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Mineral Resources PDF
Mineral Resources PDF
RESOURCES
A naturally occurring substance that has a igneous processes, (2) metamorphic processes,
definite chemical composition is a mineral. (3) sedimentary processes, and (4) weathering
Minerals are not evenly distributed over space. and groundwater processes.
They are concentrated in a particular area or
rock formations. Minerals are formed in different 1. Igneous processes:
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types of geological environments, under varying
Many mineral resources are formed by
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conditions. They are created by natural processes
magmatic processes. Prime examples are the
without any human interference.
exotic ultramafic volcanic rocks that host
Mineral resources range from the soils that diamonds. Diamond crystals were probably
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support agriculture to metals such as silicon, ripped from diamond-bearing wall rocks by
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which is used in high-technology applications
such as computers. Though technically not
magma rising through the deep. Laboratory
experiments show that diamond is stable at
minerals, oil, natural gas, coal, and some other depths of at least 150 to 200 km. At low pressure,
sources of energy are also included as mineral the stable form of carbon is the soft mineral
resources because they are extracted from Earth. graphite, but the reaction of diamond to form
Mining worldwide produces about $500 billion
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graphite proceeds very slowly at the low
worth of metallic ore each year; another $700 temperatures found at Earth’s surface. Besides
billion of energy minerals are produced. its use as a gem, diamonds have found industrial
Types of Minerals uses as abrasives and as strong coatings.
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substances that conduct heat and electricity and to form igneous rock. This process forms building
have a characteristic luster or shine. Iron ore, stone such as granite, a variety of gemstones,
bauxite, manganese ore are some examples. sulfur ore, and metallic ores, which involve dense
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Metallic minerals may be ferrous or non-ferrous. chromium or platinum minerals that sink to the
Ferrous Minerals: Ferrous minerals like iron bottom of liquid magma.
ore, manganese and chromites contain iron. A
Further during fractional crystallization,
non ferrous mineral does not contain iron but
water and elements that do not enter the minerals
may contain some other metal such as gold,
separated from the magma by crystallization will
silver, copper or lead.
end up as the last residue of the original magma.
Non-Metallic Minerals: The non-metallic This residue is rich in silica and water along with
minerals do not contain metals. Limestone, mica elements like the Rare Earth Elements (many of
and gypsum are examples of such minerals. The which are important for making phosphors in
mineral fuels like coal and petroleum are also color television picture tubes), Lithium,
non-metallic minerals. Tantalum, Niobium, Boron, Beryllium, Gold, and
Uranium. This residue is often injected into
Processes that form mineral deposits
fractures surrounding the igneous intrusion and
The origin of most ore deposits is related to crystallizes as a rock called a pegmatite that
fundamental geologic processes. These are: (1) characteristically consists of large crystals.
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through the oceanic crust cause seafloor heavy minerals will be concentrated in areas
metamorphism. These fluids leach metals (such
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where water current velocity is low. Mineral
as manganese, iron, copper, zinc, lead) and deposits formed in this way are called placer
sulfur from the crust and transport these deposits. They occur in any area where current
elements to hot spring vents on the ocean floor. velocity is low, such as in point bar deposits,
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Minerals precipitate when the hydrothermal between ripple marks, behind submerged bars,
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fluids mix with seawater and cool. Mounds of
sulfide ores collect on the seafloor where the hot
waters are released
or in holes on the bottom of a stream.
4. Hydrothermal Ore Deposits
3. Sedimentary Processes: Hydrothermal is the most common ore-
forming process. It involves hot, salty water that
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Sedimentary processes occur in rivers that
dissolves metallic elements from a large area and
concentrate sand and gravel (used in
then precipitates ore minerals in a smaller area,
construction), as well as dense gold particles and
commonly along rock fractures and faults.
diamonds that weathered away from bedrock.
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substances in the remaining water. When the water appear black; they are called black
the water becomes saturated in such smokers
dissolved substance they precipitate from Hydrothermal deposits are produced when
the water. Deposits of halite (table salt), groundwater circulates to depth and heats up
gypsum (used in plaster and wall board),
either by coming near a hot igneous body at
borax (used in soap), and sylvite (potassium
depth or by circulating to great depth along the
chloride, from which potassium is extracted
geothermal gradient. Such hot water can dissolve
to use in fertilizers) result from this process.
valuable substances throughout a large volume
• Iron Formations- These deposits are of iron of rock. As the hot water moves into cooler areas
rich chert and a number of other iron of the crust, the dissolved substances are
bearing minerals that were deposited in precipitated from the hot water solution. If the
basins within continental crust during the cooling takes place rapidly, such as might occur
Proterozoic (2 billion years or older). They in open fractures or upon reaching a body of
appear to be evaporite type deposits, but if cool surface water, then precipitation will take
so, the composition of sea water must have place over a limited area, resulting in a
been drastically different than it is today. concentration of the substance attaining a higher
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throughput during chemical weathering in the Kozhikode district and in Cherupa,
produces highly leached lateritic soils rich in both Eliyettimala, Nauminda, Naduvallur and
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iron and aluminum. Most bauxite deposits are Allampara.
relatively young because they form near the
Haemetite with about 65 per cent iron is
surface of the Earth and are easily removed by
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hard, bumpy, compact and reddish in colour. It
erosion acting over long periods of time.
occurs in sedimentary rocks in crystalline or
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Mineral Survey powdery forms. The Lake Superior areas in USA,
Qebec in Canada, Brazil, Russia, Liberia, China
The important minerals of the world and
and Spain have the ore.
their major producers along with India's position
are surveyed here. Haemetite ores contribute to more than three-
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fourths of India's total production of iron ores.
