Chapter

p 4
Aqueous Reactions and
Solution Stoichiometry

Aqueous Reactions
• Aqueous solutions – solutions that
have water as the dissolving
medium

• Types of Aqueous Reactions

– Precipitation Reactions
– Acid-Base Reactions
– Oxidation Reduction Reactions

Acids and Bases

• Arrhenius defined these species:
Acid – produces H+ ions in water solution
Base – produces OH- ions in water solution

• Bronsted-Lowry
Bronsted Lowry Definition
Acid - proton donor
Base – proton acceptor

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 Acids
• Acids are found in industrial, household
environments and in our bodies.
– What are some examples?

• Properties
– Have a sour taste an affect color of organic
dyes known as acid base indicators (turn
litmus paper pink.)

– Acids – substances that ionize in aqueous

solutions to form H+ ions

HCl(aq) Æ H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

Actually: HCl(aq) + H2O(l) Æ H3O+(aq) + Cl-

Polyprotic Acids
• Acids can form different numbers of H+
ions per molecule
– Monoprotic – produce 1 H+ ion per acid
molecule
• Ex. HCl,, HNO3
– Diprotic - produce 2 H+ ions per acid
molecule
• Ex. H2SO4
– Triprotic - produce 3 H+ ions per acid
molecule
• Ex. H3PO4

Sulfuric Acid
• H2SO4 is a strong electrolyte, but only
the first ionization is complete.

– 1st ionization: H2SO4(aq) Æ H+(aq) + HSO4-

(aq)
– 2nd ionization: HSO4-(aq) ' H+(aq) + SO42-
(aq)

• The aqueous solution contains H+,

HSO4-, and SO42- ions.

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 Bases
• Bases are found in industrial,
household environments and in
our bodies.
– What are some examples?

• Properties
– Bases have a bitter taste and turn
litmus paper blue.

Strong Acids & Bases

• Strong acid – dissociates completely
forming H+ ions and anions

• Strong base – completely ionized to OH-

ions and cations

Strong electrolytes!

Weak Acids & Bases

• Weak acid – only partially dissociated to
H+ ions in water, they are molecules
containing an ionizable hydrogen atom
HB (aq) H+ (aq) + B- (aq)

• Weak base – only partially dissociated

to form OH- ions in water
NH3 (aq) + H2O NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

Weak electrolytes!

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 Neutralization Reaction
Definition - generally, when solutions of
an acid and a base are combined, the
products are a salt and water.

HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) ⎯→

→ NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

Salt formed is an ionic compound formed from

the cation of the base and the anion of the
acid.

Neutralization Reaction
• Molecular equation:
Mg(OH)2(s) + 2HCl(aq) Æ MgCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
• Ionic equation:
– Mg(OH)2(s) + 2H+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) Æ Mg2+(aq) + 2Cl-
(aq) + 2H2O(l)
• Net Ionic equation:
– Mg(OH)2(s) + 2H+(aq) Æ Mg2+(aq) + 2H2O(l)

HCl MgCl2

Gas-Forming Acid-Base Rxns

• Some bases other than OH- (S2-, CO32-)
react with acids to form gases that have
low solubility in H2O.

• Carbonates & bicarbonates react with

acids to form CO2 gas and are used as
neutralizers.
CaCO3 (s) + HCl (aq) ⎯→CaCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
NaHCO3 (aq) + HBr (aq) ⎯→NaBr (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
SrSO3 (s) + 2 HI (aq) ⎯→SrI2 (aq) + SO2 (g) + H2O (l)
2H+(aq) + S2-(aq) Æ H2S(g)

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 Antacids
CaCO3 (s) + HCl (aq) ⎯→CaCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

CaCO3 FIZZ: CO2 gas release

Alka-Seltzer NaHCO3
Rolaids NaAl(OH)2CO3

Molarity
• Two solutions can contain the same
compounds but be quite different
because the proportions of those
compounds are different.
• M
Molarity
l it is
i one way to
t measure th
the
concentration of a solution.

moles of solute
Molarity (M) =
volume of solution in liters

Concentrations
• Concentration – the amount of
solute dissolved in a given quantity
of solution.

