AERODYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF PROTOTYPE AIRCRAFT

A final Project

Submitted in the partial fulfillment of the requirements for

The award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

In

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

PPSU
 CONTENTS
DESCRIPTION PG.NO

ABSTRACT
1.0. Introduction
2.0. Literature Review
3.0. Airfoil Theory
3.1 Lift
3.2 Drag
4.0. Basic design in Fabrication of air craft
4.1 Wing
4.2 Aspect ratio
4.3 Wing Taper
4.4 Incidence angle
4.5 Tail `
4.6 Tail shape
4.7. Tail Size
5.0. Fabrication of a small aircraft
5.1 Making of MAIN BODY
5.2 Making of WING
5.3 Making of TAIL
6.0. Electronics used in Aircraft
6.1 Transmitter
6.2 Receiver
6.3 ESC (Electronic Speed Controller)
6.4 Battery
6.5 Motor
6.6 Servo Motor
6.7 Connections
7.0. Design calculations of Aircraft
7.1 calculations of coefficient of Drag and Lift
7.2 Comparison on between coefficient of Drag and Lift
7.3 Calculation of Thrust power
 7.4 Design specification of a Aircraft
7.5 Coefficient of Lift
7.6 .Coefficient of Drag
8.0. Comparison Between angle attack VS Lift and Drag

8.1 Comparison of angle of attack with Lift co-efficient

8.2 Comparison of angle of attack with Drag co-efficient
8.3 Comparison of angle of attack with lift co-efficient & drag co-efficient
8.4 Lift to drag ratio curve

9.0. Conclusions

10.0. Reference

LIST OF FIGURES :
1. Basic parts of a simple aircraft
2. Demonstration of Lift and Drag of an Airplane
3. Aspect ratio variation
4. Angle of attack is the line a wing
5. Tail of an Aircraft
6. Fabrication of air craft body frame
7. Fabrication of air craft wing
8. The total fabricated proto type air craft
ABSTRACT

An attempt has been made to study the basic design calculation of the simple aircraft.
The effects of the different components of the aircraft on total weight, flight, propulsion, lift
and drag has been studied. Small prototype aircraft fabrication has been completed going
through the literature review. The aesthetic shape of the aircraft has been obtained following
the design procedures. The propulsion and flight of aircraft is also verified by trails. Further
attempts are required to complete the aerodynamic and flight dynamic aspects of the
fabricated prototype aircraft.
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The aircraft design process is the engineering design process by which those are
designed. These depend on many factors such as customer and manufacturer demand, safety
protocols, physical and economic constraints etc. For some types of aircraft the design process
is regulated by national airworthiness authorities.
Aircraft design normally starts with initial design with consideration of all the
constraints on their design. It needs to follow certain basic laws to design or fabricate these
devices. The technology has emerged to a state of art following the decades of advancements
in terms of lower weight and improved flight conditions. However there is a complexity in
design and development of high Mach number air vehicles.

Modern air craft are a complex combination of aerodynamic performance, lightweight

durable structures and advanced systems engineering. Air passengers demand more comfort
and more environmentally friendly aircraft.
Hence Modern aircraft are a complex combination of aerodynamic performance,
with involvement of technical challenges need to be balanced for an aircraft to
economically achieve its design specification. Aircraft design is a composite and laborious
undertaking with a number of factors and details that are required to be checked to obtain
optimum the final envisioned product. The design process begins from scrape and involves a
number of calculations, logistic planning, design and real world considerations, and a level
head to meet any hurdle head on.
Every airplane goes through number of changes in design before it is finally built.
These steps between the first ideas for an airplane and the time when it is actually flown make
up the design process. Along the way, engineers think about four main areas of aeronautics:
Aerodynamics, Propulsion, Structures and Materials. Stability and Control Aerodynamics is
the study of how air flows around an airplane. In order for an airplane to fly air must flow
over and under its wings. The more aerodynamic, or streamlined the airplane is, the less
resistance it has against the air. If air can move around the airplane easier, the airplane's
engines have less work to do. This means the engines do not have to be as big or eat up as
much fuel which makes the airplane more lightweight and easier to fly. The fighter jets
maneuver and turn quickly and fly faster than sound (supersonic flight) over short distances.
Most passenger airplanes, on the other hand, fly below the speed of sound (subsonic flight) for
long periods of time. Propulsion is the study of what kind of engine and power an airplane
needs. An airplane needs to have the right kind of engine for the kind of job that it has. A
passenger jet carries many passengers and a lot of heavy cargo over long distances so
its engines need to use fuel very efficiently. Engineers are also trying to make airplane
engines quieter so they do not bother the passengers onboard or the neighborhoods they are
flying over. Another important concern is making the exhaust cleaner and more
environmentally friendly. Just like automobiles, airplane exhaust contains chemicals that can
damage the earth's environment.
Structures and Materials is the study of how strong the airplane is and what materials
will be used to build it. It is really important for an airplane to be as light weight as possible.
The less weight an airplane has, the less work the engines have to do and the farther it
can fly. It is tough designing an airplane that is light weight and strong at the same time. In
the past, airplanes were usually made out of lightweight metals like aluminum and
wood.

