wD Tests and Assessment The NEO Personality Inventory: Using the Five-Factor Model in Counseling ROBERT R. McCRAE and PAUL T. COSTA, JR. Personality psychologists have recently concluded that five major di ‘mensions account for most individual differences in personality traits The NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PD is a concise measure of this Five-Factor Model and of some ofthe important traits that define the factors. Characteristics of the test, features for administration and scoring, and studies of reliability, stability, and validity are sur ‘marized. The NEO-PI may be particularly appropriate or use in cour- sling because ibe, nonpsychopathological in content, and sensitive to cient strengths as well as weaknesses. We suggest several ways in thick the counselor cae earn howto use the NEOPI effectively the five basic dimensions of Neuroticism (N), Extraversion (E),, (Openness to Experience (0), Agreeableness (A), and Conscien- tousness (C). Inthe past 10 years it has become clear that some for al of these same five dimensions recur in most personality inventories. For example, the Extroverted, Intuitive, Feeling, and Judging scales of he Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI; Myers & McCaulley, 1985) correspond to E, 0, A, and C of the NEO Personality Inventory (McCrae & Costa, 1989), Similar links have been shown with scales measuring Murray's (1938) needs, personality disorders, and the interpersonal circumplex (McCrae &Costa, 1990), Thesame five factors havebeen found in children, college students, and older adults: in men and women; in self reports and observer ratings; and in English, German, and Chinese samples. ‘The task of systematic assessment is thus greatly simplified: To bbe maximally effective, counselors should measure traits from ‘each of the five factors to have a comprehensive understanding, lof the individual. These personality traits have an enduring and ‘pervasive influence on people's lives. Research has shown that they are highly stable in adulthood and can be assessed by both selfreportsanl observer ratings, and that they affect reactions to stress (McCrae & Costa, 1986), occupational interests (Costa, McCrae, & Holland, 1984), creativity (McCrae, 1987), interper- sonal relations (Buss, in press), and response to psychotherapy (Mille, in press). We return in a later section to consider some specific applications to counseling, but it should be clear that all five of these factors are potentially of great relevance, ‘THE NEO PERSONALITY INVENTORY Because the factors are so pervasive, many instruments could be used to measure them, although relatively ew inventories tap all five dimensions. Currently the only published instrument de- signed specifically to operationalize the Five-Factor Model isthe NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-Pl; Costa & McCrae, 1985, 1988), Thisisa181-item questionnaire developed! through ration- al and factor-analytic methods in a series of studies using adult ‘volunteers ranging in age from 20 £090 years, In addition t0 the sglobal domain scales measuring N, E,O, A, and C, there are 18 Subscales measuring six specific facets of N, E, and O. Facet scales for A and C are currently under development and will JOURNAL OF COUNSELING & DEVELOPMENT « MARCH/APRIL 1991 + VOL. 69 367MeCrae and Costa, result ina 241-item instrument) Table I lists the facet scales and characteristics of high and low scorers. Both paper-and-peneil and computer-administered versions of the NEO-Plareavailable. A sixth-gradereading level issufficient to understand the items; most respondents require about 20 minutes to complete the questionnaire, A 60-item version of the instrument—the NEO FiveFactor Inventory—has also been published; it provides information only on the five global scores, anditisrecommended chiefly or situations in which administra- tion ofthe full instrument is not feasible. The NEO-PI has been ‘used with college students and with adults ofall ages. Research hhas shown that after about age 30, there are few changes in personality; thus, two normative age groups—college students and adults—are sufficient, and separate profiles are offered for teach. The fact that older adults have been used in the develop- ‘ment and validation of the instrument makes it particularly appropriate for use in counseling older people (Waters, 1990) It ‘would probably besuitable for useby adolescents, but nostudies have yet been published using the instrument in that population. In addition to its use with normal volunteers, the NEO-PI hhas been used in a variety of medical and clinical settings Gpielberger, 1989) Both the computer-administered version and a mail-in scoring, service forthe paper-and-pencil version provide an interpretive report that gives a narrative description of personality and pos- sibleimplications for mood and psychological well-being, coping and defense, somatic complaints, cognitive processes, interper- sonal styles, and needs and motives, based on