Chapter 16 Introduction to Underground Excavation by Drilling and Blasting 16.1 Introduction 16.1.1 Working Cycle of Excavation by D & B Drilling and blasting are the most common methods for tunneling and underground excavation, The process begins with holes of predetermined diameter, depth, and spacing being drilled into the rock. Explosives are placed in the holes, and when detonated, the energy generated by the explosive reaction fractures the rock, ‘The drilling and blasting cycle consist of: ‘* Drilling—arilling holes in the rock for the placement of explosives, © Charging/loading—insert the explosives in the holes drilled, ‘© Blasting and ventilation—detonation of the explosives and waiting for the dust and gases generated by the blast to clear, © Scaling—removing the loose rock in the crown and sidewalls, ‘© Installing temporary support, and ‘© Loading and transporting blasted rock (muck). ‘The order of the last two may be reversed. Figure 16.1 shows the D & B cycle. 16.1.2 Working Condition Drilling and blasting for underground excavation can be used in soft rocks with low strength, e.g., marl, loam, clay, gypsum, and chalk, to the hardest rocks, such as granite, gneiss, basalt, or quartz. Due to this large range of possible usage, drill and © Metallurgical Industry Press and Springer SciencesBusiness Media Singapore 2017 483, D. Zou, Theory and Technology of Rock Excavation for Civil Engineering OI 10.1007/978-981-10-1989-0_16484 16 Introduction to Underground Excavation by Drilling and Blasting Fig. 16.1 Drilling and blasting cycle for underground excavation, Reproduced from Ref. [5] with the permission from Sandvik & Tamrock blast can be advantageous for very changeable ground conditions (2, 4]. In addition, tunneling by using drill and blast is often preferable to TBM or roadheader tun- neling if, for example, the tunnel is relatively short so that the high investment costs needed for a tunneling machine are not economic, or when the rock hardness is very high so that a high wear of the cutter tools leads to an uneconomic application of the ‘machine. Drilling and blasting are also suitable for these cases that the cross section of the tunnel or cavern changes along the alignment or the cross section has an irregular shape [3]. 16.1.3 Drilling Equipment, Explosives, and Blasting Design The drilling equipment and explosive products and initiation accessories are described in Chaps. 2, 3, and 4. The blasting design of underground excavation of D & B will be discussed in detail in the later chapters.16.2 Excavation Methods for Tunnels and Caverns 485, 16.2 Excavation Methods for Tunnels and Caverns Figure 16.2 shows the drilling equipment for tunnel and cavern blasting. According to the tunnel (Cavern) size, drilling jumbos with one to four booms can be chosen. 16.2.1 Full-Face Excavation ‘The following conditions affect if full-face excavation is carried out: (@) The reach of the drilling jumbos and the platforms used for support works, which limits the height and width to 7 X 11 to 11 X 18 m depending on the plant used (Figs. 2.29, 2.30 for reference); (©) Rock quality that means the area of unsupported roof that can be exposed at any one time; and (©) Limitation on the quantity of explosives discharged in a round given by vibration acceptance criteria. It is normally more economical to excavate full face if conditions permit. Fig. 16.2. Drilling equipment for underground excavation, Reproduced with the permission from Allas Copeo486 16 Introduction to Underground Excavation by Drilling and Blasting 16.2.2 Partial Face Excavation In the case that above conditions cannot be satisfied, the methods of partial face excavation can be used. The partial excavation methods include top heading and benching, pilot heading, and sidewall drift. 16.2.2.1 Top Heading and Benching The most common advance heading method is top heading. The crown is excavated before the bench (Fig. 16.3). The temporary support of the crown with rock bolts and shotcrete gives safe working conditions for the excavation of the lower levels of the tunnel or cavern. Bench excavation is cheap because the large free surfaces allow the use of quarrying principles rather than tunneling technology. Support costs for benching are low because the roof already has been supported, leaving only some wall support to be done. Bench excavation may be done with vertical drillholes as in a quarrying oper- ation, or with horizontal drillholes for using the same drilling jumbo as the