• The greater the amount of solute,

the more concentrated the
solution.

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 Dilutions
• Solutions made in a concentrated
form (called stock solutions) are
often diluted.
Mc x Vc = Md x Vd

We can use other units for volume

in this equation.

Example
The bottle labeled “concentrated HCl” in
the lab contains 12.0 mol of HCl per liter of
solution, so [HCl] = 12.0 M.

A. Find the number of moles of HCl in 25

A 25.0
0
mL of the solution
B. What volume of 12.0 M HCl is needed to
obtain 1.00 mol of HCl?

Example
What is the concentration of a
solution of NaCl that was prepared
by dissolving 158.43 g NaCl in 1.0
L of water?

What if the same mass of NaCl

was prepared in 0.50 L of water?

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 Example
Find the number of grams of Na2SO4 that
are needed to make 0.525 L of 0.350 M
Na2SO4.

Using Molarities in
Stoichiometric Calculations

Titrations

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 Titrations
• To determine the concentration of a solute
in solution, chemists use titrations.

• Titrations involve combining a solution with

a reagent of known concentration
(standard).
(standard)

• Can do acid-base, precipitation, and redox

reactions this way.

• We use an indicator to indicate the

endpoint of the reaction.

Indicators

Indicator: phenolphthalein

Example
Tums antacids contain calcium carbonate
as the active ingredient. Determine the
percentage calcium carbonate in a Tums
tablet that weighs 0.542 g and is titrated
with 38.5 mL of 0.200 M hydrochloric acid.

CaCO3 (s) + 2H+ (aq) Æ Ca2+ (aq) + CO2(g) + H2O

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 Aqueous Solutions
• Definitions
– Homogenous Solution
– Solute
– Solvent

• Electrolytic Properties
– Electrolyte – a substance in an
aqueous solution that contains ions
– Nonelectrolyte – substance that does
not form ions in solution

Acid Base Classification

Ionic? Æ Yes, strong electrolyte.
Molecular?
Is it an acid?
Yes. A strong acid? Yes, then Æ strong electrolyte.
No, then Æ weak electrolyte.
No. A weak base (NH3)? Yes, then Æ weak electrolyte.
All otherÆ nonelectrolyte

Electrolytic Strength
• Strong electrolytes – solutes that exist
in solution completely or nearly
completely as ions
– Ex. Strong acids, strong bases, soluble ionic
salts

• Weak electrolytes – solutes that exist in

solution in the form of molecules with
only a fraction as ions
– molecules

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 Writing Equations
• Chemical Equations
– Molecular equation lists the reactants and
products in their molecular form.
AgNO3 (aq) + KCl (aq) ⎯→ AgCl (s) + KNO3 (aq)

– Ionic equation all strong electrolytes

(strong acids, strong bases, and soluble
ionic salts) are dissociated into their ions.
Ag+ (aq) + NO3- (aq) + K+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) ⎯→ AgCl (s) + K+ (aq) + NO3- (aq)

Exchange Reactions
• Metathesis (exchange) comes from a
Greek word that means “to transpose”

• It appears the ions in the reactant

compounds exchange
exchange, or transpose,
transpose
ions

AgNO3 (aq) + KCl (aq) ⎯→ AgCl (s) + KNO3 (aq)

Writing Net Ionic Equations

1. Write a balanced molecular equation.

2. Dissociate all strong electrolytes.

3. Cross out anything

y g that remains unchangedg
from the left side to the right side of the
equation (spectator ions).

4. Write the net ionic equation with the species

that remain.

