0
V C = Vi – 1 = 5 – 1
= 4V
Now, make diode open circuit
– V i + VC + V0 = 0
V 0 = Vi – V C
= Vi – 4V
Dc value of output = – 4V

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8. DIODE AS RECTIFIER

Any electrical device which offers a low resistance to the current in one direction and a high
resistance to the current in the opposite direction is called a rectifier. Such a device can convert
a sinusoidal input waveform, whose average value to zero, into a unidirectional (though not
constant) waveform, with a non-zero average component.

8.1. Half wave Rectifier

Half wave rectifier will rectify only half position of input either positive or negative. The
basic circuit for half wave rectification is shown in figure 29.

Figure 29(a): Half Wave Rectifier

AC voltage across the secondary winding AB changes polarity after every cycle during the
positive half cycle of input ac voltage, end a becomes positive w.r.t end B. This makes
the diode forward biased and hence it conducts current.
During the negative half cycle end, A is negative w.r.t end B. Under this condition, the
diode is reverse biased, and it conduct no current.

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Figure 29 (b): Input and Output waveform

Parameter of output waveform
A. output DC voltage or current
B. output rms voltage or current
C. Ripple factor
D. Peak inverse voltage
E. Efficiency
F. Transformer Utilization Factor
G. Peak factor
H. Form factor
A. Output DC voltage or current
2
1
Vo (DC ) = Vo ( Avg) =  Vo ( t ) dt
2 0

1 1
= 
2 0
Vm sin t dt +
2 
o dt

Vm 
= – cos t 0
2
–Vm –Vm
= cos  – cos 0 = –1 – 1
2 2 
–Vm
=
2
(–2)
Vm
Vo (DC ) =


or Vo (DC ) = 0.318 Vm

Vo (DC ) Vm Im
Io (DC ) = = =
R R 

Im
Io (DC ) = = 0.318 Im


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B. Output RMS voltage or current

2
1
Vo (rms ) =  V0 ( t )
2
dt
2 0

 2
1 2 1
= 
2 0
( Vm sin t ) dt +
2  o dt


2 
Vm 1 – cos 2t
= 
2 0 2
dt

2 
Vm  sin2t 
= t –
4  2 0

2
Vm  1 
= 
4 
(  – 0 ) – ( sin2 – sin 0 ) 
2 
2
Vm  1 
=
4  – 2 (0 – 0)
 
2 2
Vm Vm
=  =
4 4
Vm
=
2
Vm
 Vo (rms ) =
2
Vo (rms ) Vm Im
Io (rms ) = = =
R R·2 2
Im
Io (rms ) =
2

Vm
Im =
R
C. Ripple factor
A measure of the fluctuating components is given by the ripple factor which is defined as
rms value of alternating components of wave
=
Average value of wave

2 2
 Vo (rms )   Io (rms ) 
=   – 1 =   –1
 Vo (DC )   Io (DC ) 

Which is sometime approximated as

Vo (rms ) Io (rms )
or
Vo (DC ) Io (DC )

Vac Iac
= or
Vdc Idc

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Ripple factor of half wave rectifier

2
 V / 2
=  m  –1
 Vm /  

2
= –1
4

 = 1.21

(%) = 121%

D. Peak inverse voltage (PIV)

The maximum reverse voltage the diode can with stand without breakdown.

PIV = Vm

E. Efficiency
It is a measure of the ability of a rectifier to convert AC power into dc power.

Po ( dc )
=  100
Pin ( ac )

output dc power
=  100
input ac power

Po (DC) = V.I = Vo(DC) · Io(DC)

Pin (AC) = Vrms · Irms
Vo (DC ) ·Io (DC )
=  100
Vrms ·Irms

Vm /  · Im / 
=  100
Vm / 2 · Im / 

4
=  100
2
= 0.405 × 100

 = 40.5%

F. Transformer utilization factor (TUF)

For half-wave rectifier
(TUF)primary + (TUF)sec ondary
TUF =
2
In case of HWR: TUF = (TUF)sec ondary

𝐷𝐶 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑
𝑇𝑈𝐹 =
(𝑃𝑎𝑐 ) 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦

