eas Reet Dearne Set nae Se ure ies Newton's Third law Motion with a Constant cae Newton’s Laws of Motion CONCEPTS IN CONTEXT Concepts Elevators remind us of familiar sensations triggered by vertical accelerated motion: When 2c rard we feel heavy; the floor seems to push, Context harder on ou ‘upward motion slows toward a stop, we may fee] the “butterflies in the stomach sociated with fre fall, ‘With the concepts of this chapter we will deseribe forces and predict accelerations, and we can ask: What force must the floor of an elevator apply to your feet to accelerate you upward? (Checkup 5.4, question 6, page 143; and Exampl page 147) How do an elevator and its counterweight accelerate ifthe cable necting them is permitted to run fieely 10, page 154) What devices are installed on elevators to ensure their safety? (Physies in Practice: Elevators, page 157)5.1 Newlons Fira lw of motion. The first of these laws describes the ‘The first law was actually discovered by Galileo Galilei the seventeenth century, ‘but it remained for Issac Newton, in the second half of the seventeenth century, to formulate a coherent theory of forces and to lay down a complete set of equations from which the motion of bodies under the influence of arbitrary forces can be caleulated. ‘The study of forces and their effects on the motion of bodies is called dynamics, and Newton’ laws of motion are sometimes called the laws of dynamics 5.1 NEWTON’S FIRST LAW Everyday experience seems to suggest that force—a push ora pull—is needed to keep a body moving at constant velocity. Fr example, if the wind pushing a sailboat suddenly ceases, the boa will coast along for some distance, but it will gradually slow own, stop, and remain stopped until a new gust of wind comes along. However every= day experience misleads us what actually slows down the silboatis not the absence of a propulsive force but, rather, the presence of fiction forces exerted by the wate andthe sin, which oppose the motion. Under idea fritionles conditions, a bedy in motion would continue to move forever Experinsents with pucks or gliders riding on a cushion of i com a low-frietion air table a ai track give a clea indication of the persistence of motion (se Fig 5.2; butin order to eliminate ition entirely its best to use bodies moving in a vacuum, without even air against which to rub. Experiments with parti- cles moving in vacuum show that a body left to itself, on which no net external force is acting, persists indefinitely in its state of uniform motion, In this context, an extemal force i any force exerted on the body by some other ‘body. By contrat, internal forces are those exerted by some part ofa body on another part of the sane ody For instance, the forces that the screws o bolts in the sailboat exert on its planks are internal forces such internal forces do not affeet the motion of the boat. [Newton's First Law summarizes experiments and observations on the motion of bodies on which no net external force is acting: Inthe absence of anet external force a body at rest remains at est, and a body in ‘motion continues to move at constant velocity 131 SIR ISAAC NEWTON (1642-1727) English mathematician and phy, widely regarded asthe greater sient of ll ie. Hic brillant dicoverievin mecbanicy were published in 1687 in ie Book Pipa ‘Mathematics, oe ofthe glories of the Age of Reswon Ie tht book, Newson laid down the oc f motion and the Law of Universal Gravitation, and he demonstrated tha planets sn the kya wll bade om the Barth sey ‘Be ame mathematical equations, For ver 200 year, Neato’ sor ood asthe wal longed bss of ll ur attmper at a iene explanation of the phyrial wer FIGURE 5.1 Mukiple-exposute photo {raph of two pucks moving on an air table Newton's First Law132 @ Ballatzet V » Ballacctes toward var of tuck, FIGURE 5.2 (a) In the absence ofa net enteral fore, balla rest on a level street remains at est. (b) But aball at rest on the form ofan accelerating tick acquizes 3 “spontancou acceleration toward the rat ofthe truck (in the reference frame of the reel) Reference am attached tothe ground. FIGURE 5.3. Aseference fame with origin fixed ata point onthe urfice ofthe Each (CHAPTER 5. Nevion’s ews of Motion ‘The tendency of a body to continue in its initial state of motion (a state of rest or a state of uniform velocity) is ealed its inertia. Accordingly, the Fisst Law is often, called the Law of Inertia A crucial restriction on Newton's First Law concems the choice of reference frame: the law isnot valid in all reference frames but only in certain special frames. If this law is valid in one given reference frame, then it cannot be valid in a