research done with theinstrament ‘One of the unique features of the NEO-PIis a parallel form for obtaining observer ratings, Although self-reports have proven to be useful and valid measures of personality, they provide only ‘one perspective on personality. Spouses and peers provide addi- tional information that can confirm or qualify self-reports (McCrae & Costa, 1989a; Muten, in press), and the use of both self-reports and ratings may be particularly valuable in marriage and family counseling, where differing perceptions of personal- ity canbe a source of misunderstanding and miscommunication. NEO-PI scales are roughly balanced to control for the effects of acquiescence, and studies have shown that socially desirable responding does not invalidate scores (McCrae & Costa, 1983; see also Nicholson & Hogan, 1990). A single-item validity check is used to sercen careless or avowedly inaccurate administrations. Additional checks for random and acquiescent responding have also been devised (Costa & McCrae, 1989, in press). Ina longi-udinal retest ofthe original normative sample, 3- to ‘6-year stability coefficients for the NEO-PIscales ranged from.68 to 83. The internal consistency reliabilities of the B-item facet scales ranged from 64 to 85; coefficient alphas forthe longer N, E,O, A, and C scales were 93, 87, 89, 76, and 86 (Costa & McCrae, 1988). Internal consistency coefficients were virtually identical in a recent study in a clinical sample (Fagan, Wise, ‘Schmidt, Ponticas, Marshall, & Costa, in press). Spouse and peer ratings on the observer form of the NEO-PI show similar levels of reliability, and NEO-PI scales have been validated ina series, of studies, showing meaningful convergent and discriminant correlations with other inventory scales, peer and spouse ratings, sentence completion tests, and expert Q-sort ratings (Costa & McCrae, in 2ress) Test authors, of course, are not necessarily the most objective ‘evaluators oftheir own instruments, so we have paid particular attention to the comments of test reviewers. Dolliver (1987) pro- vided the fist review of the NEO-PI in this journal; since his review appeared, we have addressed a number of his concerns. Specifically, we have provided separate norms for college st dents; replicated our reports of internal consistency on separate NEO-PI Facet Scales and Characteristics of Low and High Scorers igh Scorer Worrying, tose, aporehensive Hotiemperes, east frustrated Hopeless, gully, down-nearted Ashamed, feos inferior Unable to resist cravings Unable to deal with stoss ottense Outgoing, talkative, atlectonate Convival seeks socal contact Dominant, forest Energetic, fast-paced, vigorous Flashy, seoxs stimulation (Cheerful, righ spies Imaginative, elaborates fantasies Moves by art and beauty Emotionally responsive, sensitive Socks novely and varsty Intollecualy cunous, analytical Broad-minded,tlorant TABLE 1 Domain and Facet Tow Scorer Nourotism “anwity Calm, olaxed, fearless Hostity Evon-tompored, slow to take Depression Seldom sad, fecls worthatile Sol-consciousness Poised, secure foals adequate Impuisweness Resists tomptaion, so cantoted Vutrerabity Fesliont, coobneaded Exavorson ‘Warmth od, distant, formal Grogariousness Salary, preers being alone Assertiveness Unassuming,retiing ‘city Unnurriog, siow Exctoment seeking Cautious, stad Postive emotions Unenthusiaste, serious Opanness Fantasy Practica, avoids daydreaming ‘Aesthatios Insensitve to beauty Feelings Nartow range of emotions ‘Actions Preters faa. follows routine Ioeas Pragmate, factual oriented Valves ogmate, conforming ‘Note. Adapted ram Figure 1 in Costa and MeCrae (1985). Reproduced with by PAR inc 368 permission from the NEO Personality Inventory Manual, copyright 1985 JOURNAL OF COUNSELING & DEVELOPMENT « MARCH/APRIL 1991 + VOL. 69NEO Personality Inventory samples; reported long-term stability coefficients; and substan- tially revised the interpretive report (Costa & McCrae, 1988), Dolliver suggested that counselors might wish todiscuss NEO-PL scores with their clients, and we have developed and validated a ‘one-page Your NEO Summary” to provide nontechnical feed= back to respondents (Costa & McCrae, in press). More recent reviews of the NEO-PI have been offered by Hogan (1989) and by Leong and Dollinger (1990). PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT IN COUNSELING Counselors differ greatly in their attitudes toward and use of psychological assessment, partly because of their widely dif ferent specializations, and partly because of differences in phil ‘osophy and training. As Watkins and Campbell (1989, 1990) pointed out, counselors differ from clinical psychologists in theit ‘emphases on normal human development, skill enhancement, and cient potentials although they have not developed adistine tiveapproach to the use of tests, The NEO-PI may be particularly suited tothe distinctive aims and needs of counselors, because it _measures normal personality traits, assesses strengths as wel as, weaknesses, and is brief