SYSTEM

ANALYSIS
AND DESIGN
 Chapter-1

SYSTEM CONCEPT

System Concept
A system is a way of thinking about the organization and their problems. It also involves a
set of techniques that helps in solving the problems.
The term system is derived from the Greek word systema which means an organized
relationship among functioning units or components. A system exists because it is designed
to achieve one or more objectives.

A system is an orderly grouping of the interdependent components linked together

according to a plan to achieve a specific objective. The word component may refer to the
physical parts, managerial steps or a subsystem in a multilevel structure. The components
may be simple or complex, basic or advanced. Each component is a part of the total system
and has to do its share of the work for the system to achieve the intended goal. This
orientation requires an orderly grouping of the components for the design of a successful
system.
The study of the system concept has three basic implications: -
1- System must be design to obtain a predetermined objective.
2- Interrelationship and interdependency must exist among the system components.
3- The objective of the organization as a whole must have a higher priority than the
objective of its subsystem. Another way to view system is as shown in the figure:
 Goal setting is one of the principles which exactly define but the system is supposed
to do.
System boundary defines the components that make of the system. The set of system
component can be changed during the system design. Anything outside the system
boundary is known as the system environment. Things outside the system study can affect
the system behavior. A system can be made of any number of subsystems. Each subsystem
carries out parts of the system function. Subsystems are important because they can help to
handle system complexity and thus improve the understanding of the system. Each
subsystem carries out some parts of the system objective.
Feedback is the identity of monitoring the current output and comparing it to the system
goal.
Feedback uses variation from a system goal to change system behavior.
Monitoring a system checks the e-mail to see if a system is meeting its goal.
Any variation from the goal are then feedback into the system and used to adjust it to
ensure that it meet its goal. To do this it is necessary to monitor the system to see if it is
meeting its goal.

Characteristics of a system
1-Organization: - Organization implies the structure and order. It is an arrangement of
components that helps to achieve the objectives. In the design of a business system for
example: - the hierarchical relationship starting with the president on the top and leading
downward to the workers represents the organization structure. Such an arrangement
portrays a system- subsystem relationship defines the authority structure specifies the
formal communication and formalizes the chain of command.

2- Interaction: - Interaction refers to the manner in which each component function

with other components of the system. In an organization for example: - purchasing must
interact with production, advertising must interact with sale and payroll with personnel. In
a computer system a central processing unit must interact with the input device to solve a
problem. In turn the main memory holds program and data that the arithmetic unit uses for
the computation. The interrelationship between these components enables the computer to
perform.
3- Interdependence: - It means that the parts of the organization or computer system
depend on one another. They are co-ordinate and linked together according to a plan. One
subsystem depends on another subsystem for proper functioning. The output of one
subsystem is the required input for another subsystem. This is called interdependence in
system’s work.
The above figure shows three levels of subsystem. Each of the top inner circles represents
the major subsystem of a production firm. The personal sub system, in turn, may be viewed
as a system that consists of subsystems such as benefits, health and safety, and employment
health and safety key. Personal sub system consists of lower level elements that are
considered vital in personal operation. Each element may be represented by a computer
based package and is a part of human resource data base that provides information or
unemployment, insurance benefits and the like. In short no sub system can function in
isolation because it is dependent on the data (inputs) it receives from the other subsystem to
perform its required task. A decision to computerize an application is initiated by the user,
analyzed and designed by the analyst, programmed and tested by the programmer and done
by the computer operator.
 Task independence in a computer based sub system

4- Integration: - Integration is concerned with how a system is tied together. It is more

than a topic. It is more than sharing a physical part or location. It means that the parts of the
system work together within the system even though each part performs a unique function.
Successful integration will typically produce a good affect and greater total impact than if
each component works separately.
5- Central objective: - The last characteristic of a system is central objective. Objective
may be real or stated. Although the real objective may be the real objective, it is not
uncommon for an organization to state one objective and operates to achieve another. The
important point is that users must know the central objective of a computer application
early in the analyses for successful design and conversion.
 Chapter-2

Elements of a System

Elements of a System
1- Outputs and inputs
2- Processor
3- Control
4- Environment
5- Feedback
6- Boundaries and interface
Outputs and Inputs: - A major objective of a system is to produce an output that has value
to its user. Whatever the nature of the output (goods, services, information) it must be in
line with the expectation of the intended user. Inputs are the elements (material, human,
resources and info) that enter the system for processing. Output is the outcome of the
processing. A system feeds on input to produce output in much the some way that a
business brings in human, financial and material resources to produce goods and services.
It is important to point out that determining the output is a first step in specifying the
nature, amount and regularity of the input needed to operate a system. For example: - in
system analyses the first concern is to determine the user’s requirement of a proposed
computer system. That is specification of the output that the computer is expected to
provide for meeting user’s requirement.
Organization’s environment
 Organization’s environment
Processor: - The processor is an element of a system that involves the actual
transformation of the input into the output. It is the operational component of a system.
Processor may modify the input totally or partially depending on the specification of the
output. Thus means that as the output specification changes so does the processing. In some
cases input is also modified to enable the processor to handle the transformation.
Control: - The control element guides a subsystem. It is a decision making subsystem that
controls a pattern of activities governing input, processing and output. In an organizational
context management as a decision making body controls the inflow, handling and outflow
of the activities that affect the welfare of the business. In a computer system the operating
system and the accompanying software influence the behavior of the system. Output
specification determines what and how much input is needed to keep the system in balance.
In system analysis knowing the attitude of the individual who can control the area
for which a computer is being considered can make a distance between the success and
failure of the installation. Management support is required for securing control and
supporting the objective of the proposed change.
Feedback: - Control in a dynamic system is achieved by feedback. Feedback measures
output against a standard in same form of cybernetic processor that includes
communication and control.
Feedback may be positive or negative, routine or informational. Positive feedback
reinforces the performance of the system. It is routine in the system. Positive feedback
generally provides a controller with the information for action. In system analysis feedback
is important in different ways. During analysis the user may be told that the problems in the
given application verify his or her initial concern and justify the need for change. Another
form of feedback comes after a system is implemented. The user informs the analyst about
the performance of the new installation this feedback often results in enhancement to meet
the user requirements.
Environment: - The environment is the ‘supra system’ with which an organization
operates. It is the source of external elements that influence a system. In fact it often
determines how a style must function.
Boundaries and interface: - A system should be defined by its boundaries that the limits
that identify its components, processes and interrelationship when it interfaces with other
system.
Each system has boundaries that determine its sphere of influence and control. In system
analysis knowledge of a given system is crucial in determining the nature of its interface
with other systems for successful design.