IRON ORE :
They are found in the Cuddapah and Dharwar
One of the most widely distributed elements systems of the peninsular Deccan. They mostly
of the earth's crust, iron rarely occurs in free state. occur as laminated hematite, micaceous
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from dark brown to black. Sweden, Russia and iron content is low, i.e., 58 to 60 per cent, and of
Liberia have magnetite deposits. In India, siliceous nature. The latter covers parts of
deposits occur in Dharwar and Cuddapah Singhbhum district in Jharkhand and the
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Babubudan hills in Chikmaglur district, (Uttaranchal) and Mirzapur district (Uttar
Sandur, Bellary and Hospet districts as well as Pradesh) and the Kangra Valley (Himachal
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Shimoga and Chitradurg districts in Karnataka Pradesh).
are important producers of iron ores. The canoe-
shaped Sandur ranges of the Bellary Hospet area The total recoverable reserves of iron ore in
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contain large reserves of iron ore. The important India are about 10,052 million tonnes of
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deposits of this area are NEB range, Ramandurg,
Abbalaguni, Rajpura, Donamalai, Devadri,
Kumaraswamy, Kammadheruvid and Belgal.
haematite and 3,408 million tonnes of magnetite.
The resources of very high grade ore are limited
and are restricted in Bailadila sector of
Chhattisgarh and to a lesser extent in Bellary-
The iron content of the ores in the area is around
64 per cent. Hospet area of Karnata and Barajamda sector
in Jharkhand and Orissa. Indian ore has low
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In Goa, the deposits are mostly blue dust sulphur content which never goes above 0.6 per
with 60 per cent of iron. These ores are easily cent.
amenable to pelletization, and include both
lumpy and fine varieties. In Goa the richer and
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MANGANESE ORE
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larger deposits are confined to north Goa
(between Adualpale and Usgaon). The In terms of composition of the
important deposits which contain more than 10 manganiferrous ores with regard to the
million tonnes of reserves are Bicholim-Sirigao proportion of manganese to iron, It is customary
deposits, Gudnem-Dignem-Surle deposits, to use the term manganese ore for those
Velgnem-Pale deposits and Arwalem deposits. containing over 40 per cent of manganese. The
In Ratnagiri district, the areas where iron ores most common minerals are braunite, pyrolusite,
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are mostly prevalent include Vengurla, Guldure psilomelane and manganite. The ore contains
and Aroes areas. The percentage of iron content impurities like silica, lime, alumina, magnesia
varies from 55 to 58. and phosphorus.
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In Andhra Pradesh the iron ore producing Manganese is used as a ferro alloy; it removes
areas are scattered through Anantpur, gases and acts as a cleanser in the manufacture
Khamman, Krishna, Kurnool, Cuddapah and of steel. Manganese is also used as a decoloriser
Nellore districts where the main producing in glass, and in the manufacture of bleaching
centres are Jaggayapeta, Ramallakota, Veldurti, powder and electric batteries.
Nayudupetta and Bayyaram. The iron content
varies from 55 to 66 per cent. Georgia has huge deposits of maganese ore.
In Bhilwara district of Rajasthan, the ore India is the third largest producer of
deposits are in Moriza and in the Udaipur manganese ore in the world. The country's most
district, in Nathrakipal. The iron content varies important ore deposits occur in the form of
from 55 to 62 per cent. sedimentary stratified metamorphic deposits in
the Dharwar system.
The other areas where minor deposits of iron
ore are prevalent include Assam, West Bengal, In India, extensive and rich manganese
the Himalayan region, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya deposits occur in Madhya Pradesh, Orissa,
Pradesh, Punjab, and Jammu and Kashmir. Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and
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Supa-Dandeli area of North Kanara; Small deposits also occur at Sankarapolem and
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(c) deposits associated with limestone and Kothavalasa in Visakapatnam. Mineral content
dolomite which occur in the Sausar- is about 25 to 30 per cent. Phosphorus is high
Manganese-Marble province of Madhya and iron content is also fairly high.
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Pradesh, Jharkhand and Gangpur (Orissa),
Ratnagiri in Maharashtra, and Panch In Jharkhand and Orissa, the deposits are
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Mahal and Vadodara districts of Gujarat,
The deposits of the group are generally
associated with Precambrian iron ore and also
with quartzites, garnets and schists. The mineral
small and often have high phosphorus as content varies from 40 to 55 per cent. In
in the case of ores from Srikakulam districts. Jharkhand, the important producing areas are
Manganiferous shales and banded in Singhbhum, Hazaribagh, Dhanbad, Gaya and
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manganiferous rocks with friable layers of Monghyr districts. The important areas in
quartz are found associated with iron ore Singhbhum district are Birmitrapur, Kalenda
group of rocks in Karnataka and Goa - and near Chaibasa, Mirgitnaur, Basadera and
Ratnagiri. In Jharkhand and Orissa the ore
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important minerals. The ore is hard, lumpy and Deposits are also found in Dhenkanal, Ganjam,
compact in nature. The manganese content is Cuttack and Mayurbhanj districts.
about 46 per cent. There is high silica content
but very low amount of phosphorus. This belt is In Gujarat, the mineral content is around 45
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the major producer of ferro-manganese grade per cent. Inferior quality of deposits also occur
ore in India. In Balaghat, the principal mining at many places in important producers are in
areas are Katgaria, Langur, Varwali, Netra, the district of Panchmahal near Jatvad,
Tirodi, Batjari, Salwa, Jani, Sukali, Mirangpur, Shivrajpur, Dohad, Bhat and Bamankua and in
Ukwa, Kochawahi and Chikpara. In Vadodara district near Pani and between
Chindwara district, the areas are in Godawari Khandi and Unadharia.
and Wardha river valleys at Butkum, Goti,
Sitapur, Kachidhana and Machiwana. In In Karnataka manganese is raised in Sandur,
Jhabua, deposits occur in Thandala tehsil at North Kanara, Tumkur and Shimoga district
Rampura, Mandhi, Tumdia-Bandiwar and which are associated with the Dharwar rocks.
Amlaimal. Small deposits occur in Jabalpur, The phosphorus and silica content is low, but
Dewas, Sehore and Nimar districts. iron is high (5 to 19 per cent) and the mineral
content varies from 30 to 50 per cent.
In Maharashtra, the manganese ore is of low
grade and is mainly mined in Nagpur district Other areas where minor deposits are
and Bhandara district. In Nagpur district, the prevalent include Goa and Rajasthan.