second reference frame that has an acelerated motion relative co the frst For example, in the reference frame of the ground, a bowling ball at rest on a level street remains at rest, but in the reference frame of an accelerating truck, a bowling ball initially at rest on the platform. of the truck acquires a “spontaneous” acceleration toward the rear ofthe truck, in con= ‘radiction to Newton's Fist Law (see Fig 5.2). Those special reference frames in which ‘the law is valid ate called inertial reference frames. Thuis, the reference frame of the ‘ground isan inertial reference frame, but that of the accelerating truck is not Note that ifsomse first reference frame is inertial, any ober reference frame in uniform ‘ranslational motion relative tate first will aio be inertial, and any other reference frame in accelerated motion relative (othe frst will not be inertial. Thus, any two inertial refer- ence frames ean differ only by some constant relative velocity; they eannot differ by an acceleration. This implies that, as measured with respect to inertial reference frames, ‘aeeration is absolute when a particle has some acceleration in one inertial reference fame, ‘then the particle will have exactly the same acceleration in any other [see Eq. (4.54)]. By contrast, the velocity of the particle i relative; the velocities are related by the addition rule for velocities [see Eq, (4.53)] Finally we must address an important question: Which ofthe reference frames in prac- tical use for everyday measurements are inertial? For the description of everyiay phe- ‘nomena, the most commonly used reference frame is one attached to the ground, with ‘the origin of coordinates fixed at some point on the surface ofthe Earth (see Fig. 5.3). Although crude experiments indicate that this eference frame is inertial (or example, 4 ball placed on 2 level street remains at rest), more precise experiments show that this, reference frame is not inertial The Earth rotates about its axis, and this rotational motion, gives points on the ground a centripetal acceleration; thus, a reference frame attached to ‘the ground isan accelerated, noninertal reference frame. However, the numerical value of the centripetal acceleration of points on the surface of the Earth is fasly small—about (0.034 m/s atthe equator—and it ean be neglected for most purposes. Our additional centripetal acceleration du to the motion of the Earth around the Sun is even smaller, about 0.002 m/s". Hereatter, unless otherwise stated, we will take i for granted that the reference frames in which we express the laws of physi ae inertial reference frames, cither exactly inertial or at least so nearly inertial that no appreciable deviation trom. [Nowtosis First Law occurs within the region of space and time in which we ar interested wa Checkup QUESTION 1: To keep a stalled car moving steadily along a level street you have to keep pushing it. Does this contradict Newton's First Law? QUESTION 2: When you roll 2 bowling bal on a level surface, you find it gradually slows down, Does this contradict Newton’ First Law? QUESTION 3: A car is traveling at constant speed along a straight, level road. Is the reference frame ofthis caran inertial reference frame? What if the car rounds a curve at constant speed? What ifthe car brakes?52. Newlons Second Law 133 QUESTION 4: An elevator is descending at constant speed. Is the reference frame of this elevator an inertial eference frame? QUESTION 5: AA divers in fre fll after jumping off a diving board. Is the reference frame of this diver an inertial reference frame? QUESTION 6: Which ofthe following represents an inertial reference frame? (A) The reference frame of an elevator in free fall (constant acceleration) {B) The relerence frame of a bird descending at constant velocity (C) The reference frame of particle in uniform circular motion. (D) The reference frame of a car slowing down while coasting uphill. 5.2 NEWTON’S SECOND LAW oe oftept Nevo Second Law f motion stables the elatonshipBerween he force acting ‘| ona body and the acceleration caused by this force. This law summarizes experiments and observations an bodies moving under the action of external forces. Qualitativey, 2 force is any push or pull exerted on a body, such as the push of the wind on a sail- “Magitade and Breton boat, or the pull of your hand on a doorknob. It is intuitively obvious that such a push, offre are represented by the arow or pull has a direction as well as a magnitude—in fact, force is a vector quantity, and. it can be represented graphically by an arrow (see Fig. 5.4). For the sake of simplicity, ‘we assume for now that only