Modern military and airline design projects are of such a large scale that every design
aspect is tackled by different teams and then brought together. This mini project wo deals with
the simple steps involved in modeling, design and fabrication of small aircraft. Since the basic
scientific phenomena are same irrespective of size of aircraft, however there would be
considerable interception in optimization of several aerodynamic aspects. Each component
design of these vehicles has been developed as the streams of research. This works aims at
overview of basic components which can show case some aspects. The key components of a
basic aircraft are shown below.
 Fig.1. Basi
Basic parts of a simple aircraft

2.0. Literature review

In this section the literature collected has been presented on the design of few components of
the aircraft which includes mathematical calculations to determine dimensions which fit for
the aesthetic design.
The outline of the data collected is as follow
1. Preliminary data acquisition
2. Estimation of aircraft weight
a. Maximum take
take-off weight
b. Empty weight of the aircraft
c. Weight of the accessories
3. Estimation of critical performance parameters
a. Wing area
b. Lift and drag coefficients
c. Wing loading
d. Power loading
e. Thrust to weight ratio
 4. Selection of power system
5. Aircraft design and development
A review of aircraft wing mass estimation methods
John [1] has presented the state of the art of aircraft wing mass estimation method. The phases
of aircraft design and the development process are discussed. The open literature on the subject of
wing mass estimation methods and their applications in the aerospace industry is discussed, and
relevant data are presented to provide the reader with background information on the field. Special
attention is given to classifications of wing mass estimation methods. Current challenges and
technological difficulties in wing mass estimation methods are identified, and perspectives are drawn
and used to propose several key ideas for future research in the field.

Saida reddy et al [2] studied creative process of aircraft design is driven by the needs and
opportunities of the future market. From these needs, covering the requirements from the entire air
transport system, specific targets are to be derived. Referring to today's products new designs are
subsequently generated, aiming to meet the targets anticipated. Experience has shown that a significant
gap will probably appear between the status and the desired targets. Besides design aspects such as the
a/c capacity and range, the development of new technologies is mandatory to minimize or even
eliminate the width of the gap, thus ensuring the achievement of future market demands by new
aircraft designs.

Gopi et al. [3] have presented an overview of how an airline or lesser selects an aircraft for
their fleet and how a manufacturer decides what aircraft to produce. Each of these industries are
extremely capital intensive and have different goals and success measures. This creates a dynamic and
competitive market where aircraft selection decisions have the potential to either propel or bankrupt a
firm. Understanding the wants and needs of airlines, lessors, and manufactures will lead to a greater
understanding of effective aircraft.