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metamorphic rocks in Karnataka and Singhbhum district in the hills of Rorburu,
Maharashtra. Kiriburu, Kittaburu and Chittangburu around
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(b) Deposits associated with the Jojohatu area. The mineral content is 53 per cent
on an average.
metamorphic rocks of iron ore in Bihar,
Jharkhand and Orissa. In Tamil Nadu, chromite occurs in
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1. Fracture lineament emplacements in gneissic Sittampundi in Salem district. Bands of chromite
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terrain in Tamil Nadu.
(d) Younger deposits of the Himalayan-
represent a lineament intrustion in the genetic
genesis. The mineral content is low it about 21
per cent.
Arakan belt.
TUNGSTEN:
(e) Deposits of Andhra and those at
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Bembat and Tashgaon (Ladakh), near Tungsten is a heavy metal used in steel alloys,
Moreah (Manipur), near Kokapu and its chief alloys, is chief ore is wolfram. It is found
Vartha in Sabarkanta district (Gujarat) in large amounts in China. USA, Russia, Portugal
and at Chakargaon (Andamans). Australia and South Africa also have the metal.
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In Karnataka, good grade of chromite occurs NICKEL:
in Hassan district in an area of 89 sq km. The
The main ore is pentlaudite, a complex
main chromite bearing belt is the Nuggchalli belt mixture of nickel, iron and sulphur. Nickel is also
which extends over a distance of 125 km and often found in association with copper. It is used
carries the important deposits of Byrapur, for plating purposes as it does not rust. It is also
Chikonhalli, Pensamudra, Bhaktarahalli, less magnetic than iron, so it can be used in metal
Jambur and Tagadur. In the Byrapur area, parts located near compasses. Canada produces
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chrome is traced up to 180 m length with a width the largest amount of the world's nickel. Russia
of 9 m. In Mysore district minor bodies of and Australia have large resources.
chromite occur in Kadkola, Talur, Gorur,
COBALT:
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Orissa is considered as the largest chromite Molybdenite and wulfenite are the main ores
deposit in the country. The deposits are mainly occurring in quartz veins in granitic rocks. It is
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producer of silver; other producers are Russia,
gold. Canada, peru and Australia.
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In India, the vein gold deposits are found in In India, the lead-zinc ores of Zawar in
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Rajasthan yield silver. Silver is derived as a by-
Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu while alluvial product in the Karnataka gold fields. The lead
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gold is mainly found in Bihar, Assam, Uttar
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Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Kerala, Punjab and Kurnool districts), Jharkhand (Santhal Parganas,
Meghalaya. Singhbhum), Bihar (Bhagalpur), Gujarat
The Kolar gold field has been the principal (Vadodara district), Karnataka (the district of
source of gold production in India since 1871 Bellary), Uttaranchal (Almora district),
when mining first started. It has four productive Karnataka (the district of Bellary), Uttaranchal
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mines—Nandydroog, Champion Reef, Mysore (Almora district) and Jammu and Kashmir
and Ooregaum. The Champion Reef mine is the (Baramula district) are also expected to yield
deepest mine in the world. The Dharwar schists some silver.
on which the Kolar gold fields are situated run
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PLATINUM:
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in a north-south direction for 80 km. However,
the quartz veins bearing gold are confined to only Platinum is a rare metal, which is always
a 6-7 km section near Marikuppan. The found with other rare metals allied to the
mineralising solutions responsible for the platinum group such as osmium (the heaviest
development of the auriferous veins of South metal), palladium (of great medical importance),
India were probably derived from the magma iridium (used in fountain pen nibs) and rhodium
which gave rise to champion genesses. The Kolar (used for plating silver to avoid tarnishing).
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field mined by the Bharat Gold Mines Limited Canada and South Africa lead in the production
has always had the highest output in India, but of platinum and its allied metals, followed by
it now faces closure. Russia.
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Copper ore also occurs in Ganikalava, chief ore of lead while sphalerite or zinc blende
Gumankonda and Somalapilli areas (Kurnool is the chief ore of zinc. These sulphide ore
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district), Garimanipenta (Nellore district) and minerals of lead and zinc are formed due to
Zangamraju Varikunta-Chelima areas. contact metasomatism, replacement by
hydrothermal solutions. Galena is found in veins
In Jharkhand, in the Singhbhum district, a
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in limestones, calcareous slates and sandstones
copper-bearing belt of about 140 km occurs. Here and occasionally in metamorphic rocks or in
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the copper ore occurs as veins in the country rock
consisting of micaschists, quartz schists, chlorite
schists, biotite schists, granite and granite
association with volcanic rocks, while zinc
blende or sphalerite is found in veins in
associaiton with galena, chalcopyrites, iron
gneisses. The veins are best developed along a pyrites and other sulphide ores. The chief rock
zone of overthrust where they form well-defined types associated with the sulphide ores of lead
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lodes as seen at Rakha mines, Mosabani and and zinc are pyrite, slate, dolomite and quartz.
Dhobani. Individual lodes normally consist of
one or more veins one inch to two feet thick, the Major producers of lead are the USA, Russia,
average being 5 to 7 inches. Australia, Canada, Peru and Bulgaria. Leading
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The copper ore bodies occur in phyllites, states deposits. The Zawar mine is located in Mochia
and schists of the Ajabgarh series (Delhi system) Magra hills Lead and zinc occur at these places.
as irregular stringers, fillings of schistose planes Mineralisations of lead and zinc occur at these
and fractures and disseminations in the host
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Khuria highlands in Ranchi and Palamau are Bahlimali Parbat, Kalkahal, Kutrumali, etc.
districts. The important deposits are located at Large deposits are also found in the Eastern Ghat
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Bagrupahar, Seradang, Pabhrapat Jardapahar, tract in Koraput district. Bauxite reserves have
Maidanpat and Manduapat. In the Palamau also been discovered in Gandhamardhan plateau
district, the Netrahat plateau is important. Here of Sambalpur and Bolangir districts.