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 Net Ionic Equations
Molecular Equation:
AgNO3 (aq) + KCl (aq) ⎯→ AgCl (s) + KNO3 (aq)

Ionic Equation:
g+ ((aq)
Ag q) + NO3- ((aq)
q) + K+ ((aq) q) ⎯→ AgCl
q) + Cl- ((aq) g ((s)) + K+ ((aq)
q) + NO3- ((aq
q)

Spectator Ions:
Ag+ (aq) + NO3- (aq) + K+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) ⎯→ AgCl (s) + K+ (aq) + NO3- (aq)

Net Ionic Equation:

Ag+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) ⎯→ AgCl (s)

Neutralization Rxns – Ionic Eqns

• They are all strong electrolytes

– Molecular equation
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) ⎯→ NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

– Ionic eqn: H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + Na+(aq) +

OH-(aq) Æ Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + H2O(l)

– Net ionic eqn: H+(aq) + OH-(aq) Æ

H2O(l)

Examples
• Write a net ionic equation for
each of the following reactions in
dilute water solution
a. Nitrous acid with sodium hydroxide
b. Hydrobromic acid with potassium
hydroxide

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 Precipitation Reactions
• Definition – formation of an
insoluble solid when two
electrolyte solutions are mixed.

• Precipitate-solid that forms when

two solutions are mixed.

Solubility Rules

Oxidation Reduction Reactions

• Definition – exchange of electrons
between 2 species (ex. Rusting,
corrosion)

• Oxidation – lose electrons

• Reduction – gain electrons

LEO the lion goes GER!

Lose Electron Oxidize Gain Electron Reduce

OILRIG

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 Redox Reactions
Zn (s) + 2H+ (aq) Æ Zn2+ (aq) + H2 (g)

Half Reactions:

Oxidation: Zn ((s)) Æ Zn2+ ((aq)

q) + 2e-

Reduction: 2H+ (aq) + 2e- Æ H2 (g)

- Oxidation and reduction must occur together

- No net change in the number of electrons in a
redox reaction

More terms
Zn (s) + 2H+ (aq) Æ Zn2+ (aq) + H2 (g)

Oxidation: Zn (s) Æ Zn2+ (aq) + 2e-

Reduction: 2H+ (aq) + 2e- Æ H2 (g)

Reducing agent – species that donates the

electrons (Zn)
Oxidizing agent – species that accepts the
electrons (H+)

Oxidation Numbers
• Definition – number that is assigned to
an element in a molecule or ion to
reflect, qualitatively its state of
oxidation

• Ex. Na+ oxidation number = +1

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 Oxidation Rules
1. Oxidation number of an element in elementary
substance is zero (ex. Cl2)

2. Oxidation number of an element in a monatomic ion is

equal to the charge of that ion (ex. Al2O3)

3. Nonmetals usually have negative oxidation numbers.

(ex. Hydrogen is −1 when bonded to a metal, +1
when bonded to a nonmetal, oxygen is -2 in bioth
ionic and molecular forms (except peroxides), fluorine
is -1 in all compounds.)

4. The sum of oxidation numbers in a neutral species is

zero. The sum of the oxidation numbers in a
polyatomic ion is the charge on the ion.

Example
What is the oxidation number of
manganese in MnO4-?

Give the oxidation number of each

atom in:
a. HSO4-
b. N2H4
What is the oxidation number of
sulfur in Na2SO4?

Displacement Reactions
• In displacement reactions, ions oxidize
an element.
• The ions, then, are reduced.

In this reaction, silver ions oxidize copper

pp
metal.

Cu (s) + 2 Ag+ (aq) ⎯→ Cu2+ (aq) + 2 Ag (s)

Cu2+ (aq) + 2 Ag (s) ⎯→ Cu (s) + 2 Ag+ (aq)
Pattern:
A + BX Æ AX + B

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 Activity Series

Easiest to oxidize

Used in jewelry

Hardest to oxidize

Activity
• The elements at the top are
Groups 1A & 2A. They are most
easily oxidized and react most
readily to form compounds Æ
active metals

• The metals at the bottom (Groups

8B & 1B) are very stable and form
compounds less readily Æ noble
metals

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