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𝑃𝐷𝐶 𝐼 2 𝑑𝑐 𝑅𝐿
𝑇𝑈𝐹 = =
𝑃𝑎𝑐 (𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑  𝑠𝑒𝑐.) 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 ⋅ 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
2
𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝑅𝐿 (0.318 𝐼𝑚 )2 𝑅𝐿
𝑇𝑈𝐹 = = 2 ≈ 28%
𝑉𝑚 𝑅𝑚 𝐼𝑚
× (𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝐿 )
√2 √2 2√2
G. Form Factor
rms value
Form Factor =
average value
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑚 /2
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = =
𝐼𝑑𝑐 0.318𝐼𝑚

FF = 1.57
H. Peak Factor
Peak value
Peak factor =
rms value

Im I
Peak factor = = m 2
Irms Im /2
Conclusion
It rectifies one half of the input AC signal
Vm
Vo ( dc ) = = 0.318 Vm
▪ 

Im
Io ( dc ) = = 0.318 Im
▪ 

Vm
Vo (rms ) =
▪ 2
Im
Io (rms ) =
▪ 2
Vm
Im =
▪ R
▪ γ = 1.21
▪ PIV = Vm
▪ Time period = T = 2π

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Disadvantage of half wave rectifier

(i) Vo (DC) = 0.318 Vm
Output DC voltage is only 31.8% of peak input voltage Vm
(ii) η = 40.5%
Efficiency is only 40.5%, that is only 40.5% is converted into DC remaining will be lost.
8.2. Full Wave Rectifier
In full wave rectification, current flows through the load in the same direction for both
half cycles of input ac voltage. This can be achieved with two diodes working alternatively.
For the positive half cycle of input voltage, one diode supplies current to load and for the
negative half cycle, the other diode does so, current being always in the same direction
through the load.
The following two circuits are used for full wave rectifier
(a) Centre- tap full wave rectifier
(b) Full wave bridge rectifier
8.2.1 Centre-Tapped Full-wave Rectifier
The circuit of a centre-tapped full-wave rectifier is shown in Figure 30(a). This circuit is
seen to comprise two half-wave circuits which are so connected that conduction takes
places through one diode during one half of the power cycle and through other diode
during the second half of the power cycle.

(a)

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(b)
Figure 30: (a) Centre tap rectifier circuit, (b) waveform
In this rectifier centre-tapped stepdown transformer has been used, in which secondary
winding is divided into two halves, each half having equal number of turns. In N1 : N2
centre-tapped transformer, primary winding has N1 turns and each half of secondary
winding has N2 turns.
When centre terminal of secondary winding is grounded, voltage at nodes a and b will
have equal magnitude but opposite sign.
i.e., Vb = – Va
if Va = Vm sinα
then Vb = – Vm sinα
Operation
▪ When 0 < α < π
Then Va is positive so diode D 1 is forward biased and in this case V b is negative so diode
D2 is reverse biased. As diode D1 is in conduction mode so node ‘a’ gets shorted to R L
therefore
Vo = Va

▪ When π < α < 2π

Then Va is negative so diode D1 is reverse biased and Vb is positive so diode D2 is forward
biased. As diode D2 is in conduction mode so node ‘b’ gets shorted to RL therefore
Vo = Vb

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Parameter of full wave rectifier

A. Output dc component
B. Output RMS value
C. Ripple factor
D. Peak converse voltage
E. Efficiency
F. Transformer Utilization factor
G. Peak factor
H. Form factor
A. Output DC voltage
T /2
1
Vo (DC ) = Vo ( Avg) =  Vo ( t ) dt
T /2 0

T /2
2
=
T  Vm sin t dt
0

T /2
2Vm  – cos t 
=  
T   0

 2 T 
2Vm  – cos T · 2 + cos 0 
=  
T  2 / T 
 

Vm
= – cos  + cos 0
 

2Vm
=


2Vm
Vo (DC ) = = 0.636Vm


Vo (DC ) 2Vm 2Im

Io (DC ) = = =
RL RL  

2Im
Io (DC ) = = 0.636 Im


B. Output RMS value

T /2
1
Vo (rms ) =  V02 ( t ) dt
T /2 0

2 T /2
2Vm
=  sin2 t dt
T 0

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2
2Vm T /2
(1 – cos 2t ) dt
=
T  2
0