one force is acting on the body, but we will eliminate this assumption in the next section, [Newton's Second Law states: An external force acting on a body gives it an acceleration that isin the direction FIGURE 5.4 Man pushing an automobile. of the force and bas a magnitude directly proportional tothe magnitude of the force ‘The force has a magnitude and a duection. and inversely proportional tthe mass ofthe body: 6a) (5.2) Newton’s Second Law, for single force According to Eq, (5-1) or (5.2), the acceleration vectors equal to the force vector divided by the mass; thus, this equation specifies both the magnitude and the direction ofthe acceleration, as asserted by the verbal statement ofthe law. "The Second Law is subject to the same restrictions as the First Law: i is valid only in inertial reference frames." The vai ofthe Second Law requtesthat the clocks fhe inertial reference frame be cmeciy m= aonined, Such acortectsyneonnation can be achieved by slowly transporting acalbraing clock fom plc to place inthe reference frame or by sng light signals nd making an allowance for ight travel time {th wil be cused in Chapter 36),134 definition of mass kilogram (kg) pound (Ib) FIGURE 5.5. An arttonaut teins onthe body-mass measurement device (BMMD), (CHAPTER 5. Nevion’s ews of Motion Before we deal with applications of the Second Lav, we must give the precise det initions of mass and of force. These definitions are contained in the Second Law itself, that s, the Second Law plays a dual role asa law of physics and asa definition of mass and force The definition of mass hinges on compating the unknown mass with a standatd mass, which is assumed known, To compate the two masses, we exert forces of iden- tical magnitudes on each, and we measure the accelerations that these forces produce ‘on each, For instance, we might atach identical rubber bands or springs to the unknown ‘mass and to the standard mass, and stretch these rubber bands or springs by identical amounts, thereby producing forces of identical magnitudes. According to the Second iro bodies of diferent masses are subjected to force of identical magnitudes, the ace erations cil bein the inverse ratia ofthe maves. Wwe designate the acceleration of the ‘unknown mass by a and that ofthe standard mass by a, and their masses by m and m,, wwe ean express this inverse ratio of masses and accelerations as Law, Ea 69 changes in its velocity As already mentioned in Section 1.4, the unit of mass in the ST system of units is the kilogram (1 kg), and the standard of mass is the standard kilogram, a eylinder of platinum-iridium alloy kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures. Table 1.7 gives some examples of masses expressed in kilograms, and Table 1.8 lists multiples and submultiples ofthe kilogram, Among these submultiples is the pound (1Ib = 0.4536 kg), which isa unit of mass in the British system of units. During the Skylab mission, three astronauts were kept for about 2 months in weightless conditions. Since an ordinary balance will not work under these conditions, scientists who wanted a daily record, hhad to invent a new mass measurement device. Figure 5.5 shows the device used aboard Skylab. It consisted ofa small chair that could of the astronauts m: be accelerated back and forth by a spring attached to Instruments connected to sd mass of 66.9 kg placed in the chai, the bent spring produced an acceleration With the standard ‘mass removed and with astronaut]. R, Lousma sitting in the chai, the bent spring (withthe same amount of bending) produced an acceleration which was smaller by a factor of 0.779. Deduce the mass of Loustsa. Ignore the mass ofthe chai. the chair measured the acceleration. With a known stand: SOLUTION: The bent spring provides the same fore JF when the standard mass is placed in the chair and when the astronauts placed in the chair. Consequently, the accelerations must be in the inverse ratio of the masses, a in Eq. (5.3)52 Newlons Secand Law from which, Since the ratio of the measused acceleration is a, /e = 1/0.779, we then find 4 1 a" OT X 66.9 kg = 85.9 kg 64) for the mass of Lousma ‘The quantitative definition of force also relies on the Second Law. ‘To measure a given force—say, the force generated by a spring that has been stretched a certain amount—we apply this force to the standacd kilogram. Ifthe resulting acceleration of the standard kilogram is a, then the foree has 2 magnitude ma,=VkgX 4, 65) [After the standard mass has been used to measure the force, any other masses to which this same force is applied will be found to obey the Second Law. In regard to these other masses, the Second