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Fundamentals of Calculus

Module 1: Fundamentals of Calculus

Course Learning Outcomes:

1. Define Calculus
2. Identify the branches of Calculus
3. Identify Relation and Functions
4. To define Limits
5. To learn Theorems on limits
6. To learn L'Hospital’s Rule

Introduction
The Calculus

Calculus is a branch of mathematics which uses derivative to analyze the way

in which the values of a function vary. Developed on 17th century, Calculus
has now applications almost in all areas of human endeavor: engineering,
physics, business, economics, astronomy, chemistry, biology, psychology,
sociology, etc. Sir Isaac Newton (1642 – 1727) and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
(1646 – 1716), working independently from each other, developed the
Calculus in connections with their work. Newton used Calculus in finding the
velocity of a moving body, the work done by force and the centroid of mass of
a body. Leibniz on the other hand focused on geometric calculation like
finding the tangent and normal to a curve, area bounded by two or more
curves, and volume of a solid. Leibniz is the one who initiated the modern
notation of dx and ∫.
 
Differential Calculus
Calculus is divided into 5 major branches namely:
1. Differential Calculus;
2. Integral Calculus;
3. Differential Equations;
4. Calculus of Variations; and
5. Calculus of Errors.

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As for this section, we are only concerned with the Differential Calculus.
Differential Calculus is a branch of Calculus involving application such as the
determination of maximum and minimum points and rate of change.

Relation and Functions

Not all relations are function but all functions are relation. A good example of
a relation that is not a function is a point in the Cartesian coordinate system,
say (2, 3). Though 2 and 3 in (2, 3) are related to each other, neither is a
function of the other.

Function is a relation between two variables that inhibits an apparent

connection. If the variables are x and y, then y can be determined for some
range of values of x. We call this, y as a function of x denoted by y = f (x).
Differential Calculus is limited only to those relations that are functions
defined by equations.

Problem 01 to 05 Perform the indicated operation of the given

functions

Problem 1
If f(x) = x2 - x + 3; find f(0), f(2), f(-4), f(-2x).

Answer:

f(x)=x2−x+3f(x)=x2−x+3

f(0)=02−0+3=3f(0)=02−0+3=3

f(2)=22−2+3=5f(2)=22−2+3=5

f(−4)=(−4)2−(−4)+3=23f(−4)=(−4)2−(−4)+3=23

f(−2x)=(−2x)2−(−2x)+3=4x2+2x+3

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Problem 2
If f(x) = 7 - 2x + x2, find f(0), f(3), f(-2), f(-y).

Answer:
f(x)=7−2x+x2f(x)=7−2x+x2
 
f(0)=7−2(0)+02=7f(0)=7−2(0)+02= 7
 
f(3)=7−2(3)+32=10f(3)=7−2(3)+32= 10
 
f(−2)=7−2(−2)+(−2)2=15f(−2)=7−2(−2)+(−2)2= 15
 
f(−y)=7−2(−y)+(−y)2= 7+2y+y2

Problem 3
If F(y) = y(y - 3)2; find F(c), F(0), F(3), F(-1), F(x + 3).

Answer:

F(y)=y(y−3)2F(y)=y(y−3)2
 
F(c)=c(c−3)2F(c)=c(c−3)2
 
F(0)=0(0−3)2=0F(0)=0(0−3)2=0
 
F(3)=3(3−3)2=0F(3)=3(3−3)2=0
 
F(−1)=−1(−1−3)2=−16F(−1)=−1(−1−3)2=−16
 
F(x+3)=(x+3)[(x+3)−3]2=x2(x+3)

Problem 4
If g(x) = 4x4 - 3x2 + 2x - 2, find g(2), g(-2), g(1/2), g(-x)

Answer:
g(x)=4x4−3x2+2x−2g(x)=4x4−3x2+2x−2
 

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g(2)=4(24)−3(22)+2(2)−2=54g(2)=4(24)−3(22)+2(2)−2=54
 
g(−2)=4(−2)4−3(−2)2+2(−2)−2=46g(−2)=4(−2)4−3(−2)2+2(−2)−2=46
 
g(12)=4(12)4−3(12)2+2(12)−2=−32g(12)=4(12)4−3(12)2+2(12)−2=−32
 
g(−x)=4(−x)4−3(−x)2+2(−x)−2=4x4−3x2−2x−2

Limits

We can redefine Calculus as a branch of mathematics that enhances Algebra,

Trigonometry, and Geometry through the limit process. Calculus simply will not
exist without limits because every aspect of it is in the form of a limit in one
sense or another. To illustrate this notion, consider a secant line whose slope is
changing until it will become a tangent (or the slope of the curve) at point P (see
figure below). Then we can say that the slope of the curve at any point P is the
limit of the slope of the secant through P.

Another is by considering the area of a region bounded by curve shown in

figures (a), (b), and (c) below. The area can be approximated by summing up
the areas of series of rectangles. As the number of rectangles increases, the
sum of their areas will be close enough to the area in (c). We can then say
that the area of the region bounded by a curve is the limit of the sum of areas
of approximating rectangles.

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We can therefore define limit as a number such that the value of a given
function remains arbitrarily close to this number when the independent
variable is sufficiently close to a specified point.

L'Hospital’s Rule

In mathematics, more specifically calculus, L'Hô pital's rule or L'Hospital's

rule (French: [lopital]) provides a technique to

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evaluate limits of indeterminate forms. Application (or repeated application)

of the rule often converts an indeterminate form to an expression that can be
easily evaluated by substitution. The rule is named after the 17th-
century French mathematician Guillaume de l'Hô pital. Although the rule is
often attributed to L'Hô pital, the theorem was first introduced to him in 1694
by the Swiss mathematician Johann Bernoulli.

L'Hô pital's rule states that for functions f and g which are differentiable on an

open interval I except possibly at a point c contained in I

The differentiation of the numerator and denominator often simplifies the

quotient or converts it to a limit that can be evaluated directly.

General Form

The general form of L'Hô pital's rule covers

many cases. Let c and L be extended real
numbers (i.e., real numbers, positive infinity,
or negative infinity). Let I be an open interval containing c (for a two-sided
limit) or an open interval with endpoint c (for a one-sided limit, or a limit at
infinity if c is infinite). The real valued functions f and g are assumed to
be differentiable on I except possibly at c, and additionally g’ (x) ≠ 0
on I except possibly at c. It is also assumed that

Thus the rule applies to situations in which the ratio of the

derivatives has a finite or infinite limit, but not to situations in which that
ratio fluctuates permanently as x gets closer and closer to c.

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Although we have written x → c throughout, the limits may also be one-sided

limits (x → c+ or x → c−), when c is a finite endpoint of I.
In the second case, the hypothesis that f diverges to infinity is not used in the
proof (see note at the end of the proof section); thus, while the conditions of
the rule are normally stated as above, the second sufficient condition for the
rule's procedure to be valid can be more briefly stated as 

The hypothesis that g’ (x) ≠0 appears most commonly in the literature, but
some authors sidestep this hypothesis by adding other hypotheses
elsewhere. One method is to define the limit of a function with the additional
requirement that the limiting function is defined everywhere on the relevant
interval I except possibly at c. Another method is to require that
both f and g be differentiable everywhere on an interval containing c.

References and Supplementary Materials

Books and Journals
1. Engineering Mathematics Volume 2
Diego Inocencio Tapang Gillesana

2. Introduction to Calculus Volume 1

J.H. Heinbockel

3. Differential and Integral Calculus⠀

by Feliciano and Uy

4. Differential and Integral Calculus 6th Ed by

Love & Rainville

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