Table of Contents

1 IRRIGATION SYSTEM OF PAKISTAN.........................................................................6

1.1 IRRIGATION SYSTEM.............................................................................................6
1.2 INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................6
1.3 KAY FACTS...............................................................................................................6
1.3.1 Reservoirs............................................................................................................7
1.3.2 Barrages...............................................................................................................8
1.3.3 Link Canals........................................................................................................22
1.4 DISTRIBUTION OF WATER AND AREA............................................................22
1.4.1 Punjab................................................................................................................23
1.4.2 Sindh..................................................................................................................23
1.4.3 KPK...................................................................................................................23
1.4.4 Balochistan........................................................................................................24
2 GRAVITY FLOW IRRIGATION SCHEME..................................................................25
2.1 IRRIGATION SYSTEM...........................................................................................25
2.2 WATER RESOURCES FOR IRRIGATION...........................................................25
2.2.1 Rainfall Rainfall.................................................................................................25
2.2.2 Surface Water....................................................................................................25
2.2.3 Usable Groundwater..........................................................................................26
2.3 QUALITY OF WATER............................................................................................26
2.3.1 Methods of Indicating Quality...........................................................................26
2.4 Quality of Water in the Indus Plain Surface Water..................................................27
2.5 TYPE OF IRRIGATION..........................................................................................27
2.5.1 Flow Irrigation...................................................................................................27
2.5.2 Lift Irrigation.....................................................................................................27
2.6 METHODS OF IRRIGATION WATER DISTRIBUTION / APPLICATION.......27
2.6.1 Surface Irrigation Method..................................................................................28
2.6.2 Sprinkler Irrigation Method...............................................................................29
2.6.3 Sub Surface Irrigation (Drip or Trickle Irrigation)............................................29

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2.7 CROP WATER REQUIREMENT (CWR)...............................................................30
2.8 FACTORS AFFECTING CROP WATER REQUIREMENTS...............................30
2.8.1 Water Table.......................................................................................................30
2.8.2 Climate...............................................................................................................30
2.8.3 Type of Soil.......................................................................................................30
2.8.4 Method of Ploughing.........................................................................................30
2.8.5 Intensity of Irrigation.........................................................................................30
2.8.6 Ground slope......................................................................................................30
2.9 EFFECTIVE PRECIPITATION(ER).......................................................................30
2.10 GROSS IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF CROPS (IRG)...............................30
2.11 GROUND WATER CONTRIBUTION FOR CROP USE (∆GW)..........................31
2.12 SOIL WATER CONTRIBUTION FOR CROP USE (∆SW)...................................31
2.13 NET IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS...................................................................31
2.14 CONSUMPTIVE USE (CU)....................................................................................31
2.15 CONSUMPTIVE USE (CU)....................................................................................31
2.16 PEAK PERIOD CONSUMPTIVE USE...................................................................31
2.17 SEASONAL CONSUMPTIVE USE........................................................................31
2.17.1 Rabi Season.......................................................................................................31
2.17.2 Kharif Season.....................................................................................................32
2.18 EVAPOTRANSPIRATION......................................................................................32
2.19 ACTUAL CROP EVAPOTRANSPIRATION ( ETC )............................................32
2.19.1 Climatic factors..................................................................................................32
2.19.2 Solar radiations..................................................................................................32
2.19.3 Temperature.......................................................................................................32
2.19.4 Wind speed........................................................................................................33
2.19.5 Relative humidity...............................................................................................33
2.20 CROP COEFFICIENT..............................................................................................33
2.21 GRAVITATIONAL MOISTURE............................................................................33
2.22 FIELD CAPACITY..................................................................................................33
2.23 S O IL W A T E R / M O I S T U R E A N D F IE L D C A P A C I T Y.......33
2.23.1 Capillary moisture.............................................................................................33

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 2.23.2 Hygroscopic moisture........................................................................................33
2.23.3 Permanent wilting point.....................................................................................33
2.23.4 Available moisture.............................................................................................34
2.24 W A T ER A V A IL A BI L I T Y.........................................................................34
2.24.1 Crop Period:.......................................................................................................34
2.24.2 Delta of crops.....................................................................................................34
2.24.3 Duty of irrigation water.....................................................................................34
2.24.4 Full Supply Factor/(Duty)..................................................................................34
2.24.5 Intensity of Irrigation.........................................................................................34
2.24.6 Cropping Intensity/cultivation intensity............................................................34
2.24.7 Cropping Pattern................................................................................................34
2.24.8 Water Allowance...............................................................................................35
2.24.9 Water Conveyance Efficiency...........................................................................35
2.24.10 Gross Command Area (GCA)........................................................................35
2.24.11 Culturable Command Area (CCA)................................................................35
2.24.12 Non-Culturable Command Area (NCCA).....................................................35
2.25 CANAL.....................................................................................................................35
2.26 CLASSIFICATION OF CANALS ON THE BASIS OF DISCHARGE ARE AS
FOLLOWS...........................................................................................................................35
2.26.1 Main Canals.......................................................................................................36
2.26.2 Branch Canals....................................................................................................36
2.26.3 Distributary canals.............................................................................................36
2.27 THERE ARE FOUR MAIN TYPES OF CANALS IN PAKISTAN.......................36