Law is an assertion about the physical world that ean be ver- ified by experiments—it is a law of physics. Tn the SI system of units the unit of force isthe newton (N); this isthe force that ‘will give a mass of 1 kg an acceleration of I m/s? Tigem/t 64) ‘Table 5.1 lists the magnitudes of some typical forces. Anewton=1N 135 SOME FORCES Gravitational pull ofSun on Barth 35% 10° N ‘Thrust of Saturn V cocket engines (4) 33 x107N Poll of ge tugboat 1x 108N ‘Thrust ofjet engines Boeing 747) 77x 10°N Pull of large locomotive 5x10N Deceleratng foreeon automobile during braking 1x10'N Force between two protons in 2 nucleus 10'N Accelerating foreeon automobile 7xA0N Gravitational pull of Earth on man 73% 10°N ‘Masimmurn upward force exerted by forearm (isometric) 27 x10°N Gravitational pull of Earth on apple (b) 2N Gravitational pull of Earth on 5¢ coin 5.1107 N Force between electron and nucleus of ator (oydrogen) x 107'N Force on atomie-force microscope ip 10" Smallest force detected (mechanical oscillator) 10! N %136 (CHAPTER 5. Nevion’s ews of Motion “The racing car Spirit of America (see Fig 5.6), which seta world EI cccond for speed onthe Sale Flats of Utah had mass of 4100 kg, and its jet engine could develop up to 68000 N of thrust. What acceleration could this ear achieve? SOLUTION: According to Newton's Second Law, a horizontal force of magai~ tude 68000 N produces an acceleration F _ 68000N m #100 kg 7 mis 6. Some small nimals—locusts, beetles, and fleas—attan very HOURE 5.6 Sydnee St tgeaceatons ye aang ump, Thera fis Flats of Uta an acceleration of about 2.0 X 10? m/s?. Calculate what force the hind legs of the flea must exert on the body while pushing it off with this acceleration. "The mass of the flea is about 6.0 X 10°" kg; neglect the mass of the legs. SOLUTION: According to Newton's Second Law, the magnitude of the force is F=ma= 0 107 kg X 2.0 X 10° m/s? = 1.2 10-7 N In the British system of units, the unit of force isthe pound-force (Ibf), which ‘equals 44482 N. In everyday usage, the pound-force is often simply called pound, but ‘we must be carefl not to confuse the pound-force (a unit of force) with the pound (a ‘unit of mass). The widespread confusion between the two kinds of pounds stems from. their close relationship—the pound-force is the weight ofa pound-mass.* Confusion is displayed on labels on grocery packages, which typically state “weight 1 Ib” when. they should state “mass 11h,” Also, labels on tre gauges state “pressure Ib/in” when they should stat ‘pressure Ibi/in’?” ‘We now turn to the question of the practical measure- o ment of force and mass. Measurements of force can be con- veniently performed with a spring balance (see Fig. 5.7), by ‘matching the unknown force with a known force supplied by e a stretched, calibrated spring. Alternatively, measurements of force can be performed by comparing the unknown force with a “ ‘a known weight, Weight is the downward pull that the grav- = ity of the Earth exerts on a body. The weight of a body is S Pape proportional cits mass and standard sets of weight ar us = Ee ally constructed by taking multiples and submaultiples ofthe standard of mass (Fig 58) at Note that 2 yin lt 11621 ted = 1 18 32.26/8 Ifyou sw Bish nisin News Second Ln. you rat ‘ake int scount rena conversion between 0/4 and bt An ae ate Bei anit of aire sg, Lag = (BOYCE ‘Wt hi mito mass Newtons Second Law stomatal deers he FIGURE 5.7.) Spring balance (0) A spring balance, used to cone its, witht sy eed ree coerone But gis sneiure an unkown fore F ver wed by practicing engines fe |52. Newlons Second Law isbrlanced by Tate foe oor weigh. FIGURE 5.8 A set of standard weights FIGURE 5.9 ‘The unknown force F palling on ‘one end ofthe string is measured by balancing it with a known weight aeting on the other end ‘Wewill discuss the meaning of weight" in more detain Section 5.4 simple com- parison of an unknown force and a known weight can be performed by leting the force act on one end ofa string while the weight acts on the other end (see Fig. 59}. ‘A more precise comparison ean be achieved with a beam balanee (see Fig. 5.10), by Jetting the force push down on one of the balance pans while « known weight is placed inthe other balance pan ‘Measurements of mass are commonly carried out with beam balances that com- pare the weights ofthe masses, Since the weight of a body is proportional to its mass, ‘measurements of mass via weight give results consistent with those obtained by the primary procedure based on Eq, (5.3) ‘The masses of electrons and protons and the masses of ions (atoms with missing electrons or added electrons) ate too small to be measured