Based on the above literature review and motivation it is planned to work for fabrication of a
prototype aircraft and also to conduct the performance and stability analysis of the fabricated aircraft.
 Chapter-3
Aerofoil Theory
3.0. Introduction to Aerofoil Theory
This chapter will brief about the importance of airfoil section of the wings of the aircraft
which are responsible for giving lift. The main components of the propulsion being the
propeller shaft; however the flight controls are made by the effective design of airfoil shapes
of the aircraft. Some basic definitions in aerodynamics are presented here. The theory of
airfoil intended to better design of the airfoil shapes.
An airfoil-shaped body moved through a fluid produces an aerodynamic force. The
component of this force perpendicular to the direction of motion is called lift. The component
parallel to the direction of motion is called drag. Subsonic flight airfoils have a characteristic
shape with a rounded leading edge, followed by a sharp trailing edge, often with
a symmetric curvature of upper and lower surfaces. Foils of similar function designed with
water as the working fluid are called hydrofoils.
3.1 Lift :
The basic definition of lift is, it is perpendicular to the free - stream air flow direction.
Lift is the force that directly opposes the weight of an airplane and holds the airplane
in the air. Lift is generated by every part of the airplane, but most of the lift on a normal
airliner is generated by the wings. Lift is a mechanical aerodynamic force produced by the
motion of the airplane through the air. Because lift is a force, it is a vector quantity, having
both a magnitude and a direction associated with it. Lift acts through the center of pressure of
the object and is directed perpendicular to the flow direction. There are several factors which
affect the magnitude of lift.
Lift occurs when a moving flow of gas is turned by a solid object. The flow is turned
in one direction, and the lift is generated in the opposite direction, according to Newton's
Third Law of action and reaction. Because air is a gas and the molecules are free to move
about, any solid surface can deflect a flow. For an aircraft wing, both the upper and lower
surfaces contribute to the flow turning. Neglecting the upper surface's part in turning the flow
leads to an incorrect theory of lift.
The lift force produced by a wing, L, is
L = ×ρ× ×A×CL
Where
ρ is the density of the surrounding air,
v is the true airspeed,
A is the platform area, and
CL is the coefficient of lift. The coefficient of lift is a number that determines the lift
produced based on the geometry, or shape, of the wing. This number changes with
different angles of attack, and also with changes in speed or air conditions.
3.2 Drag :
The basic definition of drag is, it is the parallel to the air free –stream air flow direction.
Drag is a mechanical force. It is generated by the interaction and contact of a solid
body with a fluid (liquid or gas). It is not generated by a force field, in the sense of
a gravitational field or an electromagnetic field, where one object can affect another object
without being in physical contact. For drag to be generated, the solid body must be in contact
with the fluid. If there is no fluid, there is no drag. Drag is generated by the difference in
velocity between the solid object and the fluid. There must be motion between the object and
the fluid. If there is no motion, there is no drag. It makes no difference whether the object
moves through a static fluid or whether the fluid moves past a static solid object.
Drag is a force and is therefore a vector quantity having both a magnitude and a
direction. Drag acts in a direction that is opposite to the motion of the aircraft. Lift acts
perpendicular to the motion. There are many factors that affect the magnitude of the drag.
Many of the factors also affect lift but there are some factors that are unique to aircraft drag.
To reduce complexity and to avoid drag increases in cruise, the aircraft will be
manufactured without conventional flaps. If it is found necessary to increase CL for
landing or take-off, the aileron surfaces could be drooped or a simple leading edge device
used. These possibilities will not be considered in the initial layout. Assuming a cambered
supercritical wing profile is used, the two-dimensional max. lift coefficient may be 1.65 for
our high aspect ratio clean wing.

The drag force produced by plane,

D = ×ρ× ×A×

Where
 ρ is the density of the surrounding air,
v is the true airspeed,
A is the platform area, and
CD is the coefficient of drag. The coefficient of drag is a number that determines the
lift produced based on the geometry, or shape, of the wing. This number changes with
different angles of attack, and also with changes in speed or air conditions.
The lift and drag applications are shown in Fig.2.

Fig.2. Demonstration of Lift and Drag of an Airplane

4.0.Basic design in Fabrication of air craft :
This is the work done to fabricate some parts of aircraft and to assemble them to demonstrate
the flight. The key components designed are
4.1Wing:
The most important part of wing size is the area of the wing when looking at it from
below. This area is called the platform area. The platform area, which sometimes includes the
bottom of the fuselage, is an indication of the area over which lift is generated. Greater the
platform area, there is a larger area over which lift is generated, so more lift is generated.
WING FLAPS.—Wing flaps give the aircraft extra lift. Their purpose is to reduce the landing
speed. Reducing the landing speed shortens the length of the landing rollout. Flaps help the pilot land
in small or obstructed areas by increasing the glide angle without greatly increasing the approach
speed. The use of flaps during takeoff serves to reduce the length of the takeoff run.
Larger wings also increase drag, which will increase the required power, or thrust, to move the
aircraft forward. This means bigger engines and more fuel will need to be carried. Also, large wings
are often longer than small wings. Long wings bend a lot more, and the wings need to be made
stronger. The additional strength required means the wing will be heavier. So while the plane has more
lift, it also requires more lift to carry the wings. If this is not designed well, then the extra weight of the
wings may be greater than the extra lift, and the plane’s cargo weight may be reduced.
Some key notes considered while making wing design procedure are:
Increasing platform area increases lift.
Increasing platform area can increase aircraft weight
Increasing platform area can increase drag, and requires stronger wings
One wing model planes are easier to build than biplanes.
4.2 Aspect ratio:
Aspect ratio of a wing is a measure of how long the wing is, called its span, compared to how
wide it is. A long, skinny wing, like the wings on many gliders, has a high aspect ratio, while
a short, fat wing has a low aspect ratio. For a square wing the aspect ratio can be calculated by
dividing the span (measure the distance from one wingtip to the other) by the width of the
wing (measure from the front edge to the back edge of the wing). Many wings are not square,
often wings get narrower towards the tip and this will be discussed later. The aspect ratio
variation is shown in Fig.3.
Some key notes considered while making wing design aspect ratio procedure are:
Aspect ratio describes how long and skinny or short and fat a wing is.
An aspect ratio of 6 to 8 is a good place to start for normal wing.