3
 List of Figure
Figure 1-1 Mangla Reservoir.....................................................................................................7
Figure 1-2 Tarbela Reservoir.....................................................................................................7
Figure 1-3 Chashma reservoir...................................................................................................7
Figure 1-4 Chashma Barrage.....................................................................................................9
Figure 1-5 Taunsa Barrage......................................................................................................10
Figure 1-6 Jinnah Barrage.......................................................................................................11
Figure 1-7 Rasul Barrage.........................................................................................................12
Figure 1-8 Marala Barrage.......................................................................................................13
Figure 1-9 Khanki Barrage......................................................................................................14
Figure 1-10 Qadirabad Barrage...............................................................................................15
Figure 1-11 Trimmu Barrage...................................................................................................16
Figure 1-12 Panjnad Barrage...................................................................................................17
Figure 1-13 Balloki Barrage....................................................................................................18
Figure 1-14 Sidhnai Barrage....................................................................................................19
Figure 1-15 Sulemanki Barrage...............................................................................................20
Figure 1-16 Islam Barrage.......................................................................................................21

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 Table of Table
No table of figures entries found.

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Date: 07-11-2019

1 IRRIGATION SYSTEM OF PAKISTAN

1.1 IRRIGATION SYSTEM
 A system of supplying water to land by means of artificial canals, ditches etc to promote
the growth of crops.
 72 percent of the Pakistan’s population is associated with agriculture as their main
source of income.

1.2 INTRODUCTION
 Pakistan is basically an agrarian based economy.
 Total geographical area is 79.61 million hectares.
 Cultivated area is 22.05 million hectares.
 The total area under irrigation is 19.02 million hectares.
 About more than 50 percent labor force is employed in this sector.
 Pakistan possesses the world’s largest contiguous irrigation system.
 Area irrigation in million hectares
 Canals 6.36
 Tube-wells 3.79
 Wells 0.31
 Canal tube-wells 7.60
 Canal wells 0.25
 Other sources 0.31
 Total irrigated Area 18.63

1.3 KAY FACTS

 There are 3 major reservoirs
 IBIS consist of 19 Barrages
 Total number of Headworks are 2
 There are 12 inter link canals operating
 IBIS comprises of 44 canals.

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Water to entire Indus Basin Irrigation System is supplied by main five rivers namely Indus,
Jehlum, Sutlej, Ravi and Chenab. It is also aided by number of smaller rivers.

1.3.1 Reservoirs
Three major reservoirs operates on Indus Basin Irrigation System. Tarbela and Chashma on
River Indus whereas Mangla on river Jehlum.

1.3.1.1 Mangla Reservoir

Mangla dam is located on River Jhelum in
Mirpur Azad Kashmir. This dam is used forb
multipurpose, one of them is for Irrigation.
Mangla dam was the first dam to strengthen the
irrigation system of entire country with storage
capacity of 7.39 MAF.
Figure 1- 1 Mangla Reservoir

1.3.1.2 Tarbela Reservoir

Tarbela dam is located on River Indus in
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. This dam was designed
to store water from Indus River for Irrigation,
flood control and hydroelectric power. The
storage capacity of Tarbela dam was 9.679
MAF but due to sediments it is reduced to 6.434
Figure 1-2 Tarbela Reservoir
MAF.

1.3.1.3 Chashma Reservoir

Chashma reservoir is located on River Indus in
Mianwali District of Punjab. This reservoir is
used for irrigation purpose and power
generation with storage capacity of 0.87 MAF.

Figure 1- 3 Chashma reservoir

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1.3.2 Barrages
Irrigation system of Pakistan consist of 19 barrages. Following is the list of these barrages.

 Chashma barrage on Indus River in Mianwali District.