by their weight. Instead, they are measured with a procedure based on Eq, (5.2), by applying 2 known force to the particle, measuring the resulting acceleration, and then calculating the mass. Table 5.2 lists the masses of the electron, the proton, and the neutron, ma Checkup 5.2 QUESTION 1: Two cardboard boxes rest on a smooth, fiictionless table, How can you determine which box has more mass without lifting them off the table? QUESTION 2: To get your stalled automobile moving, you can either push against the sear end, or pull on the front end. What isthe direetion ofthe force in each ease? QUESTION 3: ‘Ted of waiting for the wind, a sailor decides to stand up in his sail- ‘boat and push on the mast. Will this push accelerate the sailboat? QUESTION 4: A bobsled slices on flat ice, without friction. A man pushing the empty bobsled as hard as possible gives it an acceleration of # m/s, What willbe the accel- eration ofthe sled iftwo men push on it equally? What will be the acceleration of a loaded bobsled, of twice the mass of the empty sled, ifone man pushes? If two men push? Choose among the following respective quantities in units of m/s" (A)8,1,2 (B)81,4 (82,4 (D)16,1,2 (EY 16,1,4 137 Beam is ppored at midpoine ‘Usknown fre ir balanced asia calbeated weights FIGURE 5.10 Ina beam balane, the unknown force F pushing down: on one pan is measured by balancing i with known ‘weights placed i the other pan ‘THE MASSES OF ELECTRONS, PROTONS, AND NEUTRONS raarictt ass Election BAL x 107 ag Proton 1.873 1077 ig Neutron 1475 x 1077 kgOnline Conéept Tutorial ‘Superposition Princip Newton's Second Law, for net force (CHAPTER 5. Nevion’s ews of Motion 5.3 THE COMBINATION OF FORCES ‘More often than not, a body will be subjected to the simultaneous action of several forces. For exemple, Fig. 5.11 shows a barge under tow by two tugboats. The forces acting on the barge are the pull of the frst towrope, the pull ofthe second towrope, and the frictional resistance of the water.*"These forces are indicated by the arrows in Fig, 5.11, Newton's Second Law tells us what cach of these forces would do if acting by itself. The question now is, How can we calculate the simultaneous effect of two of more forces? The answer is supplied by an addition principle for forces, called the ‘Superposition Principle for forces: Ifsevera forces Fy, F,, Fy... act simultaneously on a body, then the acceleration they produce isthe same as that prodaced by asingle force Fy given by the vector sums of the individual forces, Fuge =F +E + Fy + 5.8) ‘The single force F,, that has the same effect as the combination of the individual forces is called the net force, or the resultant force. The net force then determines the acceleration, and Newton’ Second Law takes the form sma — Foe 6.9) ‘We must emphasize that this Superposition Principle is a law of physies, which thas the same status us Newton’ laws. Crude tests of this principle can be performed in laboratory experiments by pulling on a body with known forces in known direc~ tions, But the most precise empirical test of ths principle emerges from the study of planetary motion; there itis found that the net force on a planet is indeed the vector sum of all the gravitational pulls exerted by the Sun and by the other planets ‘Hach tugboat foee pals indirection of Eonnectng cable FIGURE 5.11 A barge undertow by swo tugboate. Fy and F ae the forces exerted by the rugboats Fy ete fictional resi- tance ofthe water ° These ae the horizon fees, Ther at alo vet ores: the downward pull of gravy the weigh?) andthe upward prenie of he water (the Buoyancy The versie fcr can be gored since Sy cancel tach othes and do noe consibute othe net fv.5. The Combination of Fores 139 PRT) 8077 hee topes in Fig 5.11 pl wih ho ‘zontal forces of 25 X 10" N and 1.0 X 10°N, respectively, and that these forces make angles of 30° and 15° with the long axis of the barge (see Fig. 5.12). Suppose that the friction force is zero. What are the magnitude and ditection of the net horizontal force the towropes exert on the barge? SOLUTION: The net force isthe vector sum. F, F+F, 6.10) where F; isthe force of the first towrope and F, that ofthe second. The net force is shown in Fig. 5.124, With the x and y axes aranged asin Fig 5.12a, the foees can be resolved into xand y components. The + component of the net force is the sum ofthe * components of the individual forces (see Fig. 5.12b), Fist Fis 6a =25 x 10°NX cos 30° + 1.0105 NX cos 15° 25x NX 0.866 + 1.0 x 10" Nx 0.966 =3.1x10°N @ ecray heat > (Fea araphicly: \ [Patcopaman_] | w © Fyn sin a0" rr, Petits] I-A | We diop perpendicdacs vo Adetesine wad y