Types of system
Systems have been classified in different ways. Common classifications are following: -
1- Physical or abstract
2- Open or closed
3- “Man made” information system

Physical or abstract system: - Physical systems are tangible entities. They may be static
or dynamic in operation. For example: - The physical parts of the computer system are the
offices, desks, chairs that facilitate operation of the computer. They can be seen or counted.
They are static. In contrast a computer system is a dynamic system. Data, programs, output
and application changes as a user demand or the priority of the information changes.
Abstract systems are conceptual or non physical entities. They may be as straightforward as
formulae of relationship among sets of variable or models; the abstract conceptualization of
physical situation. A model is a representation of a real or planned system. The major
models are: -
1- Schematic model: - A schematic model is a two dimensional chart depicting system
language.
2- Flow system model: - A flow system model shows the flow of the material, energy
and information that hold the system together.
3- Static system model: - This type of model exhibits one pair of relationship such as
activity time or cost quantity.
4- Dynamic system model: - Business organizations are dynamic system. A dynamic
model approximates the type or organization or application that analyst deals with.

Open or closed system: - This classification of system is based on their degree of

independence. An open system has many interfaces with its environment. It permits
interaction across its boundary. It receives input from and delivers output to the outside. An
information system falls into this category since it must adapt to the changing demand of
the user. In contrast a closed system is isolated from environmental influence. In reality a
completely closed system is rare. In system analysis organizations, computers and
applications are invariably open. Dynamic systems influenced by their environment.

Important Characteristics of Open System

1- Input from outside: - Open systems are self adjusting and self regulating. When
functioning properly an open system reaches a steady state or equilibrium.
In a retail firm for example: - A steady state exist when goods are purchased and
sold without being either out of the stock or overstock. An increase in the cost of
the goods forces a comparable increase in prices or decrease in operating cost. This
response wills the firm it’s the steady state.
 2- Entropy: - All dynamic systems tens to run down over time result in entropy or loss
of energy. Open system resist entropy by seeking new inputs or modifying the
processes to return to a steady state.
3- Process, output and cycles: - Open system produce useful output and operate in
cycles and following a continuous flow path.
4- Differentiation: - Open systems have a tendency towards and increasing
specialization of functions and a greater differentiation of their components. In
business roles of peoples and machines tens towards greater specialization and
greater interaction.
5- Equifinality: - The term implies that goals are achieved through differing course of
action and a variety of paths. In more systems there is more stress on goals than on
paths to reach the goals. Understanding system characteristics help analyst to
identify their role and relate their activities to the attainment of the firm’s objective.

Man Made Information System: - An information system is the basis for the interaction
between the user and the analyst. It provides instruction commands and feedback. It
determines a nature of the relationship among decision makers. An information system may
be defined as a set of devices processors and operating system designed around user based
criteria to produce information and communicate it to the user for planning, control and
performance. The major information systems are formal, informal and computer based.
1- Formal Information System: - A formal information system is based on the
organization represented by the organization chart. The chart is the map of position
and their authority relationship indicated by boxes and connected by straight lines.
It is concerned with the pattern of authority, communication and workflow.
Information is formally disseminated in instructions, memos or reports from tap
management to the intended user in the organization. This structure also allows
feedback up the chain command for follow up. Policies are generalization that
specifies what an organization out to do. Policies are translated into directives, rules
and regulations and transmitted to lower level management for implementation. The
output represents employee performance.
Categories of Information: - There are three categories of information related to manage a
level the decision manager make.
The first level is Strategic Information, which relates to long range planning policies that
are of direct interest to upper management. Information such as population growth tens in
financial investment and human resource changes would be off interest to top company
official who are responsible for developing policies and determining long range goals. For
ex: - DSS (decision support system).
The second level of information is Monitorial Information. It is of direct use to middle
management and department head for implementation and control. For example: - sales
analysis cash flow projection and annual financial statement. This information is of use in
short and intermediate range. It is maintained with the aid of MIS (management
information system).
The third information level is Operational Information which is short term; daily
information used operate department on enforce the day to day rules and regulations of the
business operation. For example: - daily employee absence sheet, overdue purchased orders
and current stock available for sale. Operational information is established by DPS (data
processing system).
2- Informal Information System: - Informal information system is an employee based
system designed to meet personal and vocational needs and to help solve work
related problems. It is a useful system because it works within the frame work of
the business and its stated policies. Knowledge about the inner working of the
employee based system is useful during the exploratory face of the analysis.
Employee co-operation and participation are crucial in training users. Since
computer can’t provide reliable information without user staff support, a proper
interface with the informal communication channels could mean the difference the
between the success and the failure of the system.
3- Computer Based Information System: - A third class of the information system
realize on the computer for handling the business applications.
 Management Information System (M I S): - The computer has a significant
impact on the technique used by management to operate the business. The level
of the manager in the organization is also a factor in determining the kind of
information needed to solve a problem. Lower level management needs
detailed internal information to make day to day relatively structured controlled
decisions higher level management. For whom the long range objectives are the
primary concerns requires summarized information from a variety of sources to
attain goals. In either case management action is based on information that is
accurate, complete, concise and timely. MIS has been successful in meeting
these information criteria quickly and responsibly. MIS is a person machine
system and a highly integrated grouping of information processing function
designed to provide management with a comprehensive picture of specific
information of specific operations. It is actually a combination of the
information systems.
Management information must be available early enough to affect a decision.
Operationally MIS should provide for file definition file management and updating
transaction and enquiry processing and one or more databases linked to an
organizational database.
A key element of MIS is the database- A not redundant correction of interrelated
data icons that can be processed through application, programs and available to
many users. Sharing common data means that many programs can use the same
files or records. Information is accessed through a database management system
(DBMS).