 Taunsa barrage on Indus River in Muzaffargarh District. This barrage serves 2.351 MA.
 Jinnah barrage on Indus River near Kalabagh irrigates 1,900,000acres.
 Guddu barrage on Indus River near Kashmoor Sindh.
 Sukkur barrage on Indus River near Sukkur city Sindh.
 Kotri barrage on Indus River near Hyderabad.
 Rasul barrage on River Jhelum between Jhelum District and Mandi Bahauddin District.
 Marala barrage on River Chenab near city Gujrat and Sialkot.
 Khanki Barrage on River Chenab in Gujranwala District.
 Qadirabad barrage on River Chenab in Hafiz Abad District.
 Trimmu barrage on Chenab River in Jhang District.
 Panjnad barrage on River Chenab irrigates 1.8325 million acers.
 Balloki barrage on Ravi River in Punjab.
 Sidhnai barrage on River Ravi near Multan.
 Sulemanki barrage on River Sutlej in Punjab.
 Islam barrage on River Sutlej near Hasilpur Town.
 Mailsi barrage is constructed on River Sutlej.
 Ghazi Brotha on Indus River
 Munda barrage on River Swat in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.

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1.3.2.1 Chashma Barrage

Figure 1-4 Chashma Barrage

Off-takes
Irrigation Canals Link Canals
Design
Length Length Flood Design Disch.
CCA(000,
Year between between Disch. Disch. Cap. Leng
Length (Canal Miles) Acres)
of Abutments Abutments Cap. Cap. (000, (Cana
Const. (feet) (feet) (000, Cs) Name (000, Cs) main Branch disty total Name Cs) Miles
1971 3556 3120 950 CRBC 4.87 170 ----- 666 836 ------ CJL 21.7 63

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1.3.2.2 Taunsa Barrage

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Figure 1-5 Taunsa Barrage

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1.3.2.3 Jinnah Barrage

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Figure 1-6 Jinnah Barrage

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1.3.2.4 Rasul Barrage

Figure 1-7 Rasul Barrage

Off-takes
Irrigation Canals CCA( Link Canals
Design
000,
Length Length Flood Design Disch.
Acres
Year between between Disch. Disch. Cap. Length
Length (Canal Miles) )
of Abutments Abutments Cap. Cap. (000, (Canal
Const. (feet) (feet) (000, Cs) Name (000, Cs) main Branch disty total Name Cs) Miles)
1288.
1901 3209 2880 850 LIC 5.3 39.4 283.1 9 1566.4 1518 RQL 19 30

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1.3.2.5 Marala Barrage

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Figure 1- 8 Marala Barrage

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1.3.2.6 Khanki Barrage

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Figure 1- 9 Khanki Barrage

1.3.2.7 Qadirabad Barrage

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Figure 1-10 Qadirabad Barrage

Off-takes
Irrigation Canals CCA( Link Canals
Design
000,
Length Length Flood Design Disch.
Acres
Year between between Disch. Disch. Cap. Length
Length (Canal Miles) )
of Abutments Abutments Cap. Cap. (000, (Canal
Const. (feet) (feet) (000, Cs) Name (000, Cs) main Branch disty total Name Cs) Miles)
1967 3373 3000 900 QBL 18.6 80

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1.3.2.8 Trimmu Barrage

Figure 1- 11 Trimmu Barrage

Off-takes
Irrigation Canals CCA( Link Canals
Design
000,
Length Length Flood Design Disch.
Acres
Year between between Disch. Disch. Cap. Length
Length (Canal Miles) )
of Abutments Abutments Cap. Cap. (000, (Canal
Const. (feet) (feet) (000, Cs) Name (000, Cs) main Branch disty total Name Cs) Miles)
1938 3025 2220 645 RNGP 2.7 138.2 19.4 365.7 523.3 345 TSL 11.1 46
HAVEI 1006.
L 5.2 36.4 102.7 1 1145.2 179

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1.3.2.9 Panjnad Barrage

Figure 1-12 Panjnad Barrage

Off-takes
Irrigation Canals CCA( Link Canals
Design
000,
Length Length Flood Design Disch.
Acres
Year between between Disch. Disch. Cap. Length
Length (Canal Miles) )
of Abutments Abutments Cap. Cap. (000, (Canal
Const. (feet) (feet) (000, Cs) Name (000, Cs) main Branch disty total Name Cs) Miles)
Punjna 1463.
1932 3400 2820 700 d 10.4 57.2 119.2 9 1640.3 1355
Abbasi
a 1.3 25.7 142.7 168.4 154