Fig.3. Aspect ratio variation

 4.3 Wing Taper:
Wing taper describes the way that some wings get narrower towards the tip. Taper helps to
reduce drag, allowing planes to fly faster and use less fuel. The best taper to reduce this drag
is an elliptical wing, like the one on the Super marine Spitfire, a famous British fighter plane
from World War 2. Elliptical wings are hard to make, so wings normally have straight edges
that form trapezoids. Some low speed aircraft have rectangular wings, as these are the easiest
to make. The taper is measured by the taper ratio. This is the width of the wing at the tip
divided by the width of the wing where it intersects the fuselage, called the root.
Some key notes considered while making wing taper are:
Tapering a wing so that it is narrower at the tips can reduce drag
4.4 Incidence Angle:
Incidence angle is the angle at which the wing is installed. Ordinarily a wing would be straight
along the body of the aircraft, but sometimes the wing is angled upwards, so that the front
edge is higher on the fuselage than the back edge. To understand why this would be done, we
need to have another look at how airfoils work, and how much lift they produce. An important
part of this is the angle of attack. The angle of attack is the angle between the wing and the
incoming airflow. The airflow generally comes from the direction the plane is flying. If an
aircraft tilts back to climb, the angle of attack increases, and if it tilts forward to dive the angle
of attack decreases. Fig.4 illustrates the angle of attack.

Fig.4. Angle of attack is the line a wing

Wings produce more lift when they are at a higher angle of attack. If an airfoil is curved, then the wing
will still produce some lift when the angle of attack is zero, but if it is symmetrical it will not produce
any lift. This is why vertical tails usually have symmetrical airfoils, as these will not try to turn the
plane when it flies in a straight line.

4.5Tail:
The tail of a plane is a lot smaller than the wing, but it’s just as important. Tails provide
stability, allowing planes to fly smoothly and easily through the air. The tail of an aircraft is
shown in Fig.5.
Tails are usually located at the back of the plane, rather than partway through the fuselage,
because tails are more effective the further back they are. The airplane has a point called the
centre of gravity need to know is that it’s usually in the front half of the plane, and whenever
the aircraft turns, whether it’s rolling, turning or climbing, it turns around this point. If plane
like a see saw, the centre of gravity is the pivot point of the see saw, which is the fixed point
in the middle that the see saw rotates around. Now, when two people play on a see saw and
want to balance it, the heavier person sits closer to the pivot. This is because the further away
from the pivot you get, the greater effect you’ll have on the see saw. Because tails are used to
steer the whole aircraft, it want them to have the biggest effect possible. By locating them at
the back of the aircraft, it will be as far away as possible from the centre of gravity. That way,
when the elevator creates a lift force, it will have a large effect on the plane and it will rotate
quicker. It’s also worth noting that a small tail a long way back from the centre of gravity is
equivalent to a large tail close to the centre of gravity, but a small tail will generate less drag.
Vertical tails must be at the back of the plane.
Horizontal tails can be at the front, but it’s easier to put them at the back.
The tail should be as far from the centre of gravity as possible, which usually means
the back of the plane.
4.6 Tail shape:
The shape of the tail is fairly similar to the wing. Aircraft tail design is a complex process, and
often the shape, size and position of the tail will change a few times during the design process.
As a general rule, horizontal tails have a lower aspect ratio than the aircraft’s wing.
This means they are shorter and fatter. An aspect ratio between 3 and 5 is a good place to start.
The taper ratio of the horizontal tail can be similar to the wing, between 0.3 and 0.6 is a good
place to start but feel free to use more or less. Draw a tail that you like the look of, then check
what its aspect ratio and taper ratio are, and only change it if it’s a long way outside the ranges
above. Vertical tails have even lower aspect ratios, generally between 1 and 2 but they can be
lower than 1, meaning the tail is longer than it is tall. It can be hard to judge the aspect ratio of
a tail, especially on the ACE where the tail is curved, so just gu
guess.
ess. As long as the tail’s not a
lot longer than it is wide it should be ok. Guidelines for taper ratio are the same as for the
horizontal tail, between 0.3 and 0.6 is good.