The primary users of MIS are middle and top management, operational managers
and support staff. Middle and top management use MIS for preparing forecasts,
special request for analysis, long range plans and periodic reports. Operational
managers use MIS primarily for short range planning and periodic and exception
reports. The support staff finds MIS useful for the special analysis of information
and reports to help management in planning and control.
Decision Support System: - MIS provides limited support to top level management
for decision making. DSS advances the capabilities of MIS. It assists management
in making decisions.
Decision support system stands for –
Decision- Infesises decision making in problem situation.
Support- Requires computer added decision situation enough structure to permit
computer support.
System- Combines the integrated nature of problem solving suggesting a combine
‘man’ , machine and decision involvement.
DSS results from adding external data sources, accounting and statistical models
and interactive query capabilities. The outone is a system designed to serve all
levels of management and top level managements in particular with “what if”
unstructured problem situation.
Harvard Simon described decision making as a three phase continuous process,
model beginning with intelligence and moving forward decision and choice. The
process is invoked by the recognition of a problem. The resulting decision is then
directed at solving problems. The intelligence face of decision making involves the
awareness of a problem. It requires a closer look at the problem and thorough
evaluations of a variable and their relationship. A DSS can provide intelligence
through retrieval and statistical packages. The design face of decision making
focuses on the evaluation of decision alternative. During the space computer based
records or models may be used for decision design. The outputs of the model are
the basic for the choice face of decision making.
 Chapter-3

SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE

Introduction
To understand system development we need to recognize that a candidate system has a life
cycle just like a living system or a new product. System analysis and design are keyed to
the system life cycle. The stages are shown in figure. The analyst must progress from one
stage to another methodically, answering key question and achieving results in each stage.
Recognition of need (initial investigation) -> feasibility studies-> analysis-> design->
program construction and testing-> implementation-> post implementation and
maintenance

1- Recognition of Need: - what is the problem? One must know what the problem is
before it can be solved. The basis for a candidate system is recognition of the need
for improving an information system or a procedure. For example: - a supervisor
may want to investigate the system flow in purchasing or a bank president has been
getting complains about the long lines in the drive in. this need leads to a
preliminary survey or an initial investigation to determine whether an alternative
system can solve the problem.
2- Impetus for System Change: - The idea for change originates in the environment
or from within the firm. Environment based ideas originate from customers,
vendors, government sources and the like. For example: - new unemployment,
competitions, regulations may make it necessary to change the reporting processor
format and contents of various reports as well as file structure. Customers complain
about the delivery of the orders may prompt and investigation of the delivery
 schedule, the experience of truck drivers or the volume of orders to be delivered.
When investigated each of these ideas lead to a problem definition as a first step on
the system life cycle process.

Major Components of Change

3- Feasibility Studies: - Depending on the results of the initial investigation, the

survey is expended to a more detailed feasibility is a test of a system proposal
according to its work ability, impact on the organization, ability to meet user needs
and affective use of resources, the objective of the feasibility study is not to solve
the problem but to acquire a sense of its scope. During the study, the problem
definition is crystallized and aspects of the problem to be included in the system are
 determined. Consequently, cost and benefits are estimated with greater accuracy at
this state. The result of the feasibility study is a formal proposal. This is simply a
report – a formal document detailing the nature and scope of the proposed solution.
The proposal summarizes what is known and what is going to be done. It consists of
the following:
 Statement of the Problem: - a carefully worded statement of the problem that
led to analysis.
 Summary of Finding and Recommendation: - a list of the major findings and
recommendations of the study. It is ideal for the user who requires quick access
to the results of the analysis of the system under study.
 Details of Finding: - an outline of the methods and procedures undertaken by
existing system followed by coverage of the objectives and procedures of the
candidate system.
 Recommendation and Conclusion: - specific recommendation regarding the
candidate system, including personal assignments, cost, project schedule and
target dates. After the proposal is received by management, it becomes a formal
agreement that paves the way for actual design and implementation. This is a
crucial decision point in the life cycle.

4- Analysis: - Analysis is the detailed study of the various operations performed by the
system and their relationships within an outside of the system. A key question is-
what must be done to solve the problem? One aspect of the analysis is defining the
boundaries of the system and determining whether or not a candidate system should
consider other related system. During analysis data are collected on the available
files, decision points and transaction ended by the present system. The tools used in
analysis are data flow diagrams, interviews, onside observations and questionnaires
are examples. The interview is a commonly used tool in analysis. It requires special
scales and sensitivity to the subjects being interviewed. Training experience and
commonsense are required for collection of the information needed to do the
analysis.
 Once analysis is completed, the analyst has a form understanding of what is to be
done. The next step is to decide how the problem might be solved. Thus in system
design we move from the logical to the physical aspects of the life cycle.

5- Design: - The most creative and challenging face of the system life cycle is system
design. The term design describes a final system and the process by which it is
developed. It refers to the technical specification that will be applied in
implementing the candidate system. It includes the construction of program and
program testing. The key question here is how the problem be solved.

The first step is to determine how the output is to be produced and in what format.
Samples of the output (& input) are also presented. The second is that the input data
and master files (database) have to be designed to meet the requirements of the
proposed output. The operational processing faces are handled through program
construction and testing, including a list of the program needed to meet the system
objectives and complete documentation. Finally details related to justification of the
system and an estimate of the impact of the candidate system on the user and the
 organization are documented and evaluated by management as a step toward
implementation.
The final report prior to the implementation face includes procedure flow chart,
record layouts, report layout and a workable plan for implementing the candidate
system. Information on personal, money, hardware, facilities and their estimated
cost must also be available. At this point projected cost must be close to actual cost
of implementation.
6- Implementation Face: -The implementation face is less creative than system
design. It is primarily concerned with user training side presentation and file
conversion. When the candidate system is linked to terminals or remote sides, the
telecommunication network can test of the network along with the system are also
included under implementation.
During the final testing, user acceptance is tested, followed by the user depending
on the nature of the system extensive user training may be required.
System testing checks the readiness and accuracy of system to access, update and
retrieve data from new lines. Once the program become available, test data are read
into the computer and process against the files proved by testing. If successful the
program is run with the ‘live’ data. Otherwise a diagnostic processor is used to
locate and correct errors in the program.
7- Post Implementation and Maintenance: -After the implementation face is
completed and the user staff is adjusted to the change created by the candidate
system, evaluation and maintenance begin. Like any system, there is an edging
process that requires periodic maintenance of hardware and software. If the new
information is inconsistent with the design specifications then changes have to be
made. Hardware also requires periodic maintenance to keep in tune with design
specification. The importance of maintenance is to continue to bring the new system
to standards.
User priority is changes in organizational requirement or environmental factor also
call for system enhancements.
 Chapter-4