2 T /2
2Vm 1 sin2t 
=  t–
T 2 2 0

2
Vm  T  2 
=   – 0 2  – ( sin2 – sin 0 ) 
 2 T
T  2  2   
T
2
Vm
= 2 – 0
4 
2
Vm
=
2

Vm
Vo (rms ) =
2

Im
Similarly, Io (rms ) =
2

C. Ripple factor
2 2
 Io (rms )   Vo (rms ) 
=   – 1 or   – 1
 Io ( dc )   Vo (DC ) 

2
I / 2 
=  m  −1
 2Im /  
 

2
= −1
8

 = 0.483

(%) = 48.3%

D. Efficiency
output DC power
=  100
input AC power
Vo (DC ) Io (DC )
=  100
VrmsIrms

2Vm /  2Im / 
=  100
Vm / 2 Im / 2

42 8
= =  100 = 0.81  100
2
 2

 = 81%

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E. Peak inverse voltage

PIV = 2Vm

F. Transformer utilization factor (TUF)

For full wave rectifier

TUF(primary) + TUF(sec ondary)
TUF =
2
PDC
(TUF)p = =   81.2%
(Pac )p
𝑃𝐷𝐶
(𝑇𝑈𝐹)𝑆 =
(𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 + 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 )
𝑃𝐷𝐶
⇒
(𝑃𝑎𝑐 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑜𝑛𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓+ 𝑃𝑎𝑐 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓)
𝑃𝐷𝐶
So, (𝑇𝑈𝐹)𝑆 = 𝑉𝑚𝐼𝑚 = 57.3%
2( )
2√2

(TUF)p + (TUF)s 81.2 + 57.3

TUF = 
2 2
(𝑇𝑈𝐹) ⇒ 69.3%
For bridge rectifier, TUF ⇒ 81.2%
G. Form Factor
rms value
Form Factor =
average value

Irms I / 2
Form factor = = m
Idc 0.636Im

FF = 1.11
H. Peak Factor
Peak value
Peak factor =
rms value

Im Im
Peak factor = =  2
Irms Im / 2

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Conclusion
2Vm
Vo (DC ) = = 0.636Vm
▪ 
2Im
Io (DC ) = = 0.636 Im
▪ 

▪  = 0.483

▪  = 81%
Vm
Vrms =
▪ 2

Vm
Irms =
▪ 2
▪ Time period, T = T/2 = π
8.2.2. Bridge Rectifier
The full wave rectifier circuit requires a centre-tapped transformer where only one half of
the total ac voltage of the transformer secondary winding is utilized to convert into dc
output. Now consider a different configuration of full wave rectifier circuit, called bridge
rectifier, where entire AC voltage of the transformer secondary is used to convert into DC
voltage.
Figure 31 shows a bridge rectifier circuit. There are four diodes D 1, D2, D3 and D4 which
form the four arms of the bridge. AC from transformer secondary is fed to two corners
and the load resistance RL is connected to other two corners.

Figure 31: Bride Rectifier

During positive half-cycle of input, point A is positive, diodes D1 and D3 are forward biased
and diodes D2, D4 are reverse biased then, the current flows through diodes D 1, the load
RL and through diode D3 back to the negative polarity of the transformer secondary.
During negative half cycle of input point B is more positive than point A, thus diode D 2,
D4 are forward biased and diode D 1 and D3 are reversed biased, then the direction of
current flow will be through diode D2 load RL and diode D4. In both case the current flowing
through resistor RL is in same direction, thus it is unidirectional current, and we obtain
full wave rectification.

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9. FILTERS

A filter circuit is a device to remove the AC components of the rectified output, but allows the
DC components to reach the load. A filter circuit consists of passive circuit elements i.e.
inductors, capacitors, resistors and their combination.
Types of filters
1. Capacitor filter
2. Inductive filter
3. LC filter
4. π- section filter
5. RC filter
(1) Capacitor filter

Figure 32: Basic capacitor filter circuit

• Capacitor filters are used for heavily loaded applications.
• Capacitor value should be more to reduce the ripple.

Figure 33 (a): Full wave rectifier with capacitor filter

Figure 33 (b): Filtered output voltage

Vr Vdc
Ripple(rms) voltage = =
2√3 2fCRL (2√3)

Vrms
Ripple factor =
Vdc
Vr /2 3 V /4 3fCRL
⇒  dc
Vdc Vdc

1
r.f. =
4 3fCRL

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(ii) Inductive filter

• Inductive filter is used for lighter load applications.
• If the value of inductance is high, then the ripple in output waveform is less.
• A minimum amount of current always flows through the inductive filter.