components hack sped fe ‘Rg Oem by tan 0 = Sa: FIGURE 5.12 (4) One mgboat pil witha force F, andthe ater pulls with farce F, he magnitudes ofthese frees 1, = 25 10° Nand Fy ~ 10% 10° N, respectively. The net force Fy (8) The forces F and F and tei and components (0) The nt force Fay and it andy component. is the vector sum ofthe two frees F, and F140 (CHAPTER 5. Nevion’s ews of Motion Likewise, the y component of the net force is the sum of the y components of the individual forces, Faasy = Fiy + Fay (6.12) = 255 X 10° N X sin 30° 1.0 105 NX sin 15° = 25x 10°N X 0.500 ~ 1.0 10° Nx 0.259 =10x10°N “They components ofthe individual forces are of opposite sign because one tugboat pulls the barge to the let (up in Fig. 5.12) and the other to the right (down in Fig. 5.12) ‘The components Fg. and Fy, uniquely specify the net force, and we could end our calculation ofthe net force with these components. However, the problem, asks forthe magnitade and the direction ofthe net force, and we therefore have to take our calculation a step further. According to Eq, (3.15), the magnitude of the net force is the square root of the sum of squares of the components: Pog = WV Fone? * Feary) (5.13) = VOT RIO NS (10 XIN = 3.3 x 10°N “The direction of the net force makes an angle @ with the x axis (ee Fig. 5.120) According to Eq. (3.16), this angle is given by Foy _ 1.0 X 10°N ang = —_ Free 3.1 X10N 132 6.44) With our calculator, we find that the angle with this tangent is 18°, wa Checkup QUESTION 1: A parachutist, with open parachute, is descending at uniform velocity. ‘Can you conchude thatthe net force on the parachutist is zero? Can you conclude that there are no forces whatsoever acting on the parachutist? QUESTION 2: An clevator is initially a restat the ground floor, It then accelerates, briefly, and then continues to ascend at constant speed. What is the direction ofthe net force on the elevator when at rest? When accelerating? When ascending at constant speed? QUESTION 3: You are riding in a subway car, which accelerates, then proceeds at con- stant velocity for a while, and then brakes. What isthe direction of the net external force on your body during acceleration? Dusing travel at constant velocity? During braking? QUESTION 4: Suppose that the two tugboats in Example 4 both pullin a direction parallel to the long axis ofthe barge. In this case, what is the net foree they exert on the barge? What if one tugboat pulls at the font of the barge and the other pushes from behind? QUESTION 5: Two horizontal forces of equal magnitudes are acting on a box sliding ‘on a smooth table. The direction of one force is 30° west of north, the other isin the west direction. What is the direction of the acceleration of the box? (A) 15" north of west. (B) 30° north of west (C) Directly northwest (D)30°west of north —_(E) 15° west of north5.4 Weight; Contac Force and Normal Force 5.4 WEIGHT; CONTACT FORCE AND NORMAL FORCE ‘The gravity ofthe Earth isthe most familiar ofall foes, When you hold a body, say, an apple in your hands, you can feel the downward pull of gravity on the apple; and. if you release the apple, ou ean see it aecelerating under the influence ofthis pull In the terminology of physics, the pull of gravity on a body is called the weight of the ‘body. Thus, weight isa force; itis a vector quantity—it has a direction (downward) as ‘well as a magnitude, The unit of weight is the unit of force thats, the newton (N) ‘The magnitude of the weight force is directly proportional to the mass of the body. To understand this, consider a body of mass m in fiee fll near the surface of the Earth, say an apple you have released from your hand (see Fig. 5.13). The body has a downward acceleration g- Since we attribute this acceleration to the weight force, Newton's Second Law tells us that the magnitude of the weight force acting on the body must be B= ma mg 6.5) ‘Weill denote the weight by the vector symbol w. According to Eq. (5.15), the mag~ nitude of the weight is wong 6.16) IE the body is notin fre fll but is held ina stationary position by some support, then the weight is ofcourse still the same as that given by Eq, (5.16); however, the support balanees the downward weight force and preventsit from producing a downward motion. What is the weight of a 54-kg woman? Assume that = 981 m/s SOLUTION: By Eq, (5.16), the magnitude ofthe weights w= mg= 54 kg X 9.81 m/s? = 530 N and its direction is dawnwrasd, COMMENT: Since the value ofg depends on location, the weight of a body also depends on ts location, Por example, ifthe 54-kg woman travels from London (g =981 m/s!) 0 Hong Kong (g = 9.79 m/s"), her weight will decrease