DETAILED SYSTEM ANALYSIS

Primary Investigation Phase

The first step in the system development life cycle is the identification of a need. This is a
user’s request to change, improve or enhance an existing system because there is likely to
be a stream of such request standard procedures must be established to deal with them. The
initial investigation is one way of handling this. The objective is to determine whether the
request is valid and feasible before the recommendation is reached to do nothing, improve
or modifying an existing system or viewed a new one.
To user’s request form specifies the new one:-
1- User assign title of work requested.
2- Nature of work requested (problem definition).
3- Date request for submission.
4- Date job should be completed.
5- Job objective – purpose of job requested.
6- Expected benefits to be derived from proposed changes.
7- Input output description quantity (number of copies or pages). Frequency (daily,
weekly inputs outputs) of proposed changes.
8- Requester’s signature, title, department, phone number.
9- Signature, title, department, phone number of person approving the request.
10- The user request identifies the need for change and authorizes the initial
investigation. It may undergo seven modifications before it becomes a written
commitment. Once the request is approved the following activities are carried out
background investigation, fact finding and presentation of results, project proposal.
Need’s Identification: - The success of system depends on large end of how accurately a
problem is defined, thoroughly investigated properly carried out through the choice of
solution. User need identification and analysis are concerned with what the user need.
The user or the analyst may identify the need for the candidate or for an enhancement in the
existing system. Shared, complete and accurate information requirements are essential in
building computer based information system. There are three key strategies or general
approaches for determining information regarding the user’s requirements: -
1- Asking
2- Getting information from the existing information system
3- Prototyping

Asking: - This strategy obtains information with users by simply asking them about the
requirements. It assumes a stable system where users are well informed and can overcome
basils defining their problems. There are three key asking methods: -
1- Questions may be open ended or closed. An open ended question allows respondent
to formulate to response. It is used when the feelings or ideas are important. In
contrast a closed question request one answer from a specific set of responses. It is
used when factual responses are known.
2- Brainstorming: - it is a technique used for generating new ideas and obtaining
general information requirements.
3- Group consensus: - ask participants for their expectations regarding specific
variables.

Getting information from the existing information system: - Determining information

from an existing application has been called the data analysis approach. It simply asks the
user what information is correctly received and what other information is required. It
realized heavily on the user to articulate information needs. The analyst examines all
reports, discusses with the user each piece of information, examined and determines
unfulfilled information needs by interviewing the user. The analyst is primarily involved in
improving the existing flow of data to the user.
Prototyping: - The third strategy for determining user information requirement is used
when the user can’t establish information needs accurately before the information system is
built. The reason could be the lack of an existing model on which to base requirement or a
difficulty in visualizing candidate system. In this case, the user needs to anchor on real life
systems from which adjustment can be made. Therefore the iterative discovery approach
captures an initial set of information requirements and builds a system to meet these
requirements. As users gain experience in its use, they request additional requirements or
modifications in the system. In essence, information requirements are discovered by using
the system, prototyping is suitable in environment where it is difficult to formulate a
concrete model for defining information requirements and where the need of the user are
evolving.

Problem, definition and project initiation: - The first step in an initial investigation is to
define the problem that let to the user request. The problem must be slotted clearly,
understood and agreed upon by the user and the analyst. It must state the objectives the user
is trying to achieve and the results the user wants to see, emphasis should be on the logical
requirement what must be the results of the problems rather than the physical requirements.

Facts Gathering and Its Techniques

After performing the primary investigation the analyst begins to collect data on the existing
system output, input, and cost. The tools used in data collection are
1- Review of written document
2- Onside observation
3- Interviews
4- Questionnaires
5- Background reading
 Review of written document: - When available, all documentation on data carriers
(forms, records, reports, manuals etc.) is organized and evaluated. Included in
procedures manuals are the requirement of the system which helps in determining
to what extend they are met by the present system. Unfortunately, most manuals are
not up-to-date or may not be readable. Day-to-day problems may have forced
 changes, which are not reflected in the manual. Further more people have a
tendency to ignore procedures and find shortcuts, as long as the outcome is
satisfactory.
Regarding existing forms, the analyst need to find out how they are filled out, how
they are to the user, what changes to be made and how they are to be read.
 Onside observation: - Another fact finding method used by the analyst is the onside
observation or direct observation. The analyst’s role is that of an information
seeker. One purpose of onside observation is to get as close as the real system being
studied. As an observer the analyst follows a set of rules. While making observation
he/she is more likely to listen then talk and to listen with interest when information
is passed on. He/she avoids giving advice doesn’t pass morel judgment on what is
observed, doesn’t argue with the user staff and doesn’t show undue friendliness
towards one but not others. Onside observation is the most difficult fact finding
technique. Is requires entry into the user’s area and can cause adverse reaction why
the user’s staff if not handled properly. The analyst observes the physical layout of
the current system, the location and the movement of people and the workflow.
 Interviews and questionnaires: - Onside observation is directed toward describing
and understanding events and behavior as they occur. This method is, however, is
less effective learning about people’s perception, feelings and motivations. The
alternative is the personal interview and the questionnaire. In either method heavy
reliance is placed on the interviewee’s reports and for information about the job, the
present system or experience. The quality of response is judged in the terms of its
reliability and validity.
Reliability means that the information gathered is dependable enough to be used for
making decisions about the system being studied. Validity means that the questions
asked are so worded as to provide the intended information. So the reliability and
the validity on the data gathered on the design of the interview or questionnaires
and the manner in which each instrument is administered.
In an interview since the analyst (interviewer) and the person interviewed meet face
to face, there is an opportunity for greater flexibility in getting information. The
interviewer is also in a natural position to observe the subjects and the situations to
 which they are responding. In contrast the information obtained through a
questionnaire is limited to the written response of the subject to predefine question.
 Background Reading: - Once the project is initiated, the analyst begins to learn
about the setting. The existing system and the physical processes related to the
revised system. For ex: - it is important to understand the structure of bank, who
runs it, who reports to safe deposit area, there relationship and accounting in
customer service and nature, frequency and level of interaction between the safe
deposit and these departments. Therefore the analyst should prepare an organization
chart with a list of the function and the people who perform them. In doing so,
he/she would have a better feel for the work environment in which safe deposit
operates the kinds of customers involved and the procedures employees following
conducting business in safe deposit.