enough to be suitable for short-term counseling Unlike the Minnesota Muitiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPD and other clinical instruments, the NEO-PI was not designed to measure psychopathology. The individual who comes to counseling for advice, reassurance, or simply a chance to think a problem through may be confused or offended by questions about bizarre beliefs, suicidal tendencies, or antisocial behavior. Assessment using measures of psychopathology may interfere with rapport between the counselor and the client ‘These problems are much less likely with an instrument like the NEO-PI, which asks questions about feelings, preferences, and social behaviors that are relevant and meaningful to virtually everyone. Because it provides a comprehensive assessment of personality traits, the NEO-PI is particularly usoful in pointing to each in- dividuals strengths. MMPI scales, for example, do not measure Conscientiousness Gohnson, Butcher, Null, & Johnson, 1984), so a clent’s self discipline and willingness to work would not be assessed by that instrument. The scales of the NEO-PI can also alert counselors oindividuals’ emotional stability and hardiness, social poise and leadership abilities, willingness to rethink old ‘ways of approaching problems, or altruism and generosity. Counseling traditionally employs brie interventions, and itis unrealisticto expect counselorsto conduct elaborateassessments that may take hours to administer, score, and interpret. The NEO-PI can usually be administered and scored in 30 minutes, and once the personality model is understood, it can be quickly interpreted, This kind of assessment can actually save time for two reasons: (I) it gives the counselor information on what the clients like and thus which approaches may be most fruitful and (2) the counselor's understanding of the client can lead to the rapid development of an empathic bond that can facilitate the therapeutic process, As Miller noted, the NEO-PI allows one to “get a jump on accurate empathy” (cited in McCrae & Costa, 1989b, p. 452; ef. Duckworth, 1990). At first glance, some counselors might consider the traits ‘measured by the NEO-PI to be irrelevant. Longitudinal research hhas shown that these traits are quite stable in adults (McCrae & Costa, 1990), and counselors tend to be more concerned with ‘characteristics they can change, such as coping skills, In fact, however, psychological change can be facilitated by knowledge of the individual's enduring dispositions. For example, in- dividuals high in Openness report a greater spontaneous use of ‘humor in coping with stress, whereas those low in Openness. report more use of faith (McCrae & Costa, 1986). Both faith and humor are usefull ways to deal with stress, but different in- dividuals may find one or the other way more congenial, and counselors might wish to tailor their interventions to these pre- ferences. The NEO-PI Interpretive Report givesinformation on a ‘number of ways of coping that the client i likely to use, and a review ofthese may suggest characteristic problems to avoid or possibilities to exploit How Should Personality Information Be Used? Many psychological tests were developed for very specific pur- poses, such as to diagnose depression select police officers, or ‘clentty gifted children. The NEO-PI has a much broader goal; it attempts to give a full and accurate assessment of base per sonality traits and thus be useful in placement, selection, ps chotherapy, guidance—whenever knowledge of personality is needed. We know from both valdational studies and clinical experience (Spielberger, 1989) that the NEO-PI can be used to ‘understand people's emotional, interpersonal, experiential, and motivational styles, and this will probably be sts most basic function in counseling. Just as counselors routinely begin by noting the client’s age, sex, and educational background, we believe they should also take into account the client's standing onthe dimensions ofN,E,0, A, and. Indeed, these dimensions may prove to be more relevant to understanling the client than factors such as sex or age (ef. Schlossberg 1990), ‘There are also more specifi ways in which personality infor: mation is likely to prove useful, and research demonstrating utlty for particular applications in counseling settings will be welcome. We believe the NEO-PI willbe valuable in evaluating theclien’s problem, inselectingan optimal treatment in pric ing the outcomeof counseling. and in providing use feedback to the cient Although the NEO-PI was not designed to yield psychiatric diagnoses it does measure related traits, and the counselor may find it very useful to know the client's characteristic levels of anniety, depression, and hostility. Johnson, Elion, and Feik- kinen (1989) recently reported, one-fourth toone-thied of univer= sitystudentsattendingacollegecounselingcentershossed symp- toms ofa psychiatric disorder, NEO-PI scales are known to be strongly related to measures of personality disorders Wiggins ée