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the important deposits are located at Jamiropat,
In Andhra Pradesh, bauxite has been
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Ranchonghat, Orsapat and Joradumar.
In Madhya Pradesh and Chhatisgarh, there
discovered in the Anantgiri plateau. There are
12 such blocks in the area. The Gallikonda area
are three important areas: (a) the Amarkantak in Visakhapatnam district has also shown a
plateau region comprising Sarguja, Raigarh and reserve.
Bilaspur districts; (b) the Maikal range of hills in
Other areas of occurrences are in Jammu and
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the Bilaspur, Shahdol, Durg Mandla and
Balaghat districts; (c) the Katni area of Jabalput Kashmir and Uttar Pradesh.
district. URANIUM:
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In Bilaspur district bauxite deposits are The main ores are uranite and pitchblende.
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located on Phutka Pahar, Laddhi Pahar, A Geiger counter, which measures radioactivity,
Mahadeo Pahar and several other hilltops. In is used to locate deposits. Occurrences of
Shahdol and Mandla districts bauxite is found uranium ores are rare and localised.
in Umergaon, Jamuna Dadar, Dadar, Rukti Concentrations are generally low, so that
Dadar and Nanku Dadar areas. Bauxite deposits extraction is both difficult and costly.
segregated in the laterite cappings are located
in Jashpur in Khuria highlands north of Kurki, Canada, the USA and South Africa are
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between the Deccan Traps and the Gaj beds for Sunrgai and Dalbhum area of Singhbhum
about 48 km between Gulf of Kutch and the district (Jharkhand). Jaduguda is the only mine
Arabian Sea through Bhavnagar, Junagarh worked at present. In Rajasthan, it is found in
districts and around Bhatla, Nandana, Rann, Bisundi area of Ajmer district and Umra near
Mewasa, Habardi, Kenedi, Lamba and Virpur. Udaipur. In Andhra Pradesh it occurs in Nellore
Occurrences have also been reported in Mandvi, district in Sankara mine. In Karnataka it is found
Lakhpat, Nakharana and Bhujr, and Anjar at Yedyur near Bangalore. Uranium has also
talukas of Kutch district. been found at Domiasat.
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producer (by quantity) but mostly produces bort.
occurrence of muscovite mica is associated with Botswana and South Africa are leading
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the rocks of the Archaean age. It occurs in the gemstone producers. The world's greatest
Koderma mica belt in Jharkhand, the Nellore diamond cutting centres are Antwerp,
mica belt in Andhra Pradesh, and the Rajastan Amsterdam and The Hague.
mica belt.
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In India, the main diamond bearing areas are
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The Koderma mica belt stretches from the
Gaya district through Hazaribagh and Monghyr
to the Bhagalpur district. In this mica belt, the
Panna belt in Madhya Pradesh, Raipur in
Chhattisgarh, Munimadugu-Banganapalle
conglomerate in Kurnool district, Wajrakarur
deposits of mica are associated with the kimberlite pipe in Anantapur district and the
pegmatite veins which traverse through the gravels of Krishna river basic in Andhra Pradesh.
schistose and gneissose country rocks. The blocks
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of muscovite which occur within the Bihar mica Reserves have been estimated only in Panna
belt are generally reddish in colour and are belt and Krishna gravels.
therefore known as 'Ruby mica'. ASBESTOS:
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The Nellore mica belt stretches between Its main ore is chryoslite. France and Russia
Gudur and Sangam. The country rocks are are major producers.
Archaean mica schist and hornblende schist
which are intruded by pegmatite veins. Here SULPHUR:
muscovites are light green in colour.
Gases emitted from volcanoes are highly
Nearly 20 per cent of the Indian production sulphuruous and sulphur is thus deposited in
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comes from the Rajasthan belt. Here the mica- volcanic regions. It is also obtained from iron
bearing pegmatites are intrusive mainly into pyrites (iron sulphide). Sulphur comes mainly
rocks of the gneissic complex and the Aravalli from Poland, the USA and Mexico.
schists.
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SALT:
In Karnataka the deposits occur mainly in
Halite or sodium chloride is common salt. It
Mysore and Hassan districts, at Tagdur,
occurs as a sedimentary rock as a result of
Vadesamudra, Undavadi and Mundoor. The
evaporation of sea-water or lakes in the past.
quality of the mica is poor.
Major producers of rock salt are USA and China.
In Tamil Nadu few occurrences that have
In India three-fourths of salt production
been re-corded are in Tirunelveli district near
comes from the sea. Mithapur, Chharvada,
Kovilpatti in Coimbatore district (in
Jamnagar, Dharsana, Bulsar and other areas in
Vairemanlam, Munampalli, Sevattampalaiyam),
the Gujarat region produce more than half of
in Tiruchirappalli district (in Kurumbapatti,
the country's total salt every year. The salt-
Pallipati Kadavur and Mungilmalai) and also in
producing centres in Maharashtra include Uran,
Madurai and Kanyakumari districts.
Bhayandar and Bhandup. Salt is also obtained
Kerala too accounts for mica occurrences in from coastal tracts in Goa; Kerala; Karnataka;
Alleppey district at Maulhupa and Kulanda and Cuddalore, Adrampatnam, Madras and
in Quilion district around Ranni. The important Tuticorin in Tamil Nadu, which produces about
producers are Punalur and Nayyur. 16 per cent of the country's total annual
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is mined. Lignite is considered to be the second stage
of coal formation after peat. Its moisture content
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POTASH:
is high (over 35 per cent), as a result of which it
Main sources of potash are Canada, gives out much smoke but little heat. It breaks
Germany, USA. up easily when exposed to air. About 15 per cent
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of the world's coal output is from lignite.
PHOSPHATES:
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Phosphates occur as rocks in sedimentary
Bituminous coal is hard, black and compact.
It makes up most of the world's total coal output.
sequences or as phosphatic nodules. Another It varies in composition, in carbon content (from
source is bird droppings or guano. Main sources 40 per cent to 80 per cent), and in moisture and
of phosphate rock is the USA and the main volatile content (from 15 per cent to 40 per cent).
source of guano is the coast of Peru.