Figure 34: Inductive Filter circuit

√2 R L RL
Ripple factor = ⋅ ⇒
3 2ωL 3√2ωL
(iii) LC filter

Figure 35: LC Filter circuit

Inductance is higher with respect to capacitance.
Here, Xc → Capacitive reactance
XL → Inductive reactance

Vrms 2 XC
Ripple factor = = 
Vdc 3 XL

2 XC
r.f. =
3 XL

These are used specially for any type of variable loads.

(iv) π- section filter

Figure 36: π – section filter circuit

• These are used for lighter load applications because of the presence of filters.
• The output DC voltage improves due to this filter. Hence, it is preferred over L-section filter.
• For smaller load applications, inductors are replaced by resistors due to their high costs.

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√2 X C1 ⋅ X C2
ripple factor. =
XL ⋅ R L
Here, XC1, XC2, XL are reactance and RL is resistive load.
(v) RC filter
RC filters are formed by replacing the inductor component of the π-section filter.

Figure 37: RC filter circuit

2XC1 XC2
Ripple factor =
R  RL

10. REGULATOR

• The most important property for an ideal power supply is to maintain a constant voltage at
the output terminals for all operating conditions.
• But practically there is a drop-in output terminal voltage of the power supply as the load
current increases, so we require to regulate the power at optimum level using a voltage
regulator.
10.1. Performance Parameters of a Good Voltage Regulator
• Load Regulation Factor
It is the change in the load voltage from no load to full load.
 V − VoFL 
% Load Re gulation =  oNL   100
 VoFL 

Figure 38
• Line Regulation Factor
It is the effect of variations in the supply voltage causing variations in the output voltage
of the regulator.

 Change in Vo at Vimin to Vimax  V − V 

% Line Re gulation =    100 =    100
01 02

 VoFL   V 
 o(nomin al) 

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V01 is the output voltage at the maximum input voltage while V 02 is the output voltage
at the minimum input voltage.

Figure 39
Temperature Coefficient of the output voltage
It is the effect of temperature over the performance of the regulator. It is defined as
Vo
. Ideally it should be zero.
T
Output Resistance
For voltage regulation, multiple units of regulator might be cascaded. Thus, to make the
coupling smooth the output resistance of the regulator should as low as possible, ideally
zero.
Maximum Dissipated Power
The maximum power dissipation by the Zener diode should be as low as possible.
10.2. Zener Diode

Figure 40: Zener diode

• Zener diode is a special purpose diode designed to operate under reverse bias in the
breakdown region.
• A Zener diode has higher doping than conventional diodes
• In a Zener diode the depletion layer is very thin and electric field strength at the
junction is very high even for a small reverse voltage.
10.3. Application of Zener Diode as a Voltage Regulator
• At the instant when the applied reverse biased voltage on the Zener diode is equal
to the Zener breakdown voltage, further increase in reverse voltage makes the
electric field at the p-n junction significantly high.
• The electric field is high enough to pull the electrons that are beyond the junction on
the n side towards the p-side, significantly increasing the current.

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• The increased current allows a wide range of current to flow through the diode in the
breakdown region such that the reverse voltage has no significant change.

Figure 41 (a): V-I Characteristics of Zener Diode

• When VRB < VBr, the current through Zener diode is practically zero and is thus non-
conducting.
• When VRB = VBr, the current suddenly shoots up due to the breakdown phenomena
and Zener starts conducting.
• When VRB > VBr, more and more current will be passing through Zener diode but the
voltage drop across the device will be maintained almost a constant and it is around
the VBr.
10.4. Dynamic resistance of Zener Diode
It is the ratio of change in voltage across the diode to the change in current through
the diode.
VZ
RZ = 
lZ

For an ideal Zener diode, RZ = 0 (VZ = 0)

10.5. Zener Breakdown Phenomenon

• It is due to large electric-field intensity.
• It is due to tearing-off or rupturing-off of covalent bonds within the depletion layer.
• Break down voltages are below 6 V.
• Zener break-down voltages VBr decreases with temperature (NTC).