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1.3.2.10 Balloki Barrage

Figure 1-13 Balloki Barrage

Off-takes
Irrigation Canals CCA( Link Canals
Design
000,
Length Length Flood Design Disch.
Acres
Year between between Disch. Disch. Cap. Length
Length (Canal Miles) )
of Abutments Abutments Cap. Cap. (000, (Canal
Const. (feet) (feet) (000, Cs) Name (000, Cs) main Branch disty total Name Cs) Miles)
1375.
1913 1647 1400 225 LBDC 9.2 129.9 16.2 9 1522.0 1670 BSL 15 53

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1.3.2.11 Sidhnai Barrage

Figure 1-14 Sidhnai Barrage

Off-takes
Irrigation Canals CCA( Link Canals
Design
000,
Length Length Flood Design Disch.
Acres
Year between between Disch. Disch. Cap. Length
Length (Canal Miles) )
of Abutments Abutments Cap. Cap. (000, (Canal
Const. (feet) (feet) (000, Cs) Name (000, Cs) main Branch disty total Name Cs) Miles)
1006.
1887 71 600 150 Sidhnai 4 36.4 102.7 1 1145.2 1017 SMB 10.1 62

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1.3.2.12 Sulemanki Barrage

Figure 1-15 Sulemanki Barrage

Off-takes

Irrigation Canals CCA( Link Canals

Design
000,
Length Length Flood Design Disch.
Acres
Year between between Disch. Disch. Cap. Length
Length (Canal Miles) )
of Abutments Abutments Cap. Cap. (000, (Canal
Const. (feet) (feet) (000, Cs) Name (000, Cs) main Branch disty total Name Cs) Miles)
E.Sadiq
1926 2223 1920 325 ia 5.8 49.0 82.6 771.4 903.0 1052
FORD
WAH 3.4 9.2 86.5 410.5 506.2 506.2
Pakpatt
an 5.2 183.1 81.5 878.6 878.6 11432

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1.3.2.13 Islam Barrage

Figure 1-16 Islam Barrage

Off-takes
Irrigation Canals CCA( Link Canals
Design
000,
Length Length Flood Design Disch.
Acres
Year between between Disch. Disch. Cap. Length
Length (Canal Miles) )
of Abutments Abutments Cap. Cap. (000, (Canal
Const. (feet) (feet) (000, Cs) Name (000, Cs) main Branch disty total Name Cs) Miles)
Qaimp
1927 1670 1401 300 ur 0.5 33.0 28.8 921.4 983.2 421
Mailsi 4.9 615
Bahaw
al 4.4 17.9 89.1 569.0 676.0 730

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1.3.3 Link Canals

 Link canals are used to divert water from one river to another. There are 12 link canals
for Indus Basin Irrigation System. Detail is given below:
 Chashma-Jhelum link canal joins the Jhelum and Indus River.
 Tauns-Punjnad link canal takes off from Taunsa on the Indus and transfer water from the
Indus to the Chenab.
 Marala-Ravi link canal links Chenab and Ravi.
 Upper Chenab-Ravi link canal links Chenab with Ravi.
 Rasul-Qadirabad link canal link between Jhelum and Chenab.
 Qadirabad-Balloki link canal transfer water from Chenab to Ravi.
 Balloki-Sulemanki link canal connect Ravi with Sutlej.
 Trimmu-Sidhnai link canal transfer water from Chenab via Trimmu barrage to Ravi.
 Sidhnai-Mailsi link canal originates from River Ravi and joins Sutlej Ravi at Mailsi.
 Mailsi-Bahawal link canal originates from Mailsi and supplies water to Bahawal canal.
 Abasia link canal originates from River Chenab at Panjnad barrage.
 Bambanwala, Ravi and Bedian link canal, three rivers are linked Chenab, Ravi and
Sutlej.

1.4 DISTRIBUTION OF WATER AND AREA

 About 77.4% of the total irrigated area of Pakistan falls in Punjab.
 2.8% area falls in KPK and 19.8% in Sindh and Baluchistan.
 Based on the statistics of the last 10 years, the area irrigated by canals has increased
slowly by an aggregate of 6% but its share in irrigated area has remained constant due to
the continuous increase in the number of tube wells which now irrigate 20% more area
than 10 years ago.

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1.4.1 Punjab
 The public irrigation infrastructure in the Punjab consists of 13 barrages, 12 link canals
and 23 major canal systems over an aggregate length of 34,500 km.
 The whole irrigation infrastructure lies within the Indus Basin System.
 It serves an area of 8.58 million hectares.
 In addition, there are 135 surface drainage systems including over 670 drains, with an
aggregate length of about 6,600 km, which drain an area of about 5.79 million hectares,
within the 23 canal commands.