Some key notes considered while making tail shape are:

Horizontal tails are usually shorter and fatter than wings.
Vertical tails are usually shorter and fatter than horizontal tails.
4.7 Tail size:
Tail size, like tail shape, is usually changed a number of times during the design of a plane. A
tail that is too
oo big causes too much drag and slows the plane down. A tail that is too small will
not be able to stabilize a plane, and may not be strong enough to stop it from crashing.

Some key notes considered while making tail size are:

Base the size tail of simil
similar aircraft that already exist.

Fig.5.Tail of an Aircraft
5.0.Fabrication of a small aircraft
Motivated by the concepts of design and through the ideas gained from the literature review
the fabrication of the simple aircraft is made.
5.1 Making of MAIN BODY:

Fig.6. Fabrication of air craft body frame

Making of body of air craft is done by light weight wood, the wood is cut by laser
machine. It is taken nearly 14 hours to make the body. The shape is taken from the air craft
models of Wikipedia. The reason behind the selection of wood as material is it is light weight
and easy to make. The body is made as a frame instead of a solid one toreduce the weight. The
whole body is given an outer finishing. The fabricated body is shown in Fig.6.

5.2 Making of WING:

Wings develop the major portion of the lift of a heavier-than-air aircraft. Wing
structures carry some of the heavier loads found in the aircraft structure. The particular design
of a wing depends on many factors, such as the size, weight, speed, rate of climb, and use of
the aircraft. The wing must be constructed so that it holds its aerodynamics shape under the
extreme stresses of combat maneuvers or wing loading.

Fig.7. Fabrication of air craft wing

Wing is made by the same wood and its shape also done on a laser cutting machine.
Generally the wing is the primary thing of this air craft, since the size of the air craft depends
on the wing. The main body length is 75 percentage of the wing length. This wing has two
servo motors which control the direction of the plane i.e. the air craft’stake off and landing
operations. This servo motors are run by the battery and are connected to the receiver and are
control by the remote. The fabricated wing is shown in Fig.7.

5.3 Making of TAIL:

Tail is the back side of main body it is attached to back side by the gum. It having two servo
motors one is to change the direction of plane when it is in ground and another one is for
lifting the plane. The total picture of fabricated aircraft is shown in Fig.8
6.0 Electronics used in Air craft
6.1 Transmitter:
The transmitter converts the pilot's movements into a radio signal in a process called
modulation. The transmitter then broadcasts this signal to the receiver.
A transmitter can be a separate piece of electronic equipment, or an electrical
circuit within another electronic device. A transmitter and a receiver combined in one unit is
called a transceiver. The term transmitter is often abbreviated "XMTR" or "TX" in technical
documents. The purpose of most transmitters is radio communication of information over a
distance. The information is provided to the transmitter in the form of an electronic signal,
such as an audio (sound) signal from a microphone, a video (TV) signal from a video camera,
or in wireless networking devices, a digital signal from a computer. The transmitter combines
the information signal to be carried with the radio frequency signal which generates the radio
waves, which is called the carrier signal. This process is called modulation. The information
can be added to the carrier in several different ways, in different types of transmitters. In
an amplitude modulation (AM) transmitter, the information is added to the radio signal by
varying its amplitude. In a frequency modulation (FM) transmitter, it is added by varying the
radio signal's frequency slightly. Many other types of modulation are also used.
The radio signal from the transmitter is applied to the antenna, which radiates the
energy as radio waves. The antenna may be enclosed inside the case or attached to the outside
of the transmitter, as in portable devices such as cell phones, walkie-talkies, and garage door
openers. In more powerful transmitters, the antenna may be located on top of a building or on
a separate tower, and connected to the transmitter by a feed line, that is a transmission line.
Operation:
Electromagnetic waves are radiated by electric charges undergoing acceleration. Radio waves,
electromagnetic waves of radio frequency, are generated by time-varying electric currents,
consisting of electrons flowing through a metal conductor called an antenna which are
changing their velocity or direction and thus accelerating. An alternating current flowing back
and forth in an antenna will create an oscillating magnetic field around the conductor. The
alternating voltage will also charge the ends of the conductor alternately positive and negative,
creating an oscillating electric field around the conductor. If the frequency of the oscillations
is high enough, in the radio frequency range above about 20 kHz, the oscillating coupled
electric and magnetic fields will radiate away from the antenna into space as an
electromagnetic wave, a radio wave.