top heading, 16.2.2.2 Pilot Heading Another method of partial advance is the pilot heading. A smaller pilot tunnel is driven in the top or center of the designed larger tunnel (Fig. 16.4). The pilot tunnel can be driven a certain distance in advance of the whole size tunnel driving or through the entire length of the designed tunnel first before enlarging it. Under the complex conditions and where the geological information of the ground along the tunnel alignment is insufficient, the pilot tunnel has an important function of investigation. In the weak ground condition, the enlargement of the tunnel can be carry out in stages, e.g., in Fig. 16.4a, When the rock condition is suitable, the enlarging blastholes can be drilled from the pilot tunnel with holes perpendicular to the tunnel axis, e.g., in Fig. 16.4b, However, when overbreak is a problem, it may be more desirable to drillholes parallel to the tunnel axis from the face. 16.2.2.3 Sidewall Drift Under the condition of weak ground with low strength, sidewall drift method is usually used. The side galleries are excavated and supported first. They serve as abutment for the support of the crown, which is subsequently excavated (Figs. 16.5,16.2 Excavation Methods for Tunnels and Caverns 487 = : (2) Top heading. eross and longitudi sections. 1: ealotte, 2 bench (© Bench basing with Horizontal or vertical dil holes Fig. 16.3 Top heading and benching excavation method for tunneling. a, b Reproduced from Ref, [6] with the permission from ©2008 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg) Fig, 16.4 Pilot wunnet method: @ top method, the Pitot ditt figure is the excavation order; b central pilot Blastholes488 16 Introduction to Underground Excavation by Drilling and Blasting Fig. 16.5 Sidewall dit (eproduced from Ret. [6] with the permission from £©2008 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg) 16.6). This type of heading heading excavation [1]. approx. 50 % more expensive and slower than top 16.3 Excavation Methods for Shaft 16.3.1 Shaft Sinking Shaft sinking refers to the method of excavating a vertical or near-vertical tunnel from the top-down, where there is initially no access to the bottom, Shaft Sinking is one of the most difficult of all development methods: Restricted space, gravity, groundwater, and specialized procedures make the task quite formidable. Shaft dimensions are determined by shaft purpose and geological and rock mechanical conditions. Most shafts have a diameter of 5-8 m, with only a few reaching 10 m or more in diameter. Shafts are usually round in shape, but some times, there are rectangular shafts for special purposes. After exploring the geology and groundwater conditions, overburden is removed. If the overburden requires stabilizing, it is typically lined with concrete rings. Once the rock surface has been exposed, it is reinforced and grouted. The collar for the head frame is installed after excavation has progressed a short dis- tance. The head frame includes the hoisting system for the shaft sinking equipment. At this point, the actual shaft sinking begins A sinking cycle includes the following operations: Drilling, Blasting, Mucking and hoisting, Support or shaft lining, and Auxiliary operations — Dewatering, — Ventilation,16.3 Excavation Methods for Shaft 489 — Lighting or illumination, and — Shaft centering, Rock drilling can be carried out either by handheld or machine-mounted rock drills, but in small shafts, there is very limited space for machinery. In modern shaft sinking, the drilling rig is a two to 6 or more-boom drilling jumbos designed specifically for the dimensions of the shaft and sinking platform. Figs. 16.7 and 16.8 show two kinds of shalt drilling equipment. The drill pattem for shaft sinking blast will be discussed in late chapter. (1) Left Fig. 16.7 A small two boom jumbos are drilling blastholes in shaft490 16 Introduction to Underground Excavation by Drilling and Blasting Fig. 16.8 Vertical shaft drill made by Qingtao Grandplan ‘Technology Co. Lid., China ‘The methods for shaft sinking can be divided into three groups: © The full-face sinking (full-bottom) method. ‘The full-face sinking method is used frequently in shaft sinking as it suits either rectangular or round section shafts. © The benching method (half-bottom method). Benching can be used as an alternative to full-bottom shaft sinking when rock conditions do not allow full-face excavation. Benching is an older method that is suitable for square-shaped