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Generally, steam coal with a fixed carbon content
KAOLIN: of more than 80 per cent, is the best of
bituminous group. The widest domestic use is of
Kaolin or china clay is a fine clay formed by coal with a fixed carbon content varying from
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Mahanadi, Godavari, etc. Tertiary coals The Ramgarh coalfield lies about 9 km of the
principally occur in Assam, in the Himalayan Bokaro field covering an area of about 98 sq km
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foothills of Kashmir and in Rajasthan (Palna in mostly with Barakar measures. There are 22
Bikaner) in Eocene strata. Besides these, lignite seams of which four major seams have an
deposits are found to occur in the South Arcot average thickness of 8 m each. The coal is dull in
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district of Tamil Nadu, in Kutch of Gujarat and appearance and high in ash content—30.7 to
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also in the state of Kerala. The Neyveli lignite
field of Tamil Nadu (which is of the Miocene
Age) is the largest lignite deposit in South India.
31.8 per cent.
Auranga, Hutar and Daltonganj coalfields
are of minor importance in Palamau district.
Coalfields engaged in mining Gondwana Auranga extends over 240 sq km with a seam of
coal are to be found in the following states. 13 m thickness. The coal analysis shows
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moisture, 10.35 per cent; volatile matter, 26.81
In West Bengal, the Burdwan, Bankura, per cent; fixed carbon, 26.43 per cent; and ash,
Purulia, Birbhum, Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri 35.81 per cent. Hutar covers an area of 200 sq
districts account for large coal deposits. The state km with five seams. Daltonganj field contains
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volatile coking quality. That is why it has been main seams of inferior quality coal; Jhimilli with
recognised as the “store house of best five main seams of moderate coking type coal;
metallurgical coals in India.” An average analysis Pench valley with four main seams of high
of Jharia coal shows moisture content to be 1.38 volatile non-coking coal; Karhan valley with a
per cent, volatile matter, 21.5 per cent, fixed seam of high volatile coking coal. The Korba field
carbon, 60.4 per cent and ash, 14.95 per cent. with several seams is in Chhattisgarh.
The Bokara coalfield lies within 32 km of the Important coal deposits in Maharashtra are
western end of the Jharia coalfield. It comprises in Nagpur district at Kamptee; Chandrapur
two parts separated by the Bokarao River—East district in Wardha valley, Warora and Ghugus;
Bokaro and the West Bokaro field. The east and at Ballarpur in Yavatmal district. The
Bokaro coalfield coves abut 207 sq km and has Wardha coalfield alone contains a little over 2000
29 seams, while the west Bokaro coalfield covers million tonnes.
about 167 sq km and has 23 major seams. The
average sample of coal analysis shows moisture, Warangal Khammamet, East Godavari and
0-82 per cent; volatile matter, 25.56 per cent; ash, West Godavari districts are the main coal-bearing
19.38 per cent; and fixed carbon, 54.24 per cent. areas in Andhra Pradesh.
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are high. In Balphakram-Pendeng area eight lighter and heavier oils. It has use in lubricants
seams have been recorded in the Chatmang and and fuel oils.
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Balphakram hills with a reserve of 32 million
tonnes of good quality coal. Over 75 per cent of the world's supply of
crude oil comes from three major areas: North
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The upper Assam belt extends into the
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Namchick-Namphuk coalfields of Tirap district Azerbaijan.
of Arunachal Pradesh. In this coalfield, coal is
generally high in volatility and in sulphur Saudi Arabia has the largest reserves
content. The Jhanzi-Disai coal belt and Barjan followed by Iraq and the United Arab Emirates.
coalfield of Nagaland and Dilli-Jaipur of upper Saudi Arabia is the leading producer followed
Assam also belong to the same belt. by the Commonwealth of Independent States
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and USA.
India at present is the fifth largest producer
of coal in the world. Coal is also India's largest India's most important oil-bearing area in
mineral resource. the eastern part of the Himalayas is Assam. The
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sources of oil.
oxygen. The liquid petroleum is called crude oil,
petroleum gas is called natural gas and the semi- In India, the Digboi oilfield, situated in
solid to solid forms of petroleum are known as Lakhimpur district of upper Assam, it is the
asphalt, tar, pitch, bitumen, etc. biggest oilfield in India. Digboi area raises about
4 lakh tonnes of crude annually. Tipam
For petroleum to accumulate in commercial
sandstone of Miopliocene age is the oil bearing
quantities in an area, the oil must originate in a
formation.
source bed. A marine shale, once a black mud
rich in organic compound, is thought to be a Naharkatiya oilfield is situated 32 km away
common source rock. The oil then migrates to from Digboi. This field was discovered in 1955
permeable reservoir rocks after travelling for long by Assam Oil Company. Its reserve is estimated
distances both vertically and horizontally. Te to be about 5 million tonnes. Naharkatiya is the
source beds tend to lack the permeability second largest oilfield in India. The oil bearing
necessary for profitable extraction of the oil. A formation is the Barail series of Oligocene age.
non-permeable layer must occur above the Moran, about 40 km south-west of Digboi,
reservoir bed. A non-permeable layer must occur Bappapung, Hausanpung, Hugirijang also have
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(Singhbhum and Shahabad districts); Tamil
oilfield, Nawagam and Sanand oilfield.