Fig: Transmitter

6.2 Receiver:
Electronic unit that rides in the aircraft. Receives signals from the transmitter and relays
these signals to the servos.
 Fig : Receiver
6.3 ESC (Electronic Speed Controller):
An electronic speed control or ESC is an electronic circuit that controls and regulates the
speed of an electric motor. It may also provide reversing of the motor and dynamic braking.
Miniature electronic speed controls are used in electrically powered radio controlled models.
Full-size electric vehicles also have systems to control the speed of their drive motors.
ESC. An Electronic Speed Controller does several things. First, it converts your
battery voltage down to 5v which is when receiver runs off if. Not all speed controllers have
this capability.
The second thing the ESC does is it converts the DC power from your battery to an AC
current which is required by the motor. Brushless motors run off of AC current.
An electronic speed control follows a speed reference signal (derived from a throttle
lever, joystick, or other manual input) and varies the switching rate of a network of field effect
transistors . By adjusting the duty cycle or switching frequency of the transistors, the speed of
the motor is changed. The rapid switching of the transistors is what causes the motor itself to
emit its characteristic high-pitched whine, especially noticeable at lower speeds.

Different types of speed controls are required for brushed DC motors and brushless
DC motors. A brushed motor can have its speed controlled by varying the voltage on its
armature. (Industrially, motors with electromagnet field windings instead of permanent
magnets can also have their speed controlled by adjusting the strength of the motor field
current.) A brushless motor requires a different operating principle. The speed of the motor is
varied by adjusting the timing of pulses of current delivered to the several windings of the
motor.

Brushless ESC systems basically create three-phase AC power, as in a variable

frequency drive , to run brushless motors. Brushless motors are popular with radio controlled
airplane hobbyists because of their efficiency, power, longevity and light weight in
comparison to traditional brushed motors. Brushless AC motor controllers are much more
complicated than brushed motor controllers.

The correct phase varies with the motor rotation, which is to be taken into account by
the ESC: Usually, back EMF from the motor is used to detect this rotation, but variations exist
that use magnetic (Hall effect) or optical detectors. Computer-programmable speed controls
generally have user-specified options which allow setting low voltage cut-off limits, timing,
acceleration, braking and direction of rotation. Reversing the motor's direction may also be
accomplished by switching any two of the three leads from the ESC to the motor.

Fig: ESC
6.4 Battery:
Batteries have different characteristics but Li Po Battery is suitable for air craft.
The first thing to talk about is the battery's voltage. While the batteries exact voltage
may not be printed on the battery itself but it will tell how many cells the battery has. Li Po
batteries are made up of cells. Each cell is 3.7 volts. for example the battery shown above is a
2s battery. This means that is has 2 cells, which would give it a total voltage of 7.4 volts.
These cells fully discharged should NOT go below 3.3 volts and the cells fully charged should
not go 4.21 volts.
An electric aircraft is an aircraft powered by electric motors. Electricity may be
supplied by a variety of methods including batteries, ground power cables, solar cells, ultra
capacitors, fuel cells and power beaming.
Batteries are the most common energy carrier component of electric aircraft, due to
their relatively high capacity. Batteries were the earliest source of electricity, first powering
airships in the nineteenth century. These early batteries were very heavy and it was not until
the arrival of technologies such as nickel-cadmium (NiCad) rechargeable types in the second
half of the twentieth century, that batteries became a practicable power source. Modern battery
types include lithium-based and a number of other less widely used technologies. Such
batteries remain a popular power source today, although they still have limited life between
charges and hence limited range.