Pincus, 1989), and the N scale is associated with several ofthe Clinical scales on the MMPI (McCrae, in press-a. Thus, high N scores might indicate that more focused assessment of psycho- pathology is warranted. Extreme scores on other dimensions can also suggest areas that need special attention. For example, high E score are associated with histionic trait, low E scores with schizoic! withdrawal. Even if these features do not constitute dlagnosable personality disorders they may indicate qualitative: ly sina problems. ‘Gelso and Fassinger (1990) noted thatthe key question for the counseling field is the matching of counselors and techniqu withclient, and itis clea that personality dimensions areamong the most important client characteristics inthis regard. Miller (in press) has argued that the two dimensions of E and O are most JOURNAL OF COUNSELING & DEVELOPMENT « MARCH/APRIL 1991 + VOL. 69 369MeCrae and Costa relevant to the choice of therapeutic technique. Specifically, he suggested that extraverted individuals profit from group and talle-centered therapies, whereas introverts profer more task- oriented approaches, and that open clients are willing to try a number of novel and imaginative approaches to solving their problems, whereas those who are closed to experience prefer directive, structured, and conventional therapies. These sugges tions need to be adapted to the techniques specific to counseling, Personality variables are likely to be related to the client's response to counseling, Miller (in press) suggested thatagreeable clients would bemore trusting and cooperative with the therapist than antagonistic clients and that highly conscientious clients ‘would follow recommendations more diligently than low C in dividuals. Healso found that individuals high in C and low in N had the best prognosis fora favorable outcome of psychotherapy. ‘An understanding of these variables can help the counselor anticipate the process and outcome of counseling, Duckworth (1990) has argued that counselors regard psycho- logical testing asa tool that should benefit the client as wellas the therapist. Accurate and appropriate feedback on personality traits can give clients a new perspective on themselves, their problems, and their resources, and participation in test inter pretation can contribute to the empowerment ofthe client. The NEO-PI can facilitate this kind of client-centered assessment (McReynolds, 1989). The Five-Factor Model itself was first dis covered in analyses ofthe natural language, so its basic concepts are easily conveyed in lay language. "Your NEO Summary” provides a validated feedback form that describes the basic fea- tures ofthe individual's personality in nonpejorative language, and the counselor may wish to discuss the full NEO-P profile ‘with the client in detail. Use of ratings from spouses or peers on the rating form of the NEO-PI ean provide yet another source of insight: The client can learn from these results how he or she is perceived by significant others. The experience and judgment of, the counselor are needed, of course, to determine when and how test information should be shared withthe client We have outlined here a set of hypotheses that will require extensive research to confirm or qualify. But as Gelso and Fas- singer (1990) noted, “Most needed in the area of client and counselor variables are programmatic efforts... deriving from and contributing to sound theoretical statements” (p. 360). The Five-Factor Model can provide a theoretical framework for or- jganizing much of this research. The NEO-Pl as an Adjunct to Sp Although we think the NEO-PI would be useful in almost all counseling settings, we would not claim that it can replace other Instruments that have been developed to meet specific assess- ‘ment needs. Educational psychologists will continue to need intlligencettests clinical psychologists will need psychodiagnos- ticinterviews, and marriagecounselors may need informationon sexual attitudes and activities. Fortunately, itis rarely necessary to choose between personality measurement and specialized assessanent; both ean conteibute tothe counseling process, Voea- tional guidance offers a good example. One of the most important and widely used tools in vocational counseling is Holland’s (1985) Self-Directed Search (SDS), an instrument that groups vocations according to a hexagonal ‘model, In 1984 we published an article with Holland showing Tinks between$DSscalesand both self reports and spouseratings ized Assessment ‘on an early version of the NEO-PI (Costa, McCrae, & Holland, 1984). Adult men and women with artistic and investigative interests were high in O; those with social and enterprising interests were high in E These associations made theoretical sense, but how should they ‘euused in counseling? Certainly, we would not advocate the use of the NEO-PI as a substitute for the SDS. The SDS provides specific information on vocational interests that is indispensable. But the NEO-PI can be useful as a