Fact Analysis Phase

As data are collected, they must be organized and evaluated and conclusion drawn
for preparing a report to the user for the final review and approval. Many tools are
used for data organization and analysis. These tools are input/ output analysis,
decision tables and structured charts.
Input/output analysis identifies elements that are related to the input and output of a
given system. Flow charts and dataflow diagrams are excellent tools for
input/output analysis. Decision table describes the data flow within a system that is
generally used as a supplement when complex decision logic can’t be represented
clearly in a flow chart. As a documented tool, they can provide a simpler form of
data analysis than the flow charts. When completed they are an easy to follow
communication device between the technical and non-technical personnel. They are
verbally oriented to managers, easy to learn and update and continue to function
once the logic is developed.
Structured Chart: - This is a working tool and an excellent way to keep track of the
data collected for a system.
Information Gathering: -
 Information gathering is an art and a science, the approach and manner, in which
information is gathered, requires persons with sensitivity, commonsense and
knowledge of what and when to gather and what channels to use in securing
information. Additionally the methodology and the tools for information gathering
require training and experience that the analyst is expected to have. This means that
information gathering is neither easy nor routine. Much preparation, experience,
training are required.
1- What kind of information do we need?
Before one determines where to go for the information or what tools to use, the
first requirement is to figure out and what information to gather.
 Policies
 Goal The organization

 Objectives
 Organization structure to info. gathering

 Auth. relationship User staff

 job functions
 Info. requirement
 interpersonal relationship The work itself work flow
Method & procedures
Work schedules

Information about the firm/organization

Information about the organization policies, goals, objectives and structure explains
the kind of environment that promotes (or hinders) the introduction of computer
based system. Company policies are guidelines that determine the conduct of
business. Policies are translated into rules and procedures for achieving the goals. A
statement of goals describes management and commitment to objectives and
direction system development will follow.
After policies and goals are set, a firm is organized top meet these goals. Policies,
goals, objectives and structures are important elements for analysis.
Information about the user staff: -
Another kind of information for analysis is knowledge about the people to run the
present system, there job functions and information requirements, the relationship
of their jobs to the existing system and the interpersonal network that holds the user
group together. Information of this kind highlights the organization chart and
establishes a basis for determining the importance of the existing system for the
organization.
Information about the work flow: -
Work flow focuses on what happens to the data to various points to a system. This
can be shown by a data flow diagram or a system flowchart. A data flow diagram
represents the information generated at each processing points in a system and the
direction it takes from the source to the destination. In contrast the system flow
chart describes the physical system. The information available from charts explains
the procedure used for performing task and one should use.
Where does information originated: -
Information is gathered from two principle sources- personal or written documents
from within the organization and from the organization environment. The primary
external sources are: -
1- Vendors
2- Government document
3- Newspapers and professional journals.
The primary internal journals are:–
1- Financial
2- Personal staff
3- Professional staff

Information gathering tools:-

Interviewing: - Interviews are the formal meetings where the analyst can collect
information about the working of the present system and the requirement of any
planned replacement. It can be used for a variety of different purposes as:-
1- To collect information about the procedure taking place in an organization.
2- To verify the analyst understanding of system operations with users of all levels.
3- To confirm aspects of a purposed system design.
4- To build confidence in the design of a new information.
Advantages: -
1- The flexibility of interview makes it a superior technique for enquiring into
areas which are difficult to be explored using any other technique.
2- It provides a better opportunity then the questionnaires to evaluate the validity
of the information collected. The interviewer can not only observe what subjects
but also study their body language and expression.
3- It is an affective technique for getting information about complex subjects and
for sensing the feelings underline opinions.
4- Generally people prefer being interviewed rather than filling up lengthy
questionnaires.
Disadvantages:-
There is one drawback which people from opting to this method of collecting
information. The drawback is the long preparation time that it takes. This method
requires more time and money for its conduction.
Planning and interview:-the three crucial aspects of the interview need to be plan by
the analyst. These aspects are:-
1- The object of the interview
2- The time and the venue of the interview
3- The authorization for the interview
Conducting the interview:-
The analyst should start the interview by giving a clear explanation of the purpose
of the interview. The analyst should also specify by the subject first selected and
assure that the information collected during interview will be treated as
confidential.
Concluding the interview: - It is important to stick to the agreed time and conclude
the interview with a summary of the main discussion point.
Questionnaires: - In situation when it is not possible for the analyst (because of
time, distance or cost) to interview persons involved in a system. The questionnaire
 is considered as a tool for gathering required information. A questionnaire offers the
following advantages: -
1- It is easier to administer as compared to the interview as economical.
2- A wide geographical area can be covered and a large number of people can be
contacted using this method.
3- The logical order of the question and the standardized instruction for giving
answers ensure uniformity of questions.
4- The respondents feel free to express themselves in questionnaires then in an
interview.
5- With questionnaire the respondent does not feel pressure of answering the
question there and then. They get enough time to think about the question and
the response.

But questionnaires have the following disadvantage: -

The major disadvantage is a low percentage of return. Another disadvantage is that many
people are not good at writing.
Types of interviews and questionnaires:-
Interviews can be highly unstructured where neither the questions nor the respective
responses are specified in advance and highly unstructured in which the questions and
responses are predefined.
1- Unstructured approach: - the unstructured interview allows respondents to answer
questions at will in their own words. The responses are uninhibited rather than
forced. They are self and reveling and personal rather than general or superficial.
The analyst assumes the role of an interviewer who encourages the respondent to
speak without any hesitation and helps them to express their feelings and opinion.
This is best achieved when the subject are willing to share and have no feeling of
disapproval. However, this approach is more time consuming.
2- Structured approach: - in this, all subjects are asked the identical questions in a set
order. This is done to ensure that all subjects are answering identical questions
which include the reliability of the responses.
3- Structured interviews and questionnaires may have questions of either closed or
open ended type. An open ended question is one which does not need a specific
response while a closed ended question is one in which the responses are given as a
set of options.
 Chapter-5

STRUCTURED SYSTEM ANALYSIS

Structured analysis is a set of techniques and graphical tools that allow the analyst to
develop a new kind of system specification that are easily understandable to the user. The
traditional approach focuses on the cost benefits and feasibility analysis, project
management, hardware and software selection and personal consideration. In contrast,
structured analysis considers new goals and structured tools for analysis. The new goals
specify the following: -
1- Use graphics wherever possible to help communicate pattern with the user.
2- Differentiate between logical and physical system.
3- Build a logical system model to familiarize the user with system characteristic and
interrelationship before implementation. The structured tool focuses on the tools:
essentially the dataflow diagrams, data dictionary, structured English decision trees
and objective is to build a new document called system specification.