Fig: Battery
6.5 Motor:
The motor is the power plant of a plane. The motor will turn propeller at a high speed to
propel it through the air. standard motor that used in plane is brushless, which means it runs
off of AC current. This is it need a speed controller to convert the battery's DC power into AC.
DC electric motor (BLDC motors, BL motors) also known as electronically commutated
motors (ECMs, EC motors), or synchronous DC motors, are synchronous motors powered
by DC electricity via an inverter or switching power supply which produces an AC electric
current to drive each phase of the motor via a closed loop controller. The controller
provides pulses of current to the motor windings that control the speed and torque of the
motor.
When choosing a motor there are two basic things need to look for.
RPM. The motor above runs at 1400 KV. KV means that for every volt applied motor
will spin 1400 times. If it need a 2s battery (7.4v) then the motor's RPM is 10,360 ( 1400Kv x
7.4v = 10,360 rpm).
Power rating. The motor below is 52 watts. In order to find the wattage of the motor
multiply the max current of the motor by the voltage applied to it. This motor pulls 7 amps
and uses a 2s battery (7.4v) so 7 x 7.4 = 51.8W.
The advantages of a brushless motor over brushed motors are high power to weight
ratio, high speed, and electronic control. Brushless motors find applications in such places as
computer peripherals (disk drives, printers), hand-held power tools, and vehicles ranging from
model aircraft to automobiles.
An electric motor develops torque by alternating the polarity of rotating electromagnets
attached to the rotor, the rotating part of the machine, and stationary magnets on the stator which
surrounds the rotor. One or both sets of magnets are electromagnets, made of a coil of wire wound
around an iron core. DC running through the wire winding creates the magnetic field, providing the
power which runs the motor. However, each time the rotor rotates by 180° (a half-turn), the position of
the north and south poles on the rotor are reversed. If the magnetic field of the poles remained the
same, this would cause a reversal of the torque on the rotor each half-turn, and so the average torque
would be zero and the rotor would not turn. Therefore, in a DC motor, in order to create torque in one
direction, the direction of electric current through the windings must be reversed with every 180° turn
of the rotor (or turned off during the time that it is in the wrong direction). This reverses the direction
of the magnetic field as the rotor turns, so the torque on the rotor is always in the same direction.
 Fig: Motor
6.6 Servo Motors:
Servos (also RC servos) are small, cheap, mass-produced servomotors or other actuators used
for radio control and small-scale robotics.
Most servos are rotary actuators although other types are available. Linear
actuators are sometimes used, although it is more common to use a rotary actuator with a bell
crank and pushrod. Some types, originally used as sail winches for model yachting, can rotate
continuously.
A typical servo consists of a small electric motor driving a train of reduction gears.
A potentiometer is connected to the output shaft. Some simple electronics provide a closed-
loop servomechanism.
 Fig: Servo Motor
6.7 Connections:
Make sure when connect anything to the receiver that push in the servo leas so that the
brown wire (negative) faces AWAY from the text on the receiver.

1. Connect the battery and the ESC

2. ESC servo lead to channels on receiver..
3. ESC to the motor. Connect the three wires in any way.

Fig: Connections
7.0
.0 Design calculations of Prototype Air craft:
7.1
.1 calculations of coefficient of Drag and Lift:
Force, F=20 N, Surface Area=0.3 m2, Density ρ=490 kg/m3
Calculation of Coefficient of Lift
CL= 2FL/ρv2A, CD= 2FD/
2FD/ρv2A

Table: Calculations of coefficient of lift and drag based on velocity

7.2. Comparison on between coefficient of Drag and Lift:

Fig: Comparison Between coefficient of Drag and Lift

7.3. Calculation of Thrust power:

• P= Va2 /2000 kw
Table: Calculation of Thrust power
S.No. V Thrust Power
(kW)

1 10 0.05

2 15 0.1125

3 20 0.2

4 25 0.3125

5 30 0.45

6 35 0.6125

7 40 0.8
 7.4. Design specification of a Aircraft:
Table: specifications of Aircraft

PARAMETERS VALUES
Maximum take of weight 2kg
Empty weight 1.5 kg
Length 1055 mm
Thrust weight ratio 2.5 kg
Wing span 1500 mm
Vertical stabilizer 200 mm
Type of battery 4 cell 2250 mAh
Horizontal stabilizer 600 mm
Motor size 0.5 HP
Range 700 m