supplement to the SDS in several ways. If personality scores are markedly inconsistent with vocational choices (if, for example, an extreme introvert indicates a strong interest in enterprising occupations), it can, suggest carelessness in filling out the instrument or confusion about the nature ofthe occupations chosen. Ifthe client showsan undifferentiated vocational interest profile, additional per- sonality information may be useful in suggesting occupations for consideration. We know that open men and women tend to have vvery wide interests, and this should be taken into account in interpreting SDS scores. Very open individuals mightindicatean initial interest in occupations, such as Tree Surgeon or Credit Investigator, that are unlikely to sustain their interest. Interests are not the only qualification needed for occupational success, In addition to specialized aptitude and training, other characteristics of the individual are relevant, including social skills, ability to tolerate stress, and ambition and diligence. The NEO-PI profile gives information on emotional, interpersonal, experiential, attitudinal, and motivational styles; all of these should be considered in evaluating the fit between client and vocation, Information on personality can be particularly important in counseling individuals who are contemplating career change. Holland's theory holds that dissatisfaction with one’s career is the result of incongruence between the job and the individual's needs, interests, and abilities. Although this is doubtless often true, there are also other reasons for career shifts. Open people prize variety and are more likely to change careers, presumably in search of novelty (McCrae & Costa, 1988) Individuals high in Nay be dissatisfied with their jobs because they are chronically dlssatisfied with life. Career changes in themselves are unlikely tocurean unhappiness that is rooted in characterological anxiety and depression. The counselor needs to understand vocational aspirations and discuss them with the client in the context of the client's total personality Lea ng to Use the NEO-PI We noted earlier that NEO-PI scores can be interpreted quickly, nce the personality model is understood. In our experience, simply reading the scale labels, descriptors, and correlates is rarely sufficient to understand fully the concepts being measured, As Gough (1965) noted, "From this starting point it is the inter- preter'stask toevolvean insightful diagnostic portrait ofthe high and low scorer on the scale, to render this evidence into an integrated formulation relevant for practice and understanding. ‘The achievement of such a formulation requires all of the crea tivity thatthe interpreter can muster” (p. 300). Learning a new systemis never easy, but we would like tooffer some suggestions that might facilitate the process, ‘The manuals for the NEO-PI and NEO-FFI are, of course, the basic sources, and they contain an extensive ist of references that the user might consult. Most of these, however, deal with re- 370 JOURNAL OF COUNSELING & DEVELOPMENT * MARCH/APRIL 1991 + VOL. 69search rather than practice issues. We suggest an interplay between research and counseling experience. For example, it ‘might beappropriate toread more about Opennessto Experience ‘(McCrae & Costa, 1985, in press) when one encounters a client ‘exceptionally high or low on the O scale. That client could then illustrate the construct, and the articles might illuminate features of the client. Fromaheuristicpoint of view, wesuggest that counselors begin bby focusingon the five domain scales that give the broad outlines (of personality. When these constructs have become familiar, attention can be turned to the facet scales, which provide more detailed information about specific aspects of personality. For ‘example, both Warmth and Gregariousness are facets of E that measuire aspects of sociability. But warm individuals are affec- tionate, enthusiastic, and friendly; gregarious people simply prefer social stimulation. This distinction, which could have ‘considerable importance to some counseling situations, is lost at the level ofthe five factors, but it is readily seen in NEO-PL facet scales. Thereare currently 18 facet scales, and there willeventual- ly be 30, soit will take longer to master them all, but the task ‘should be easier once the basic dimensions are well understood. Conversely, knowledge ofthe facets will deepen understanding, of the five factors ‘An alternative approach is to use the Interpretive Report pro vided with computer administration and mail-in scoring. The report provides a narrative description of personality in three sections: “Global Description of Personality: The Five Factors"; "Detailed Interpretation: FacetsofN, E,and O” and “Personality Correlates: Some Possible Implications." A thorough reading of these reports on a dozen or so clients should help familiarize the counselor withthe interpretation ofthe test. 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