1.4.2 Sindh
 Sindh has 14 publicly owned irrigation systems, which receive
 water from three barrages across the River Indus.
 These systems, with an aggregate length of 18,000 km of canals, serve an area of about
5.38 million hectares.
 There are 13 existing surface drainage systems in Sindh, which serve a total area of over
3.5 million hectares and have an aggregate length of about 4,800 km.
 New drains are also being constructed in the province.

1.4.3 KPK
 KPK has five publicly owned irrigation systems in the Indus Basin, which serve a total
area of 0.34 million hectares.
 These systems receive water from two headworks across River Swat and Warsak Dam.
 In addition, there are six other canal systems, which serve a total of 0.13 million hectares
of land.
 KPK has over 200 canals called `civil canals`, which are community or privately owned.
 These irrigate an aggregate area of 0.83 million hectares. There are four surface drainage
systems in KPK comprising of 456 drains.
 These serve a total area of 0.37 million hectares.

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1.4.4 Balochistan
 Balochistan has three canal systems, which receive water from the Indus Basin System
through Guddu Barrage and Sukkur Barrage, located in Sindh.
 These canal systems serve a total area of 0.33 million hectares.
 One of these, the Pat Feeder Canal System, has been improved recently.
 In addition, there are 431 independent publicly owned small irrigation schemes, which
serve 0.14 million hectares.
 There are a few privately owned small irrigation schemes too.

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2 GRAVITY FLOW IRRIGATION SCHEME

2.1 IRRIGATION SYSTEM
Irrigation is the application of controlled amounts of water to plants at needed intervals.
Irrigation helps to grow agricultural crops, maintain landscapes, and revegetate disturbed
soils in dry areas and during periods of less than average rainfall. Irrigation also has other
uses in crop production, including frost protection, suppressing weed growth in grain fields
and preventing soil consolidation. In contrast, agriculture that relies only on direct rainfall is
referred to as rain-fed.

Irrigation systems are also used for cooling livestock, dust suppression, disposal of sewage,
and in mining. Irrigation is often studied together with drainage, which is the removal of
surface and sub-surface water from a given area.

Irrigation has been a central feature of agriculture for over 5,000 years and is the product of
many cultures. Historically, it was the basis for economies and societies across the globe,
from Asia to the Southwestern United States.

2.2 WATER RESOURCES FOR IRRIGATION

Water for Irrigation is derived from following three main sources:

2.2.1 Rainfall Rainfall

 Rainfall can directly help irrigation by precipitation occurring over the crop area or
indirectly by adding its runoff to the rivers.
 The runoff thus generated is then stored by Barrage/ Dam or it will infiltrate and may
replenish the underground Reservoir.

2.2.2 Surface Water

 Pakistan’s rivers carry the melting snow and rains from the Northern hills down to the
plain where they can be used for irrigation. From mid March to mid-July (when the
monsoon breaks) the river discharges derive mainly from melting snow. From mid-July
to September rain water adds to the volume

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 The various rivers have individual characteristics, as indicated in figure. All the rivers
rise in July or August, but from November to February the discharge is very low, (10
percent of the summer discharge).
 The entire Culturable Command Area (CCA) of the Indus plain is 33 million acres, which
requires a perennial supply of 202 MAF to develop an irrigation intensity of about 120%.
 The total mean Annual River Discharge amounts to 140 MAF out of this, about 42 MAF
is Discharged into the sea, some is lost in evaporation, and some is lost through
Infiltration to Ground water Reservoir.

2.2.3 Usable Groundwater

 After rainfall and surface water, Ground water is the most important water source of
irrigation. In hilly areas, this is available in the form of springs, artesian wells, etc., may
be the only water source.
 In very dry and sandy areas where surface water is unavailable and rainfall is sudden and
untimely groundwater may be the only source available. In such areas, groundwater is
tapped by infiltration galleries or by underground tunnels intercepting the Ground water
table.
 In areas where a perennial river system flows through alluvium, the ground water supply
will be taped in the form of open wells or Tube wells.
 Ground water quality may be a problem in some areas and detailed investigations are
needed before ground water resources can be developed fully.
 Ground water is generally inferior to surface water, as it often contains a large amount of
salt which makes it unsuitable for the purpose of irrigation.

2.3 QUALITY OF WATER

Rainfall occurring directly on the crop area offers the purest water. Surface water is the next
best. However, surface water in rivers or storage reservoirs may pick up certain salts while
flowing over the land tracts containing the salts.

The problem of water quality is more acute in the case of Ground water. Ground water
reservoir are built up as a result of seepage from surface water or rainfall, and the percolating
water collects soluble salts from the various formations as it passes through.