Tools for Structured System Analysis: -

1- Data flow diagrams:
A dataflow diagram depends on the four things:
1- Flow of data
2- Data process
3- Data stores
4- Data source or sink
Data flow diagram:
Dataflow diagramming is one of the structured analysis techniques. Dataflow diagram is
the diagrammatic representation of a system which provides a more complete clear and
global understanding of the system under investigation.
Dataflow diagram depicts the passage of data to a system. It is also known as a bubble
chart and aims at refining system requirements and identifying major transformations that
will become programs in system design. Dataflow diagrams are used to emphasize the
logical flow of data with the system. The basic symbol used is a circle or bubble and is
called ‘transform’ since it identifies a function that transform data. The dataflow diagram
depicts the passage of data through a system by using four basic symbols.
These are:
1- Data flows
2- Data process
3- Data stores
4- Data source or sink
1- A rectangular box defines a source (or originator) or destination (sink) of a system
data.
2- An arrow identifies data flow (data in motion). It is a pipeline through which the data
flows.
3- A circle or a bubble represents a process that transforms incoming dataflow into
outgoing data flow.
4- An open rectangle is a data store (data addressed or a temporary repository of data).
Dataflow: - A dataflow is a root which enables packets of data to travel from one point to
another. The data may from a source to the process or to end from a data store or process.
An arrowed line shows the flow with the arrow head indicating the direction of flow.

Here the application form passes from the student (source) to a process which checks the
student details. The names given to the data flow must clearly describe them. Though it is
essential to name the data flows but data flows moving in and out of the stores do not
require names. The store names describe them.
Process: - These represent transformation, changing incoming data flows into outgoing
dataflow. Process name must give an idea of what happens to the data as it passes through
the process.

Here the incoming flow (application form) to the process check details is transformed into
two outgoing flows. A valid registration form and a flow which indicates that the form
requires further clarification (query).
Data Stores: - Data store is a depository of data which is represented by an open rectangle.
Stores should also be assigned proper descriptive name. A store may be used in the
checking of data.

Here the process check details need access to data which allows checking. The data icons
require to properly carryout this process must be available in the store status details. The
arrow used in single headed and points toward the process. This indicates that the process
does not alter the contents of the store. It only uses the data available. If the contents of the
store are need as well as modified by the process, then the diagram uses a dot head arrow.
Data sources or sink: - A source or a sink is a person or part of an organization which
feeds or receives the data from the system but is considered to be outside the context of the
data flow model. A square defines a source or a sink which is build as the external to the
system under investigation.
Developing DFDs

Context diagram of a book ordering system for a book store

The highest level view of a system, a context diagram is shown above. It gives an
overview of an organization system that depicts the system boundaries, external entities
and the system. The next step of the analysis is to examine the context diagrams for the
processors which are depicted by the single process. The final detail of the book ordering
system provides four detailed sub-processors:-

Types of DFDs:-
1- Physical DFDs
2- Logical DFDs
Both types of DFDs support the top down approach for the system analysis.
1- Physical DFDs: - Physical DFDs are implementation dependent. They are useful for
documenting the existing system to ensure that the analyst understand it properly.
Physical DFDs depict the flow of data and work through a system. The four symbols
that can appear in the DFDs are the process, the internal and external entity, the data
store and the data flow.
 These diagrams facilitate the analyst in sketching a comprehensive and complete
picture of the current system. It is easier for the analyst to start by depicting the
interaction between the physical components- people, document, form and equipment-
then to understand the policies that are used to manage the applications. Physical DFDs
are useful for communicating with users and provides a way to validate the user’s
current view of the system.

2- Logical DFDs: - A logical DFD is a tool for drawing a model of an information

system’s processing requirement. It is an implementation- independent view of a
system, concentrating on the flow of data between processors without giving any
consideration to the specific devices, storage location or people in the system. It
eliminates the specification on the physical characteristic listed in the physical DFDs.

Decision trees: - It is a graphical technique that shows a decision situation as a linked

series of nodes and branches. The two main components of the decision trees are: -
1- Decision points which are represented by nodes.
2- Actions which are represents by ovals.
A decision tree is a diagram that resembles a tree, with a root on the left hand side and
branches representing each decision. It is read from left to right and the actions to be
undertaken are recorded down the right hand side of the diagram.
The root of the tree, on the left of the diagram is starting point of the decision sequence.
The particular branch to be followed depends on the prevalent conditions and decision to
be made. Progression from left to right along the particular branch is the result making a
series of decisions. Following each decision point is the next set of decision to be
considered. The nodes of the tree thus represent conditions and indicate that a
determination must be node about which condition exist before next path can be chosen.
The right side of the tree lists the action to be taken depending on the sequence of
conditions that is followed.
Developing a decision tree is beneficial to analyst as the need to describe condition and
action compels the analyst to formally identify the actual decision that must be taken.
Decision table: - This is useful for representing the conditional logic of processes where
different actions are to be taken depending upon the occurrence of a particular combination
of conditions.
A decision table appears as a matrix of rows and columns that shows conditions and
corresponding actions. Decision rules, included in a decision table, states what procedure is
to follow when certain condition exist. This method has been used in analysis of business
functions such as investing control, sales analysis, credit analysis and transportation control
and routing. A decision table is divided into four sections:-
1- Stub
2- Entries
3- Action stub
4- Action entries

The condition stub identifies total set of relevant test or condition. These conditions require
yes or no answers. Combination of these conditions are then identified and expressed as
rules or conditions entries.
Condition entries provide all possible permutations of yes or no responses related to the
condition statement.
Action stub list the possible actions which can occur as a result of different condition
combinations.
Action entries show what specific action in the set to take when selected or group of
conditions are true.
Preparation of a limited entry decision table: -
1- Identify all condition and write them down in the condition stub with the most critical
one first.
C1: good payment history
C2: order value>5000
C3: association>10 years
2- Record all possible actions in the action stub. The sequence will be as they occur
A1: priority treatment
A2: normal treatment
3- The number of rules in a limited entry table can be calculated by using the formula 2 c.
In our example three conditions produce 23 rules, since each condition entry can be Y
or N.
4- Make the action entries:
Condition stub Condition entry
C1: good pay history Y Y Y Y N N N N
C2: order value> 5000 Y Y N N Y Y N N
C3: association>10 years Y N Y N Y N Y N
A1: priority treatment * * * *
A2: normal treatment * * *

5- Check the table for completeness by counting the rules. In the limited entry table there
should be 2c rules in total, where c is the number of rules given in the condition stub.
Decision table with consolidation: -
The last step involves checking the table for redundancy. This happens when two or
more rules exist with different combination of conditions leading to some action. In
such situation the rules where possible combinations should be consolidated. A
consolidation is indicated by a broken line which states that whether yes or no. the
action remains the same.
Condition stub Condition entry
C1: good pay history Y Y Y Y N N N N
C2: order value> 5000 Y Y N N Y Y N N
C3: association>10 years - - Y N Y N - -
A1: priority treatment * * * *
A2: normal treatment * * * *
Decision trees with four consolidation
Structured English: - it is a tool for sharpening the narrative for described processing
logic and procedures. It is based on the principle of the structured programming. It is
created by the merging of the English language with the syntax of the structured
programming. It tries to express the verbal statement in the more logical form. The
structured English uses natural language along with the idea of logic and block structuring
used in a computer language.
Structured English uses standard narrative constructs that permit certain degree of user
understanding. Structured English specification still requires analyst to identify the
conditions that occur and alternative actions to be taken. No special symbols or formats are
used. Entire process can be stated quickly in English like statements.

