Transfer of Training

Learning but not applying – why?

Factors that inhibit or enhance training transfer

Bruce Small
Nov. 05

Overview
• Assumptions, models and definitions

• The problem

• Training needs identification

• Training process factors – learning principles

• On-the-job factors

• Evaluation

• Summary

1
 Assumptions
• Transfer of training literature from I/O psychology
is relevant to adult learning
• Adults
• To develop/enhance knowledge and skills

• The purpose of training is

• To enhance on-the-job performance/behaviour
• To produce better business results e.g.,
increase productivity

Performance
Performance consists of:
• Task performance (Campbell, 1990)
• Contextual performance (Campbell, 1990)
• Adaptive performance (Allworth & Hesketh, 1997)

Determinants of performance (Campbell, 1990)

• Declarative knowledge
• Procedural knowledge
• Motivation

2
 Skill level and acquisition
Novice – Expert distinction
• Compared to novices, experts
• Identify problems and solutions quicker
• Have automated categorisation and decision skills
• Tacit knowledge

Stages of skill acquisition

• Declarative
• Procedural
• Automatic (routine vs adaptive expertise)

The problem - Learning but not applying

• Despite “successful training” trainees often do

not put their new skills and knowledge into
practice in the workplace (Baldwin & Ford, 1988)
• Training methods that boost initial performance do not
always promote transfer
• Training methods that initially produce less favourable
performance may lead to better long term transfer
(Druckman & Bjork, 1994; Schmidt & Bjork, 1992)

• Why does this happen?

• What can be done to make transfer of training
more effective and performance enhanced?

3
 Why?
Five primary sources for lack of transfer

• Training needs analysis

• Training methods/processes

• On-the-job factors

• Type of training evaluation

• Trainee factors: ability, motivation, self-efficacy

learning styles, perception of training needs

Training needs analysis (TNA)

• Standard means of identifying training needs for training development

• Gives the tasks, knowledge, skills, and attitudes required for effective
performance in the job context (Tannenbaum & Yukl, 1992)

• TNA may neglect skills needed to ensure transfer of skills from training
to job (Hesketh, 1997)

• Rapid change environments - shift from procedural skills to cognitive

skills e.g., planning, monitoring, decision making under uncertainty à
requires adaptive expertise, ability to generalise to new domains,
metacognitive skills (Ford & Weissbein, 1997; Kanfer & Kanfer, 1992)

• Transfer of training needs analysis (TTNA) (Hesketh, 1997) –

considers context of job and cognitive and metacognitive skills required
for transfer

4
 Training methods
Instruction vs practice

• Instruction suitable when subject is complex, when

trainee has little background knowledge, promotes
declarative knowledge

• Practice or “active” learning provides opportunity for

transfer appropriate processing, promotes procedural
knowledge (Russ-Eft & Zenger, 1995)
• Behaviour modelling and role playing
• Simulation training
• Error training

Learning principles influencing

training transfer
• Sequencing of course contents

• Appropriate information processing

• Practice schedule

• Feedback

• Learning style of trainee

5
 Sequencing of course contents
• Easy to hard, general principles to specific
instances à early success, enhanced self-
efficacy - factors that facilitate positive training
outcomes (Ford, Smith, Weissbein, & Gully,
1998) - promotes declarative & procedural
performance

• But – variability and difficulty are key conditions

for transfer (Schmidt & Bjork, 1992) and
practising on harder problems leads to better
transfer Klaczynski & Laipple, 1993) – promotes
adaptive performance

Appropriate information processing

Different information processing strategies required depending on
type of materials to be mastered (Downs & Perry, 1984)
• Factsà Memorising
• Concepts à Understanding
• Procedural tasks à Doing
• Transfer will be achieved to the degree that processes involved in
training and transfer overlap (Morris, Bransford & Franks, 1977)
• The extent to which work performance depends on a particular
processing strategy should be reflected in the training
• Identical elements, fidelity, “situated learning” àcontextualisation
• But - may inhibit adaptive expertise

6
 Practice schedule
Massed vs Distributed practice
• Massed practice à rapid skill acquisition
• Distributed practice à better retention
• Less fatigue, opportunity to relearn forgotten material

Consistent vs Variable
• Consistent practice à high training performance
• Variable practice (disruption of automation of skills à
better generalisation
• Suits jobs where change is a feature of the work
environment & adaptive expertise is required

Opportunity to practice new skills on-the-job is essential

Feedback
Feedback provides informational and motivational functions &
may enhance or impede training and job performance
• Timing, specificity, & frequency of feedback training
influence learning and transfer performance (Kluger & De
Nisis, 1996)
• Frequent feedback à improves training performance but
may lead to less successful transfer (internal self-
assessment may not be developed)
• Faded feedback – develops self monitoring
• Error during training can provide learning opportunity

7
 Training transfer strategies & a problem

Goal setting
• Set goals for on-the-job skill use (Latham & Frayne 1989)
both proximal and distal (Latham & Seijts, 1997)
Relapse prevention
• Identify potential obstacles and coping responses (Tziner,
Haccoun, & Kadish (1991)
Problem
• Strategies that enhance long term and adaptive
performance and skill transfer tend to be harder, more
aversive - thus requiring greater trainee motivation
(Hesketh, 1997)

On-the-job factors
• Opportunity to perform – affects retention and
generalization of training to other work-related tasks
(Tesluck, Farr, Mathieu, & Vance, 1995)
• Supervisors key to opportunity

• Organisational culture/climate – affects training outcomes

by rewarding or punishing attempts to transfer (Roullier &
Goldstein, 1993)
• More positive transfer climate results in greater transfer
• Feedback and management support are key
• Job feedback levels tend to be lower than optimal

8
 Evaluation
Levels of evaluation (Kirkpatrick, 1976) influence perceptions
of effectiveness
• Reactions – trainee satisfaction, trainer ego stroking
• Learning - short term, declarative knowledge
• Behaviour - on-job (long term), procedural knowledge,
• Results – effectiveness of performance e.g. productivity

Experimental design of evaluation (exp. rigour)

• Single group, post-test only design
• Single group pre-test – post-test design
• Two group, post-test only design
• Two group, pre-test – post-test design

Conditions enhancing transfer

Conduct transfer of training needs analysis
During training
• Varying the conditions of practice
• Distribute practice on a task
• Making errors during learning
• Faded feedback
• Set goals about on-the-job practice
• Relapse prevention strategy
On-the-job
• Management/supervisor support
• Opportunity to perform
• Feedback – reward/punishment
• Practice checklist