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2.3.1 Methods of Indicating Quality

 By electrical conductivity (EC)
 Concentration of cation or anions by weight
 Parts per million (PPM)

2.4 Quality of Water in the Indus Plain Surface Water

 River water contains soluble salts, the contents of which vary for each river depending on
its catchments area, its source of supply and the season of the year.
 Salt content is higher in winter when the river volume is at its lowest. Whereas salt
content is lowest in summer when river discharge is high due to the monsoon.
 Salt content increases downstream.
 The salt content of rivers in Pakistan, irrespective of time and place is low enough for the
water to be used for irrigation.

2.5 TYPE OF IRRIGATION

There are two main types of irrigation

i) Flow Irrigation
ii) Lift Irrigation

2.5.1 Flow Irrigation

he irrigation in which the water flows under gravity from the source to the field is known as
gravity flow irrigation.

Due to gravity water flows from higher areas to the lower areas. After which it is distributed
in the fields. Silt in the canal water has a fertilizing agent. The whole canal irrigation in our
country is gravity irrigation. The gravity flow irrigation is cheaper and quality of water is
also good due to presence of soil content.

2.5.2 Lift Irrigation

Lift irrigation is a method of irrigation in which water is not transported by natural flow, but
is lifted with pumps or surge pools etc.

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2.6 METHODS OF IRRIGATION WATER DISTRIBUTION /

APPLICATION
As there is shortage of Irrigation Water availability, therefore the available resource is being
used in the most efficient and effective manner. The following economical water use
methods are commonly applied in the field. However, each method is sites specific
depending upon the controlling of command area as well as the soil and temperature
characteristic.

 Surface Irrigation
 Sprinkler Irrigation
 Sub Surface Irrigation

2.6.1 Surface Irrigation Method

2.6.1.1 Furrow Method
In this method, narrow channels or “furrows” are dug at regular intervals. Water from the
main supply is allowed into enter these small channels or furrows (figure below).

Water from the furrows infiltrates into the soil and spreads laterally to saturate the root zone
of the crops. It is suitable for row crops like potatoes, sugarcane, tobacco, maize, groundnut,
cotton, etc.

2.6.1.2 Contour Farming

Contour farming is practiced in hilly areas with falling contour. The land is divided into
series of horizontal strips called terraces as shown in the figure.

Small bunds are constructed at the end of each terrace to hold water upto required height.
Contour farming besides producing crop yields, helps in soil conservation.

In this method when the strips are flooded with water, surplus water is allowed to enter the
waste channel and allowed to discharge in the water downstream.

2.6.1.3 Flooding Method

This method is further classified as under;

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 Free Flooding
 Basin Flooding
 Check Flooding

Free Flooding

With the help of field channel, agricultural land is divided into small strips.

As shown in the figure each tree (sometimes a group of trees) is enclosed by circular channel
which is called basin. Basins are connected to small field ditches.

Ditches are fed from the main supply channel. When the basins are flooded, the supply is
stopped. Portable pipes or large hoses may also be used in place of ditches to flood the basin.

Basin Flooding

This method is used frequently to irrigate the orchards. It is a special type of check flooding
method.

Check Flooding
In check flooding the crop area is divided into some plots which are relatively leveled by
bunds. Water from field channel is allowed to enter to each plot or check basin and the plots
are flooded to the required depth.
2.6.1.4 Contour Laterals
In steeper terrain, this method is useful. Small contour laterals are constructed to divert water
towards the sloping areas as shown figure below
Laterals are constructed along the falling contour. Contour intervals between two contour
laterals depends on amount required by the crops grown between two contour laterals.
2.6.2 Sprinkler Irrigation Method
In this method, water is applied to the crop in the form of sprinkle or spray with the
“combination of pump, main pipe, sub main pipe, lateral, riser, nozzle, etc”. It is kind of
artificial rainfall and therefore, it is very fruitful for crops grown in a farm.
2.6.3 Sub Surface Irrigation (Drip or Trickle Irrigation)
Sprinkler irrigation is not suitable in the region of high temperature, high wind velocity and
low humidity due to excessive loss by evaporation. In such regions drip or trickle irrigation is
most suitable.

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This method consists of carrying the irrigation water through pipe and water is allowed to
drip or trickle in the root zone of the crops under low pressure.
Two different pipes are used in this method. A perforated plastic pipe is laid along the
ground at the base of a row of crops or plants. The perforations are designed to emit a trickle
(about 5 litres/h) and spaced to produce a wetted strip along the crop row.
In the second system, irrigation water is conveyed through a large feeder pipe below the
ground and is allowed to drip at the root zone of the crop slowly through nozzle or orifice
practically at low pressure. Thus root zone is kept constantly wet.
2.7 CROP WATER REQUIREMENT (CWR)
It is the total amount of water required by the crop in a given period of time for normal
growth, under field conditions.