from 530 N t0 529 N, a difference of 1 N. Andif this woman were to travel to the Moon (g= 1.62 m/s’), her weight would decrease to 87 N! “Thee preceding example illustrates an essential distinction between mass and weight: Mass is an intrinsic property of body, measuring the inertial resistance with which the body opposes changes in its motion. The definition of mass is formulated in such a ‘way that a given body has the same mass regardless of its location in the universe Weight isan extrinsic property of a body, measuring the pull of gravity on the body. Te depends on the (gravitational) cavironmentin which the body is located, and i there~ fore depends on location ‘A body deep in intergalactic space, far from the gravitational pull of any star or planct, will experience hardly any gravitational pull—the weight of the body will be nearly zero; that is, the body will be weightless, Although such a condition of true vai Online Cofeept Tutorial weight "The weight force w proces the down trad aceeationg FIGURE 5.13 (a) An apple in freefall has downward aceleration g(b) The foree on ‘he apple alo downward, and it asa magnitude omgva (CHAPTER 5. Nevion’s ews of Motion FIGURE 5.14 This socce player has jumped into the az Both he and th ball ae in fee fll a FIGURE 5.15 Astronauts training in an agplane. ‘weightlessness is impossible at any location on or near the Earth, a condition of appar~ ent weightlesmess can be simulated on or near the Earth by means of a fieely falling refer «ence frame. Consider an observer in fre fall, such asthe soccer player in Fig. 5.14, who hhas jumped into the air to kick a ball. The player and the ball both accelerate down- ward atthe same rate; thus, the ball does not accelerate relative to the player. In the ref rence frame of the player (a freely falling reference frame accelerating downward with the acceleration g), the frely falling ball, or any other freely falling body; continues to ‘move with constant velocity as though there were no foree ating on it This means that in such a reference frame, the gravitational pulls apparently zero; the weight is appar~ «ently ero, Of course this simulated weightlessness arises from the accelerated motion FIGURE 5.16 Astronaut Boating in the cargo bay of the Space Shute of the reference frame—in the unaccelerate, inertial ref- erence frame of the ground, the weight of the bal is cer- tainly not zero. Nevertheles, ifthe player insists on looking at things from his own reference frame, he will judge the ‘weight ofthe ball, and the weight of his own body, a5 zero ‘This condition of weightlessness is also simlated within an airplane fying along a parabola, imitating the motion of a (frictionless) projectile (see Fig 5.15); and it is also sim- ulated in a spacecraft orbiting the Earth (see Fig. 5.16). Both ofthese motions are fre-fall motions. ‘The gravity of the Earth reaches from the Earth to any other body, even a body placed high above the surface, Gravity bridges empty space and requires no perceptible ‘medium for its transmission. In contrast, most ofthe other forces familiar from everyday experience require direct con- tact between the bodies. You cannot exert a push on a box unless your hand is in contact with the box; and the box cannot exert a push on the floor unless it sin contact with the floor. The push tha the surface ofa body exerts on the adjacent surface of another body is called a contact force. If the two bodies ate solid, the contact forces between theie5.4 Weight; Contac Force and Normal Force adjacent surfaces ate of two kinds: the compressional force, or normal force, that arises ‘when the surfaces are pressed together perpendicularly, and the fretion force that arises swhen the surfaces are sliding, or trying to slide, past each other. We will deal with frie~ tional forces in the next chapter. ‘The normal force represents the resistance that solid bodies offer to interpene~ tration, When you try to push two bodies together, their surfaces begin to repel as soon as they come into contact. You can fel this kind of repulsive contact force when. you push with your hand or your foot against any solid surface. For instance, ifyou push with your hand horizontally against a wall, you can feel the wall pushing against your hand, stopping your hand from penetrating the wal (see Fig. 5.17). This push of the walls called a normal force, because itis “normal,” meaning perpendicular, to the wall This normal force arises from the contact between the atoms of your hand and the atoms of the wal; the atoms of your hand and the atoms on the surface ofthe wall, exert repulsive forees on each other, which