Nadu (Trinelveli, Salem districts and in coastal
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The Ankaleshwar oilfield is the most areas near Tuticorin); Orissa (Birmatrapur,
important oilfield discovered so far in Gujarat. Bildih, Khatepur and Hathibri in Sundargarh
The producing sands are of Eocene age. This field district, Sulai and other areas in Sambalpur
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was discovered in 1961. district and Koraput district); Chhattisgarh
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In Maharashtra, about 184 km off Mumbai Chatane, Dhurarbhatta, Baraduar and Atta in
in the Arabian Sea, a huge oil deposit, known as Bilaspupr); some hills in Himachal Pradesh; and
Bombay High, was struck (in 1974) in limestone Vadodara and Bhavnagar districts in Gujarat.
rocks of Miocene age. Bombay High (Ratnagiri
district) is the most productive oilfield and has a Steatite:
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reserve of 5 crore tonnes of oil. It has an area of
2 thousand sq km. While the output of Steatite (also sandstone or talc), a hydrous
conventional oilfields has increased only silicate of magnesium, is found in association
marginally over the past 14 years, Bombay High with dolomitic lime-stone and basic igneous rock
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has accounted for the bulk of the higher material. Rajasthan has the largest steatite
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production. During 1978-79, the work on the reserves.
laying of sub-sect pipeline from Bombay High to
Bhilwara, Jaipur and Udaipur districts yield
Uran and transfer line from Uran to Trombay
more than four-fifths of the state's total
was completed. Since 1978, oil and gas have
production. Other districts living steatite reserves
started to flow through these pipelines.
are Alwar, Sawai Madhopur and Dungarpur.
In the south, the Cauvery, the Krishna and
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Keymore in the district of Jabalpur, Alaktara in Salem district of Tamil Nadu and over a quarter
Bilaspur district, and in Raipur, Rajgarh, Bastar, in Almora district of Uttaranchal. Karnataka,
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Durg, Betul and Sagar districts. Deposits of Bihar and Rajasthan have small reserves.
cement and flux grade are found in the district
of Rewa. Damoh district has deposits of blast The principal magnesite deposits in Tamil
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furnace grade. Nadu are found in the chalk hills area in Salem
district. The deposits occur in regular veins in
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In Andhra Pradesh the districts of Guntur,
Krishna, Cuddapah, Khammam, Kurnool,
intrusive ultrabasic rocks. In Almora district of
Uttaranchal good quality magnesite occurs in
Nalgonda and Godavari possess some of the narrow bands of variable thickness in massive
major deposits. dolomite between Someshwar and Bageshwar
near Agar, Chahana, Dewaldhar and Nail.
In Tamil Nadu, important reserves of mainly
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Occurrences of magnesite have also been
cement grade limestone are found in
reported from Jhiroli, Pagankhol, Ariapani,
Tiruchirapalli, Coimbatore, Madurai, and
Bhurgaon, Changdog, Boragar, Gahar Rithait,
Ramnathapuram districts. Salem district has flux
Satislang, Phadiari Jakhera, Tachhiri, Tanga
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metamorphic rocks which abound in garnets and irregular veins in the clays and limestones of the
sillimanite. Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and Bihar Uttatur and Trichinopoly stages of the
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have good deposits. Creataceous system.
In Andhra Pradesh deposits around In Uttaranchal, gypsum occurs in several
Peddanakonda have a fixed carbon content of
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localities as at Lachmanijhula, around Kharari
40 to 65 per cent. Important areas include east
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Godavari and west Godavari districts (areas like
Rampa Chodavaram, Reddi Bodiar and
Haripuram), Krishna district, Khamamet district,
Chatti, Sera Narendranagar and Gughthani in
Garhwal district and near Dhapila, Bhatta,
Khalagaon, Sahashradhara, Nainital posits have
been reported near Gonti and Parsua in Jhansi
Visakhapatnam, Guntur, Buderu and
district of Uttar Pradesh and near Purune in
Srikakulam.
Hamirpur district of Himachal Pradesh.
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In Orissa, graphite deposits of 55-60 per cent
In the district of Barmula and Doda of Jammu
carbon occur at Babupali, Dengsurgi, Biliangora,
and Kashmir, rich deposits occur as lenticular
Bughmunda, Komna and other parts of
bands in the Precambrian Salakhal schists or
Kalahandi district; Titilagarh, Darpagarh,
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of about 50 per cent occur around Rajhara and area especially in Halar and districts of
Khandih. Bhavanagar, Gohilwad, Jamnagar, Jungadh and
In Tamil Nadu, graphite reserves are located Kutch covering an area of 518sq km. Important
occurrences are in Jamnagar district at Rana
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natural resources before they are extracted or like product of all third countries or the
harvested. exportation of the like product to all third
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countries is similarly prohibited or
WTO rules related to Mineral trade:
restricted.
• Article I of the GATT sets out the most- • In some circumstances, subsidies can
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favoured-nation principle, one of the
C IC exacerbate the over-exploitation of scarce
fundamental obligations of the multilateral natural resources. The WTO includes
trading system. This provision prohibits a important disciplines on the use of subsidies
WTO member from treating the products by WTO members. Subsidies to non-
originating in or destined for another agricultural goods are regulated under the
member less favourably than the “like” SCM Agreement. The SCM Agreement
products originating in or destined for any defines a “subsidy” as a financial
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other country (including non-WTO contribution by a government or any public
members). Thus, WTO member A cannot body within the territory of a member that
subject imports of coal from WTO member confers a benefit. A financial contribution
B to a higher tariff than imports of coal
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One of the major challenges that are crucial India's top iron ore miner NMDC (NMDC.NS),
in the context of relatively backward economies a state-run firm that supplies steelmakers such
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is that the macroeconomic policies of these as Tata (TISC.NS), Jindal (JNSP.NS) and Essar.
countries are not always proportionate to utilize But the U.S. argument was that "because NMDC
the gains from world trade. International trade is a public sector undertaking and therefore
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can be beneficial if the gains derived from it can implicitly subsidising a private-sector enterprise.
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be distributed evenly across the different layers
of the society. Here lies the importance of “trickle-
down” effect.
However to counter it, Indian side replied that
Indian iron ore prices were determined by the
domestic market so, there is no subsidy.