2.8 FACTORS AFFECTING CROP WATER REQUIREMENTS

2.8.1 Water Table
Depending upon position of water table nearer to Ground Surface or much below, water
requirement may be less or more, respectively.

2.8.2 Climate
As the evaporation loss is more in hot climate, therefore, water requirement will be more and
in cold climate water requirement will be less.

2.8.3 Type of Soil

If soil is porous (i.e. sandy) water percolates quickly and retention of water is less, therefore,
water requirement is more. But in clayey soil, water requirement is less.

2.8.4 Method of Ploughing

In deep ploughing, soil can retain water for a longer period and water requirement is less.

2.8.5 Intensity of Irrigation

Intensity of irrigation means the ratio of area under cultivation to the total culture able area.
If this intensity is higher, more area is under cultivation, hence water requirement is more.

2.8.6 Ground slope

In steep ground slope water flows down quickly, finds little time to absorb required amount
of water, hence, water requirement is more. For flat slope, water flows slowly, finds enough
time absorption, hence, water requirement is less.

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2.9 EFFECTIVE PRECIPITATION(ER)

It is that part of total precipitation which is used by crop as soil water reserve.

2.10 GROSS IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF CROPS (IRG)

It refers to the amount of water applied to the field from the start of land preparation to
harvest of the crop to gather with the water lost through distributaries, field channel sand
during water application to the crop field.

2.11 GROUND WATER CONTRIBUTION FOR CROP USE (∆GW)

It refers to the water used by crops due to capillary rise in case of shallow water tables.

2.12 SOIL WATER CONTRIBUTION FOR CROP USE (∆SW)

It refers to the difference in moisture content at the time of sowing and harvesting of the
crops that may be positive or negative.

2.13 NET IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS

It refers to the amount of water needed to replenish/fill soil moisture deficit in the crop field.

2.14 CONSUMPTIVE USE (CU)

It is the amount of water required by a crop for its vegetated growth to evapotranspiration
and building of plant tissues plus evaporation from soils and intercepted precipitation.

2.15 CONSUMPTIVE USE (CU)

It is the amount of water required by a crop for its vegetated growth to evapotranspiration
and building of plant tissues plus evaporation from soils and intercepted precipitation.

2.16 PEAK PERIOD CONSUMPTIVE USE

It is the average daily consumptive use during a few days (6 to 10 days) of highest
consumptive use in a season.

2.17 SEASONAL CONSUMPTIVE USE

It is the amount of water consumptively used by crops during the entire cropping
season/period.

It is used to evaluate and decide the seasonal water supply to a command area of an irrigation
project.

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2.17.1 Rabi Season

(October to March):

Crop Consumptive
Use (cm)
37
Wheat Gram 30
Barley 30
Potato 60-90
Sugar cane 90
Fodder 40
Oil seed 45
Berseem 70

2.17.2 Kharif Season

( April to September )

Crop Consumptive
Use (cm)
25-40
Cotton 45
Maize 125-150
Rice 90
Sugar Cane
2.18 EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
It is defined as the water transpired by crop plants and the water evaporated from the soil in
the crop field and intercepted precipitation by areal parts of plants in any specified time
period.

2.19 ACTUAL CROP EVAPOTRANSPIRATION ( ETC )

It is the rate of evapotranspiration by a particular crop in a given period under prevailing soil
water and atmospheric conditions.

2.19.1 Climatic factors

Precipitation, with greater frequency and amount of rainfall, ET becomes higher.

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2.19.2 Solar radiations

it supplies energy for ET processes. With increasing day length or solar radiation, ET
becomes more.

2.19.3 Temperature
Temperature of plant and soil rises because of more amount of solar radiation received from
the sun and consequently increases ET.

2.19.4 Wind speed

ET from soil surface and plants occurs at a higher rate on a windy day. The moist air in the
immediate vicinity of a moist soil or leaf surface is swept away by wind and the dry air
occupies the space.

2.19.5 Relative humidity

ET varies inversely with the atmospheric humidity.

2.20 CROP COEFFICIENT

It is the ratio b/w the actual crop evapotranspiration to the reference crop evapotranspiration.

Kc = ETc / ETo

2.21 GRAVITATIONAL MOISTURE

When the water falls over the ground, a part of it gets absorbed in the root zone, and the rest
flows downwards under the action of gravity, and is called as gravitational moisture.