Cruise velocity 90 km/hr

Flow of air is considered to be incompressible and subsonic. The free stream air flow has been
kept 20 m/sec and the effect of temperature has been neglected. The density of air is 1.225
kg/m3. The operating pressure is 1.01 bar. The absolute viscosity is 1.789 * 10-5kg/m-s. The
data have been obtained at different angle of attack from -30 to 150 with 30 steps.
7.5. Coefficient of lift:

Table: calculation of coefficient of Lift based on Angle of attack

Angle of Co-efficient of Lift

attack
-3 -0.192

0 0.007755

3 0.21

6 0.41

9 0.6072

12 0.8064

15
1.0532
7.6 .Coefficient of drag:

Table: calculations of coefficient of Drag based on angle of attack

Angle of attack Co-efficient of Drag

-3 -0.025811
0 0.017925
3 0.052527
6 0.091281
9 0.1297
12 0.16825
15 0.19408
8. Comparison Between angle attack VS Lift and Drag

8.1. Comparison of angle of attack with lift co-efficient

The variation of lift co-efficient with angle of attack at 20m/sec at different angle of attack is
shown in fig.4.3. The zero lift angle has been found at -3o angle of attack. Then the lift co-
efficient increases linearly with the increase of angle of attack up to approximately 15o. In
other words, the lift co-efficient increases linearly with the increase of angle of attack up to
15o. As such the stalling angle is found at 15o. It is also observed that the CLmax for this models
approximately 1.05.

Fig.2.1 Lift co-efficient with angle of attack

8.2. Comparison of angle of attack with drag co-efficient

The variation of drag co efficient with angle of attack at 20 m/sec at different angle of attack
is shown in fig. The shape of the drag co-efficient vs angle of attack curve is found linear. As
such, the drag co-efficient increases with the increase in angle of attack. The value of drag co-
efficient at 15 angle of attack is found 0.2.

Angle of attack vs co-efficient of

drag for 20 m/s
velocity
0.25
ficient of drag

0.2
 Fig 2.2 drag co-efficient with angle of attack

8.3 Comparison of angle of attack with lift co-efficient & drag co-efficient

The comparison graph for angle of attack, co-efficient of lift and co-efficient of drag for 20
m/s is shown in fig. From this graph we could observe that drag is less than the lift. Drag co-
efficient is found more due to increase of induced drag for trailing edge vortices from airfoil
shaped fuselage. It is because flow separation starts earlier.

Angle of attack vs co-efficient of lift & drag

1.2 for 20 /s velocity

1
co-efficient of lift & drag

0.8

0.6 Drag
0.4
Lift
0.2

0
-0.2 0 5 10 15 20

-0.4
Angle of attack

Fig 2.3 drag co-efficient and lift co-efficient with angle of attack
8.4. Lift to drag ratio curve

The lift to drag ratio curve of airfoil shaped fuselage with bi cambered wing UAV is shown in
fig.4.6 and it is found less for our model due to increase of induced drag for trailing edge
vortices from the airfoil shaped fuselage. But increased a significant amount of extra lift from
its wing due to bi camber shape.

Lift to Drag ratio curve for 20 m/s

velocity
0.4

0.35

0.3

0.25
Drag

0.2

0.15
-0.4 -0.2-0.05 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

Lift

Fig.2.4 Lift to drag ratio curve

9.0 Conclusions

An attempt has been made to study the design and flight characteristics of a simple
aircraft
Simple calculations of lift and drag are carried out considering the total weight of the
aircraft
The dimensions of the prototype was obtained from the standard procedures
The fabrication of the prototype was made using the simple light weight materials
 The trial runs on propulsion and flight of the prototype was made
The complete design and flight of the prototype needs few more studies and controls

10.0. References:
I. Airplane design by Roskam [Tables & charts]
II. Aircraft Design by Raymer [Tables & charts]
III. Aircraft Performance and design by John. D. Anderson
IV. Aerodynamics, Aeronautics and Flight Mechanics by McCormick
V. Survey sheets
VI. Previous exercise results
VII. http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-468/ch14-3.htm
VIII. http://www.aerospaceweb.org/question/airfoils/q0041.shtml
IX. Theory of Wing Sections by Abbott & Alber