COMPUTE DISCOUNT
Add up the number of copies per book title
IF: order is from bookstore.
AND IF order is of six copies or more per book title
THEN: discount is 25%.
ELSE (order is for less than six copies per book title.)
SO: no discount is allowed.
ELSE (order is from library or from individuals)
SO- IF order is for 50 or more copies per book title.
THEN: discount is 15%.
ELSE IF order is for 20 to 49 copies per book title.
THEN: discount is 10%.
ELSE IF order is 6 to 9 copies per title.
THEN: discount is 5%.
ELSE (order is less than 6 copies per book title).
THEN: discount is not allowed.
Data dictionary: -
A data dictionary is a catalog- a repository- of the elements in the system. In other words it
is simply a record of data about data. In the data dictionary you will find the following
elements.
1- Data flows
2- Data stores
3- Processes
The data dictionary stored details and descriptions of these details.
A properly developed data dictionary provides answers to questions like how many
characters are in the data icon, by what other name it is referenced etc. data dictionary is
developed during data flow analysis and helps the analyst involved in determining system
requirements.
The reason why analyst use data dictionary mare as follows: -
1- To manage the details in the large system.
2- To communicate a common meaning for all system elements.
3- To document the features of the system.
4- To facilitate analysis of details in order to evaluate characteristics and determine
where system changes should be made.
5- To find errors and omissions in the system.
Components of a data dictionary: -
The dictionary contains two types of descriptions for the data flowing through the system-
data elements and data systems. Data elements are grouped together to make up a data
structure.
Data elements: - this is the item of data which can’t be decomposed further. In other words
data elements are the fundamental building blocks of the system.
For ex: - invoice number, invoice data etc.
The data dictionary entry for the data elements consists of the following items: -
1- Name: - a meaningful unique name.
2- Description: - a short description of what the data elements represent.
3- Aliases: - additional names for the data elements.
4- Length: - size of the element.
 5- Values: - it is the list of possible values for the data elements.
For ex: - name: part - color
Description: - This is the color of the part of the machinery and is ordered time to time
from the local vender.
Alias: - P_color, color
Type- character
Length: - 15.
Data values: - may take one of the following values: -
Red, orange, yellow, blue.

The process and stages of system design

The process of design: - the design phase focuses on the detailed implementation of the
system recommended in the feasibility studies. Emphasis is on translating performance
specification into design specification. The design phase is a transition from a user oriented
document to a document oriented to the programmers or database personnel.
The information system design objectives are as follows: -
1- Support business activities
2- Ensure that user requirements are met
3- Provide ease of use
4- Specify the logical design elements
5- Provide software specification
6- Confirm to design standard
The main objective of the system design is to deliver the requirements as specified
in the requirement specification document.
Logical and physical system design: –
Information system provides solution to a business problem. It is in the design
phase that the user requirements finalized in the analysis space are translated into
practical based of achieving them. There are two levels of system design as follows:
1- Logical design
2- Physical design
Logical design: - In a logical design, a specification of the principal features of the new
system, which satisfies the system’s objectives are produced by the designer. Logical
design results in the blueprint of the new system. So the part of the design process that is
independent of any specific hardware or soft ware platform is referred to as logical design.
It describes the input (forms, screens, dialogue boxes), outputs (reports, displays),
databases (data stores), procedures (data flows) - in a format that meets the user’s
requirements. When analyst develops the logical system design, he specifies the user’s
need at a level of detail that defines the information flow into and out of the system and the
required data resources. The various functions that are performed in the logical design
phase include

1- Reviewing the current physical system. Its data flows, file contents, volume, frequency
etc.
2- Preparing input specifications that are establishing the format contents and frequency of
reports, including terminal specification and location.
3- Preparing edit, security, control specifications. This entails specifying the rules for
editing backup procedures and the controls that ensures processing and file integrating.
4- Specifying the implementation and plans.
5- Preparing a logical design walkthrough- the information plan review.
6- Reviewing benefits, cost target dates and system constraints.
After finding out the user’s requirement a system designer works to identifies data
requirements. The next step involves establishing the processing logic to generate the
desired outputs from the available inputs, this step involves data flow analysis and
processing logic analysis. Data flow analysis facilitates in arriving at a logical
organization of data into computer files. A file is a collection of identical records,
which in turn are collection of fields of information about a particular entity.
The structured system design tools that can be used to provide a logical representation
of data flow analysis and data processing analysis in a computer based information
system are 1- data dictionary 2- data flow diagrams 3- decision table 4- structured
English 5- decision trees
Physical Design: - It starts with the logical design, blue print and generates the working
system by defining the design specification and tells programmers what exactly is expected
from the candidate system. In other words it produces the program specifications, physical
file or database definition and user interface. The programmer writes the necessary
program or modifies the software package that accepts input from the user, performs the
necessary operations through the existing file or database, generates the outputs and
maintains an updated database at all times. Developing a physical system design involves
the following steps: -
1. Designing the physical system.
 Maintaining input or output media
 Developing the database and indicating the backup procedures.
 Designing physical information flow through the system and a physical design
walkthrough.
1- Planning system implementation-
 Developing a conversion schedule and a target date.
 Determining training procedures and time tables.
2- Devising a test and implementation plan and specifying any new hardware amnd
software.
3- Updating benefits, cost, and conversion date and system constraints.
 Representation of logical and physical design

Design Methodologies: - for developing a system, logical methods must be defined more
clearly that needs user requirements. It has lead to new technologies and methodologies
that do the following functions: -
1- Improve productivity of analyst and programmers.
2- Improve documentation and subsequent maintenance and enhancement.
3- Reduced cost overruns and delays.
4- Improve communication among the user, analyst, designer and programmer.
5- Standardize the approach to analysis and design.
6- Simplify design by segmentation.
Structured Design: - It is a data flow based methodology. The approach begins with a
system specification that identifies inputs, outputs and describes the functional aspects of
the system. The system specifications then are used as the basis for the graphic
representation- DFD –of the data flow and processes. From the DFD the next step is the
definition of the modules and their relationships to one another is a form called a structured
chart, using a data dictionary and other structured tools.