shafts. Benching is done in halves. While one-half of the cross section is being drilled with a fan and blasted, the lower half serves as a water sump and spoil dump. Work continues downward in alternately lowering benches ig. 16.9) © The spiral method. Spiraling is a variation of the benching method. Excavation spirals downward. This method is suitable for fairly large round- or oval-shaped shafts, or when the {ull bottom is not otherwise possible. Drilling and blasting progress with half of the face at a time. The holes in each half are drilled parallel in the same length, as there always has to be a free face which descends with each position (Fig. 16.10).16.3 Excavation Methods for Shaft 491 o zem™ Ji 3 2 m™N a 3 et 3 3 3 3 ole 2 ey oy op pg sem sem 25rem 0 / “Zz Fig. 16.10 The spiral method (reproduce from Ref. [5] with the permission from Tamrock) 16.3.2 Raise Driving A raise is a vertical excavation proceeding from a lower elevation to a higher elevation, pethaps from one tunnel to another, or from a tunnel to the ground surface. Raises are one of the important structures in many civil and construction projects:492 16 Introduction to Underground Excavation by Drilling and Blasting Hydroelectric projects Water supply, Wastewater shafts, and ‘Tunnel projects, e.g., ventilation, accelerators housings, or access ways. Raise driving is sometimes used in urban tunnel construction to minimize sur- face disruption, Raise driving with drill and blast is classified into two large groups according to the drilling method used, either upward or downward: ‘© Upward drilling by hand drill with the compartment method (raise building), a Jora lift or the Alimak platform. This group of methods is manual raise exca- vation method and a tough and dangerous job. * Downward drilling. Long holes with pilot hole cut, crater cut, “VCR” cut (vertical crater retreat), and the full-face method. These kinds of methods are much safer as the workers do not work under the excavation space directly, but they require high drilling accuracy and good rock condition (relatively integral and stable). 16.3.2.1_ The Two-Compartment Raise Method ‘The two-compartment raise method, which is also called “raise building,” is the oldest method of raise excavation, where the miner builds a timber wall dividing the raise into one open and one rock-filled section. The open section is used by the miner to climb the raise by a ladder attached to the wall. Then, standing on top of the rock-filled section, he drills and charges the round above his head. Manual raising is 100 % human effort. The miner climbs ladders, pulling his rock drill and material to the top of the raise, tied to a rope. He drills the round, charges blastholes lower his equipment, climbs down, and finally triggers the blast. The height of manually excavated raised are normally limited to 50 m, due to the heavy strains which miners are exposed to. Therefore, this method has been mostly replaced by more advanced methods. Figure 16.11 shows the conceptual diagram of the two-compartment raise method 16.3.2.2 Jora Lift Method (Hanging Basket Method) ‘This method can be used for vertical or inclined raises (Fig. 16.12). ‘The main character of this method is the drilling of a pilot hole with a diameter between 75 and 100 mm through which the cable which holds the lift is lowered. The main ‘components are the work platform, the lift basket, the hoisting mechanism, and, in inclined raises, the guide rail. During drilling, the platform can be fixed against the raise sides with some jacks. While drilling around, the parallel holes are drilled around the central hole, which16.3 Excavation Methods for Shaft 493, smpartment raise method (reproduce from Ref, [7] with the permission from Taylor and Francis Book, UK SSS acts as a free face and also an entrance of fresh air, Before blasting, the basket is lowered down in an access specially driven to hold the basket. For each round, it is necessary to remove the basket from the hoisting cable, because, if not, the cable would be damaged during the blasting. The main disadvantage is the pilot hole drilling, as the maximum raise height will depend upon the accuracy of its align- ment. Its practical and economical field of application is between 30 and 100 m. 16.3. Alimak Raise Climber Method Alimak Company (Sweden) introduced this technique in 1957, and even today, it is often used in driving blind raises which have long lengths. It makes it possible to drive very long raises, vertical