Domestic trade involves exchange of factors Last October the United States sent the WTO
of production at the regional level; whereas a list of 50 Indian government measures that it
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international trade ensures greater mobility of said amounted to unfair subsidies that had not
latest technology and goods and services across been notified, as required by the WTO, and
the nations. World trade helps the developing threatened to slap duties on them if India did
countries to have ready access to the modern not notify them promptly. Included on the list
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have failed to utilize the gains from trade due to including 2.78 billion rupees from the fund. The
inappropriate macroeconomic setups. Before SDF had already paid out 1.39 billion rupees.
opening up the economy, the backward nations US files dispute against India on solar panel
need to safeguard the interests of the domestic
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The amount of natural resources extracted
per day were produced by shell, making shell
for the production of goods and services is
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steadily increasing. Almost half of global by far the biggest oil company in Nigeria. The
resource extraction takes place in Asia, followed country has significant oil reserves and even
by North America with almost 20% and Europe greater gas reserves. However, most Nigerians
have not benefited from these resources and
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and Latin America with 13% each. However,
large variations exist in natural resources Nigeria is now one of the poorest countries in
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extraction per capita: on average, an inhabitant the world.
of Australia extracts around 10 times more Shell operates in Nigeria through the shell
resources than inhabitants of Asia or Africa. petroleum development company, a joint
Increasing resource extraction leads to growing venture between shell and the Nigerian
environmental and social problems, often worst government. SPDC has more than 90 oil and gas
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in poor countries in Africa, Latin America and fields spread over some 30,000 square kilometres
Asia. In 1980, the world economy extracted of oil mining leases in the Niger delta. It is a
almost 40 billion tonnes. Up to 2005, this number massive operation involving a network of more
grew to 58 billion tonnes, an increase of almost
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tripled. For some of the biotic resources, such as land is heavily polluted. Gas flaring has severe
fish, the signs of overuse can already be observed health consequences. Many scientific studies
– catch rates have been declining over the past have linked breathing particulate matter to a
10 years. series of significant health problems, including
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Nigeria ordered shell to immediately stop flaring royalty rates. The mining companies have made
gas, in iwherekan community, delta state. The huge profits. For example the Central
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court found gas flaring to be a ‘gross violation’ Government has recently fixed the royalty for
of the rights to life and dignity. Nevertheless, shell iron ore at just 10 per cent of the value of the
continues the flaring. mined iron ore after supposedly discussing with
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the so-called stakeholders, namely the big mining
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There have been major human rights abuses
as well. On June 8 2009, shell was forced to pay
us$15.5 million to settle an embarrassing lawsuit
in the US for human rights abuses in Nigeria.
companies. Royalty is equally low for other major
minerals.
In the face of growing resistance by tribal
The company is also facing legal action in The communities, the Central Government is
Hague concerning repeated oil spills which have proposing an amendment to the Mines and
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damaged the livelihoods of Nigerian fisher folk Minerals (Development and Regulation Act)
and farmers. 2011, to make it mandatory for companies to give
funds for tribal development in districts where
Issue of denial of property rights to local people they have mining leases. The funds are to be put
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in a District Mineral Foundation Fund which will
Tribals have paid the highest price of
be under the control of the administration. Coal
national development because their regions are
companies are to give 26 per cent of their profits
resource rich: 90 percent of all coal and around
to the Fund.
50 percent of the remaining minerals are in their
regions. Also the forest, water and other sources The International Labour Organisation (
abound in their habitat. But lakhs of tribals have ILO)- funded report on India's indigenous
been displaced from 1990 onwards (due to the
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International conventions adopted by the reportedly contribute to more than half of the
United Nations as well as the International national mining production. Yet, mining policies
Labour Organisation have recognized the rights in India have overlooked the existence of adivasi
of tribal communities on land and surface and communities and the constitutional provision for
sub-surface resources. Many countries including the protection of their land and resources.
Canada, Brazil, South Africa and Australia have “There is no mention of adivasis ' rights or
been forced to at least acknowledge in different protection in any of the procedures. Though a
ways the rights of indigenous communities on disaggregated data on the number of mines
mineral wealth in their respective countries. operating in the country or the number of people
But in India, where an overwhelming displaced by such projects does not officially
majority of mines are located in adivasi areas, exist as the information is deemed to be "
the tribals have not only been denied these rights politically sensitive," the report estimates that an
but have been driven out of their lands through overwhelming majority of mines are located in
forcible acquisition or denied access. The spirit the adivasi areas. In 1991, out of the 4,175 mines
of the Samatha judgement of the Supreme Court in the country, 3,500 were in tribal areas.
to recognize tribal ownership rights has been Another estimate states that between 1950 and
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constitutional and protective rights of the
indigenous communities and restoring their • Socio-economic inequalities have widened.
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alienated lands and resources, has signed over
100 memorandums of understanding with the • The cropping pattern has changed
private industry. drastically
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Further the economic liberalization,
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privatization and globalization (LPG) model of reduced substantially.
development in India is virtually depriving the • Increase in the proportion of agricultural
tribal people and other agriculture dependent labourers.
poor people of their traditional means of
• Increasing trend towards nuclear family.
sustainable livelihood by promoting the
• Poor dwelling conditions of the oustees.
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unregulated growth of mineral-based industries
in the tribal regions of India. In the name of • Improper use of compensation money
modernization and the country’s economic
development, the elites in India are taking over • Rise in the incidence of indebtedness.
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resources of the ecosystems in which they live. important input in the economic development a
The mining and other industries that are taking mineral rich country. In addition to the general
over the resources of the ecosystems of these tribal value-adding benefits of mining, a quality which
people and poor peasants fail to provide them it shares with many other businesses, mining has
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with an improved and sustainable means of some special qualities which enable it to serve as
making a living. The very nature of the present a springboard for countries seeking to
development paradigm does not provide for the industrialise. Mining is at the beginning of the
absorption of these poor people into the value chain and has a capacity to kick start
organized non-farm sector economy. economic development that few other businesses
offer. It does not require a sophisticated supply
Case Study of Impact of Development Project
chain in the country in which it takes place, as
on Displaced Tribals in Orissa manufacturing so often does, and it does not
require developed local markets.
Orissa’s coal deposits are mostly concentrated
in two regions - Talcher Belt in Angul District Also, minerals are indispensable when
and the lb Valley Area in Jharsuguda District producing manufactured goods of all kinds and
and in the State and mining is carried out by the in providing most services, even at a basic level.