2.22 FIELD CAPACITY

Immediately after the rain or irrigation water application, when all the gravity water has
drained down, a certain amount of water is retained on the surface of soil grains by molecular
attraction and by loose chemical bonds (adsorption). This water cannot be drained under the
action of gravity and is called the field capacity.

2.23 S O IL W A T E R / M O I S T U R E A N D F IE L D C A P A C I T
Y
Fields capacity is further divided into two types:

2.23.1 Capillary moisture

It is that moisture which is attached to the soil molecules by surface tension against
gravitational forces and which can be extracted by crop through capillarity.

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2.23.2 Hygroscopic moisture

It is that moisture which is attached to the soil molecules by loose chemical bond and it is not
available to the plants for use (adsorption).

2.23.3 Permanent wilting point

It is moisture content at which plant can no longer extract sufficient water for its growth and
wilts up.

2.23.4 Available moisture

It is the difference in moisture content between field capacity and permanent wilting point.

2.24 W A T ER A V A IL A BI L I T Y
2.24.1 Crop Period:
It is the time normally in days that a crop takes from the instance of its sowing to harvesting.

Base period:

It is the time between first watering of crops at the time of its sowing and the last watering of
crops before harvesting

2.24.2 Delta of crops

Total depth of water required by the crop in unit area during base period. In other words it is
the total depth of water required for maturing the crop.

Volume of water required by the crop = Delta x Area

or

Delta = Volume (acre-ft) / Area (acres)

2.24.3 Duty of irrigation water

It is defined as the no. of hectares (acres) of land irrigated for full growth of a given crop by
supply of 1 m3/sec (1 ft3/sec) of water continuously during the entire base period.

2.24.4 Full Supply Factor/(Duty)

The term duty is only used for existing or running projects, but in a proposed project it is
known as full supply factor.

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2.24.5 Intensity of Irrigation

Percentage of culturable area irrigated during a base period or annually

2.24.6 Cropping Intensity/cultivation intensity

It is to the %age of area of a particular crop with respect to culturable command area

2.24.7 Cropping Pattern

It means how many crops and how much area for a crop is being cultivated.

2.24.8 Water Allowance

It is the discharge in cusec required to irrigate 1000 Acres of an area and is expressed in
cusec/1000 acres ( orin cumec/100 ha) at outlet head, distributory head or main canal head

2.24.9 Water Conveyance Efficiency

It is the ratio of the water delivered to the farmer by conveyance system to the water
introduced into the canal at source.

2.24.10 Gross Command Area (GCA)

is the total amount of area which needs to be irrigated. It also includes the area which cannot
be cultivated e.g., villages, roads, utility etc.

2.24.11 Culturable Command Area (CCA)

is the effective area which is culturable or the area that is cultivated out of gross command
area.

2.24.12 Non-Culturable Command Area (NCCA)

It is the area which is not cultivated.

2.25 CANAL
An artificial waterway constructed to allow the passage of boats or ships inland or to convey
water for irrigation.

The conveyance and distribution systems consist of canals transporting the water through the
whole irrigation system. Canal structures are required for the control and measurement of the
water flow. The flow of irrigation water in the canals must always be under control. For this
purpose, canal structures are required. Canal help regulate the flow and deliver the correct
amount of water to the different branches of the system and onward to the irrigated fields.

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2.26 CLASSIFICATION OF CANALS ON THE BASIS OF DISCHARGE

ARE AS FOLLOWS
 Main canal
 Branch canal
 Distributary canal
 Water courses/Feeder channels.

2.26.1 Main Canals

Canals having discharge greater than 10 cumecs are called as main canals. A main canal
carries discharge directly from river. It carries large amount of water and cannot be used for
direct irrigation. Main canal supplies water to the branch canals.

2.26.2 Branch Canals

Canals having discharge in the range of 5-10 cumecs. Branch canals also do not carry out
direct irrigation but sometimes direct outlets are provided. Branch canals are actually the
feeders for major and minor distributaries.

2.26.3 Distributary canals

Canals having discharge 0.25-3 cumecs are called Distributary canal. They are further
divided into two types:

 Major Distributary.
 Minor Distributary.

Field Channels (Water Courses)

These are the small channels which ultimately feed water to the irrigation fields. Discharge <
0.25 cumecs. Depending upon the extent of irrigation, a field channel may take off from a
major distributary or minor. Sometimes, it may even take off water from the branch canal for
the field situated very near to the branch canal.

2.27 THERE ARE FOUR MAIN TYPES OF CANALS IN PAKISTAN

 Perennial Canals
 Non-Perennial Canals
 Inundation Canals
 Link Canal
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