or inclined, straight or curved, and mostly494 16 Introduction to Underground Excavation by Drilling and Blasting Fig, 16.12. Jora method for vertical and inclined raises, reproduced by permission of Atlas Copco rectangular shape. Air motor-driven raise climbers normally are used in mines with short raises. For longer raises, electric or diesel hydraulic drives are used. The Alimak raise climber is designed entirely in accordance with the instructions of the Swedish Board of Industrial Safety. There are good margins of safety concerning the breaking strength of the material, and the raise climber comprises safety devices and features that practically eliminate the risks of accidents. The drive gear of airdriven climbers is equipped with an air-operated brake which is automatically activated when air for the motors is shut off. There is a safety device which activates automatically at overspeed and a speed-regulated brake for descent by gravity, by which the raise climber can be taken down to the bottom of the raise in case of cutoff of the air supply. The raise climber climbs along a pin rack welded to a guide rail which also comprises pipes for air and water. The guide rail can be extended by using 1- or 2-m (3.2 or 6.4-ft) sections as the driving progresses. Each guide rail section is bolted to the rock wall by special expansion bolts of Alimak design. Men ride up to the face in the cage, traveling comfortably and easily while material is, transported on the platform. There is no danger in climbing up ladders. The men are well protected during ascent and arrive in good condition at the face. The greatest advantages of raise climber systems are flexibility and versatility. The equipment16.3 Excavation Methods for Shaft 495 provides a comfortable working position in vertical as well as inclined raises of any area and length (Fig. 16.13). ‘The Alimak raising method consists of five steps, which together make up a cycle (Fig. 16.14). The five steps are all dependent on the raise climber, whi serves both as a working platform and a means of transport up to the work site. The five steps are as follows: 1, Drilling—drilling is done from a platform on the raise climber. ‘The platform is adapted to fit the size and shape of the raise required. 2. Loading—loading is also done from the platform. Explosive charges are placed in the holes by hand 3. Blasting—before blasting, the raise climber is moved down to the nest for protection against falling rocks. Then, the blast can be triggered from a well-protected spot close by. 4, Ventilation—noxious gases and dust created by the blast are cleared by sprayi a mixture of water and air from the top of the guide rail. Fig. 16.13. Drilling on Alimak platform (reproduced by permission of Atlas Copco.)496 16 Introduction to Underground Excavation by Drilling and Blasting Fig, 16.14 Working cycle of Alimak raise climber method (reproduced by permission of Atlas Copco.) 5. Scaling—scaling is also done from the platform under the protective canopy. The Alimak raising method can be used for any length and inclination raises in a safe working condition. The Alimak method is a relatively inexpensive alternative for construction sites that have a few variable length raises. 16.3.2.4 Long Hole Blasting Method ‘The long hole method is suitable for raises with more than a 45° inclination (sufficient for rock removal). Maximum raise length, normally from 10 to 60 meters, depends on drilling accuracy, hole alignment, and geology. For successful blasting, maximum hole deviation should not exceed 0.25 m (10"). Excavation via the long hole method starts by drilling the blastholes to the total whole length of the raise from the top level and later firing the blasts in stages from the bottom-up with hanging charges. Usually, a relief hole with larger diameter (100-200 mm) is favorable (Fig. 16.15). 16.4 Explosive Charging 16.4.1 Manual Charging ‘When cartridge explosive is used for underground blasting, manual charging is the most common method. Workers use a wooden or plastic stick to push the explosive cartridge, primer cartridge first, into the blasthole one by one and tamp them with the stick (Fig. 16.16). For blasthole stemming, wet newspaper (or cardboard), Hessian bags, and soil are usually used. For better stemming effect, crushed rock stemming (circa 10 mm) in thin plastic sausages is recommended as crushed rock stemming will ‘lock’ in the blasthole due to its angular shape. For the holes which are inclined upward or