oppose their interpenetration. How does the wall sueceed in preventing your hand feom penetrating the wall, regardless of how hard you push? The resistance offered by the wall results from a slight compression of the material of the wall. The atoms in the material in the wall, ‘bchave like an array of miniature springs; these atomic springs compress slightly when ‘you push your hand against them, and the force that these springs exert on your hand increases with the amount of compression. Hence your hand compresses the wall until the increasing force of the atomie springs stops your hand. If the material of the wall, is hard—for example, concrete—the amount of compression is 0 slight as to be unno- ticeable, and the wall seems impenetrable. PA checkup 5.4 QUESTION 1: You throw a 1.0-kg stone straight up, What is the force of gravity on the stone while it is traveling upward? When itis instantancously at rest atthe top of its trajectory? When itis traveling back down? QUESTION 2: A star deep in intergalactic space, far from the gravitational pull of any other star or planet, is weightless. Isit also massless? QUESTION 3: TThe accelerations duc to gravity on the surface of the Earth, the Moon, and Jupiter are 9.81 m/s?, 1.62 m/s?, and 24.8 m/s, respectively: Where would your weight be largest? Smallest? QUESTION 4: An astronaut and her spacecraft are initially tres onthe launchpad, Then the rocket engines fre, and the spacceralt lifts off and ascends. After some minutes, the rocket engines cut off, and the spacecraft coasts through empty space. At what point will the astronaut begin to experience (apparent) weightlessness? QUESTION 5: A book with a weight of 50 N lies on a table. What is the normal force that the table exerts on the book? Ifwe place a second, identical book ontop ofthe fst, ‘what is the normal force thatthe table exerts on the frst ook? What is the normal force that the frst book exerts on the second? QUESTION 6: An clevator traveling upward decelerate to stop at loot. Is the normal force on the feet of a passenger during the deceleration larger or smaller than her ‘weight? Another elevator traveling downward decelerates to stop ata floor. Is the normal force on the feet ofa passenger during the deceleration axger ox smalles than, his weight? (A) Larger larger (8) Larger; smaller (©) Smaller; smallee (D) Smaller; larger v3 FIGURE 5.17 When you push against « ‘wall with your hand, the wall pushes back. agains your hand and resists penetration ae onto144 Online Conéept Tutorial Newton's Third Law aed FIGURE 5.18 (a) Hand pushes on wal () wall pushes on hand (CHAPTER 5. Nevion’s ews of Motion 5.5 NEWTON’S THIRD LAW ‘When you push with your hand against a body, such as a wall, the body pushes back at you. Thus, the mutual interaction of your hand and the wall involves two normal forces: the “ation” force of the hand on the wall and the “reaction” force of the wall ‘on the hand (see Fig. 5.18). These forces are said to form an action-reaction pair. ‘Which ofthe forces is regarded as “action” and which as “reaction” is irclevant, It may seem reasonable to regard the push of the hand as an action; then the push ofthe wall is a reaction, However it is equally valid to regard the push ofthe wall on the hand as an action, and then the push of the hand on the wall sa reaction. At the microscopic level, both the hand and the wall consist of atoms, and when two atoms exert forees on cach other, itis equally valid to regard the first atom as “acting” and the second as, “reacting” or vice versa, The important point i that forces always occur in pais; each, ‘of them cannot exist without the other This is true not only for normal forces, asin the example of the hand and the wall, bt forall forces. Newton's Third Law gives the quantitative relationship between the action force and the resction force: Whenever a body exerts afarce on another body, the latter exerts a farce of equal magnitude and opposite direction on the former. For instance if the push of your hand on a wall has 2 magnitude of 60 N and is perpendicular to the wal, then the push of the wall on your hand also has a magnitude ‘of 60 N and is also perpendicular to the wal, but in the opposite direction (bath your push and the push of the wall are normal forces). But ifthe push of your stationary hhand on the wall makes an angle with the wall (see Fig. 5.19), then the push of the wall on your hand makes a corresponding angle (both your push and the push of the wall are then a combination of normal and fection forces). \ \ Remon Ee ecenta re FIGURE 5.19 (2) Hand pushes on wall at an angle; (b) wall pushes om hand at an angle