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10.6. Avalanche Breakdown Phenomenon (Chain or cumulative Action)

Figure 42: Avalanche breakdown

• It is due to multiple collisions between electrons and ions within the depletion layer.
• It is due to electron multiplication.
• It is due to impact ionization.
• Electrons comes from p-side to depletion layer and collide with –ve ion of depletion
layer and its leads into multiple collision.
• Always operated under Reverse bias.
• Breakdown voltage is always greater than 6V.
• Avalanche breakdown voltage increase with temperature (P.T.C) because of positive
temperature coefficient.
10.7. Equivalent Circuit of Zener Diode
Forward Biased Zener Diode
Ideal Practical
(VA > VK)

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Reverse Biased Zener Diode

Ideal Practical
(VA < VK)

Breakdown Region Zener Diode

Ideal Practical
(VK > VZ)

Figure 43
10.8. Drawbacks of Zener Voltage Regulators
• The Zener diode can be operated as a voltage regulator within a limited range of
reverse current.
• Power dissipation for the Zener diode is practically large enough to affect the
efficiency of the device.
• The output resistance of a Zener voltage regulator is practically not as low as desired
for the cascading operation.
Example 10
For the circuit shown in the figure, the output voltage VO is

Figure 44

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Solution:
First check whether the Zener diode is in reverse breakdown region (or) not. For that,
we remove Zener diode and the potential across Zener diode should be greater than
breakdown voltage of Zener.

Figure 45(a)
 100K 
V = (10 )  
 100K + 100K 
10
V= = 5V
2
V<(VZ = 8V)
So, Zener is not in the breakdown region. It acts as open circuit
∴ VO = V = 5V
Example 11
The knee current of a Zener diode in the circuit shown in figure is 5 mA, and a maximum
allowed power dissipation of 300 mW. What are the minimum and maximum load
current that can be drawn safely from the circuit, keeping the output voltage V O constant
at 6V?

Figure 46
Solution:
IZk = 5 mA
Pd(max) = 300 mW
VL = 6V
Pmax 300  10−3
IZ max = = = 50 mA
VZ 6

Ii = IZ = IL
9−6
Ii = = 0.06 = 60 mA
50
IL min = Ii – IZ max = 60 mA – 50 mA = 10 mA
IL max = Ii – IZ min = 60 mA – 5 mA = 55 mA

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Example 12
The range of input voltage which can maintain constant output voltage of 50 V is

Figure 47
Solution:
Vi − 50
IL = Ii =
3750
Vi = 143.75V
Hence VI is approximately 150 V to 310 V.
Example 13
Find the maximum power dissipated by the Zener Diode.

Figure 48
Solution:

Figure 49
The value of RS should be such that even for the lowest value in the input voltage range,
the circuit should act as regulator by providing the minimum voltage and current needed
for Zener diode to operate in breakdown region and also maximum load current.
The current in the Zener diode is minimum when the load current is maximum, and V s
is minimum.
Vs min − VZ 20 − 10
Rs = = = 90.9 
Iz min + IL max (10 + 100) mA
30 V − 10 V
Iz max = = 0.22 A
90.9 
PZ = VZ IZ max
PZ = 10 V × 0.22 A = 2.2 W

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CONVENTIONAL PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1. A half wave rectifier having a diode with an internal resistance of 20 Ω is to supply power to a
1kΩ load from a 110V (rms) source of supply.
Do the following:
(a) Draw a schematic that represents the above description of the circuit.
Also Calculate:
(b) Peak load current [Ans: 152.51 mA]
(c) DC load current [Ans: 48.54 mA]
(d) AC load current [Ans: 58.73 mA]
(e) DC diode voltage [Ans: -49.52 V]
(10 MARKS)
2. For a full-wave rectifier with a capacitor filter, show that ripple voltage V r is inversely proportional
to the capacitor C and is proportional to the load current I dc. Calculate the value of ‘Vr’ when C = 100
μF and Idc = 10 mA. The ac input voltage to the rectifier is given by V = Vm sin 314 t.
[Ans: Vr =1V]
(8 MARKS)
3. The ideal transfer characteristic of a circuit is given in figure below. Design the circuit. Draw the
output waveform with proper explanation, if Vi = 10sinωt.

(8 MARKS)
4. A Zener regulated circuit is shown in the figure. Find the range of load resistance, load current for
VL to be maintained constant. Assume Zener is ideal one and find the maximum power consumed.

Assume rating of Zener is 10V, 32 mA.

[Ans. 250Ω, 320mW]
(6 MARKS)
5. Draw the output voltage wave form.

(6 MARKS)

****

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