The structured design methodology

Process Information: - Structured design partitions a program into small independent

modules. These are arranged in a hierarchy to depict a module and are organized in a top
down manner. Thus structured design is an attempt to reduce complexity and make a
problem manageable by subdividing it into smaller segments which is called
modularization or decomposition. A design said to be top down if it consists of a hierarchy
of module with each module having a single entry and single exit subroutine.
Functional decomposition: - the document tool for structured design is the hierarchy or
structured chart- it is a graphic tool for representing hierarchy and it has three elements: -
1- The module: - it is represented by a rectangle with a name. It is a contiguous set of
elements.

2- The connection: - It is represented by a vector, linking two modules. It usually means

that one module has called another module.

Here module A calls module B and module C.

 3- The couple is represented by an arrow with a circular tail. It represents data items
move from one module to another.
4- Here O, P and R are couples. Module A calls B, passing O downward. Likewise
module A call C passing P downward and receiving one back.
In the functional decomposition approach to structured design is partitioned into smaller
modules so that each module is small enough to be manageable. In the evaluation of the
program two criteria are considered: -
1- The module’s connection to other module is called coupling and its intermodule strength
or cohesion.
Module coupling refers to the number of connection between a ‘calling’ and a ‘called’
module and the complexity of these connections there must be at least one connection
between a module and a calling module. Module’s cohesion refers to the relationship
among elements within a module. If module does more than one discrete task, the
instruction in that module are said not be band together very closely. Modules that perform
only one task are said to be more cohesive (and less error prone) than the modules that
perform multiple task.
Forms driver methodology- the IPO charts: -
In structured design a hierarchy chart represents a good program design if it meets the
criteria of cohesion and coupling. Each module’s performs a single function (cohesion) and
should be independent of the rest of the program (coupling). Each criteria call for more
details than are appearing. This prompts the analyst to develop input/process/output (IPO)
charts for each module in the hierarchy chart.

HIPO and IPO charts: -

HIPO is the forms driven technique. In this standard forms are used to document the
information. It consists of a hierarchy chart and an associated set of input/process/output
charts. HIPO captures the essence of top down decomposition. It describes the data input
and output from processes and defines the data flow composition. It was developed by
IBM. As a design aid and implementation technique with the following objectives: -
1- Provides a structure by which the function of a system can be understood.
2- State the function to be performed by the programmer rather than specifying the
program statement to be used to perform the functions
3-Provide the visual description of input to be used and output to be produced for each
level of the diagram. HIPO makes the transformation of input to output data visible.

Author: ……. System/Program: ……. Date:……. Page:……of……

Diagram ID:………. Name:………. Description:…………..

The information package format consists of the following: -

 Visual table of contents shows the structures of the diagram and the relationship of the
function in a hierarchical manner.
 Overview diagram describes the major function and reference the detail diagram
needed to expend the functions adequately.
 Detail diagram contains an extended description section that amplifies the process steps
and references the code associated with each process step.
3- Structured Walkthrough: - An activity of all phases of a structural project is the
walkthrough. It is an interchange of ideas among people who review a project presented by
its author and agree on the validity of a proposed solution to a problem. In a design
walkthrough the purpose is to anticipate as many problems in the design as possible. The
objective is to come up with a maintainable design that is flexible and adoptable and meets
the organization standard.
User Involvement: - Walkthrough may be held at various points in the SDLC. In addition
to system design they may be held to review the system test plan, program design and
production acceptance. In each case, the people who will be running the system should be
consulted.
The probability of success improves with the user’s interest and involvement in the design
of the system. Promoting a user’s contribution in the walkthrough and throughput the
design phase can be crucial for successful implementation.
User implementation gives the designer implementation feedback as the design is been
completed. It also provides the user with a basic understanding of what the candidate
system will and will not do.
Input design: - Inaccurate input data are the most common cause of errors in data
processing. Errors entered by the data entry operators can be controlled by input design.
Input design is the process of converting user originated inputs to a computer based format.
In the system design phase, the expended data flow diagram identifies logical data flows,
data stores, sources and destinations. A system flow chart specifies master files (database)
transaction files and computer programs. Input data are collected and organized into groups
of similar data, once identified; appropriate input media are selected for processing.
1- Input data: - the goal of designing input data is to make data entry as easy, logical
and free from errors as possible. In entering data, operators need to know the
following: -
 The allocated space for each field.
 Field sequence that must match that in the source document.
 The format in which data fields are entered. For ex: - filling out the data field is
required through the edited format mm/dd/yy.
When we approach input data design we design the source document that capture
the data and then select the media used to enter then into the computer.
Source document: - source data are captured initially on original paper or a source
document. Source document may be entered into a system from punch cards, from
disk or even directly through the keyboard. A source document may or may not
be retained in the candidate system. Thus each source document may be evaluated
in terms of: -
1- Its continue use in the candidate system.
2- Extend of modification for the candidate system.
 3- Replacement by an alternative source document. A source document should
be logical and easy to understand. Each area in the form should be clearly
identified and should specify for the user what to write and where to write it.

Input media and devices: - source data are input into the system in a variety of ways. The
following media and devices are suitable for this operation: -
1- Punch cards: - These are either 80 or 90 columns wide. Data are arranged in a
sequential and logical order. Operators use a key punch to copy data from source
documents onto cards. This means that the source document and the card design
must be considered simultaneously.
2- Key-to-diskette: - This is modeled after the keypunch process. A disk replaces the
card and stores up to 325000 character of data- equivalent to data stored in 4050
cards like cards data on disk are stored in sequence and in batches. The approach to
source document and disk design to that of a punch card. Data must be in sequence
and logical cohesion.
3- MICR: - Magnetic Ink Character Recognizer translates the special fonts printed in
magnetic ink into the direct computer input.
4- MSR: - Mark Sensing Reader automatically converts pencil marks in a
predetermined location on a card to punch holes on the same card.
5- OCR: - Optical Character Readers are similar to MICR readers except that they
recognize pencil, ink or characters by that configuration (shape) rather than their
magnetic pattern. They are often used in remote locations free standing input
repletion devices or direct input media to the system.
6- OBR: - Optical Barcode Reader detects combination of marks that represent data.
The most widely known system is the Universal Product Code (UPC), which code
retails items in stores.
7- CRT: - Cathode Ray Tube screens are used for online data entry. CRT screen
displays 20, 40 or 80 characters simultaneously on a television like screens. They
show as many as 24 lines of data.