Mahanadi Coal Fields Limited (MCL), a Furthermore, all ‘renewable’ forms of energy
subsidiary of Coal India Limited (CIL). The lb generation, including solar, wind, bio-energy,
Valley Project has affected 19 villages involving and forestry and agricultural production, are
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life, can no longer rely on technology to make
The first trend is the greatly expanding
possible infinite development and population
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international opportunities for mineral resource
growth, and can no longer maximize present-
development. On the supply side, industrial
generation benefits at the expense of future
development in general and mining in particular
generations' well-being.
have been accelerated by a number of factors,
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including the end of the Cold War, the emergence
C IC Issue related to corporate corruption
of new market economies in Asia, Latin America,
Africa and Eastern Europe, the move toward Governments are dependent upon individual
privatization of state mining assets, and officials and ministers to negotiate deals.
increasing fiscal liberalization in developing and Companies can gain immensely by bribing these
emerging economies. individuals. This gives rise to an ‘agency
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problem’ for LDCs. While widely recognised, to
On the demand side, consumption of the date it has been addressed by a variety of ad hoc
majority of minerals continues to increase, international initiatives.
particularly in developing countries and
One such is the Extractive Industries
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awareness and concern about its negative effects country-by-country, forcing illicit payments into
has heightened, and this heightened concern is the open.
fueling a significant increase in both national
Another initiative has been the pan-OECD
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contracts in considerable detail. Potentially, such minerals (but not major) in Fifth and Sixth
legislation could so discourage the major
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Schedule areas where “the gram sabha or the
companies from entering into prospecting District council, as the case may be shall be
contracts with the governments of LDCs that the consulted.” Thus even the provisions under other
only companies left as partners for governments laws such as the Panchayat Extension (to
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would be cowboy operations. Schedule Areas) Act (PESAA), which mandates
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But it is not a matter of adopting new
consultation with the gram sabhas, are violated
by the complete absence of any consultative
standards, but simply of enforcing standards
process prior to the granting of lease for major
which are already incorporated into legal
minerals, which are the main sites of tribal
systems globally.
deprivation. In another provision for notification
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Issue related to nexus between government and of giving leases in forest areas and wildlife areas,
the State government has to “take all necessary
private sector:
permissions from the owners of the land and
In India, ownership of minerals lies with the those having occupation rights.” Thus an
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captive mines of iron ore and bauxite to steel and women sufferings
aluminium corporates like the Tatas and Birlas.
According to a recent report compiled for the The displacement of people due to mining
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industry by Ernst and Young, of the 4.9 lakh has only multiplied the exploitation and
hectares of land given out in mining leases in 23 degradation of women’s rights with regard to
States by the end of 2009, 95 per cent of the leases land and livelihoods. Historically and also in the
comprising 70 per cent of the land were given to existing legal framework, women have no legal
private companies. rights over lands or natural resources. There is
an invisible distinction between rural and tribal
The MMRDA Bill aims to further deregularise women with regard to control over lands in
and liberalise the mining sector and encourage traditional land based situations in mainstream
privatisation based on the recommendations of India. Tribal women enjoy a greater social status
the Hoda Committee. It introduces the concept with regard to control over resources. This
of high technology reconnaissance, prospecting ensures their active participation and decision-
and exploration licences, and easy terms of making with regard to land utilization,
conversion to mining leases to encourage the agriculture and powers over cash flow in a tribal
entry of FDI and foreign companies. It also gives economy. This is enjoyed to a lesser extent by
weightage, in the allocation of leases, to a set of rural women in India. Yet, they have a distinct
criteria which favour such companies and also role in the agrarian society with regard to
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Environmental impacts of mining and mineral
Whenever villages have been displaced or processing includes:
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affected, women have been forced out of their
land based work and pushed into menial and 1. Surface water pollution
marginalised forms of labour as maids and • Soluble contaminants in domestic or
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servants, as construction labourers or into agricultural use waters from release of mine
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prostitution, which are highly unorganised and
socially humiliating.
Women displaced by mining, have lost the •
and processing water or leakage from waste
deposits
Deposition of solids on agricultural land and
rights to cultivate their traditional crops, and in shallow sea zones
forests being cut down for mining, they are
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• Withdrawal of water for industrial purposes
unable to collect forest produce for consumption
(food, fodder, medicines or ceremonial needs) or • Alteration of aquatic flora and fauna,
for sale. The cash flow that tribal and rural including\ destruction of fish species and
accumulation of toxic elements in fish
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releases of effluents to surface water bodies or recently, this area of southern Mongolia was one
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to groundwater are controlled and reduced of the world's last great wildernesses – a cold
through judicious planning at the very beginning desert that is home to gazelle, wild ass and
of mining projects. herders living a traditional nomadic existence.
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There are several reasons for the change in
C IC Today, however, it is the centre of the planet's
attitudes. The most important may be the greatest resource boom. Some are calling it "the
pressure of public opinion. Second, last frontier", others "Minegolia". Whatever the
conditionalities aimed at ensuring good name, this impoverished but remarkable nation
environmental practices are increasingly being in east Asia is on the brink of one of the most
dramatic transformations in human history.
required by international financial institutions
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and by commercial banks. Third, environmental The vast opencast pit at Tevan Tolgoi is just
control measures in new projects usually do not the start. Its 6bn tonnes of coal are being partly
entail major cost increases and may even developed by a local mining firm. Extraction
improve production economies. rights will also be auctioned off to overseas
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bidders, likely to include China's Shenhua,
Most governments have made the "Polluter
Peabody of the US and a Russian consortium.
Pays Principle" (PPP) an integral part of their
Whoever does the digging, the ultimate buyer of
environmental policies. According to this
the fuel is likely to be China, which accounts for
principle "the polluter should bear the expenses
85% of Mongolia's exports. The extraction is
of carrying out pollution prevention and control
expected to triple the national economy by 2020
measures decided by public authorities to ensure
and propel the living standards of the small,
that the environment is in an acceptable state.
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consumption". The PPP aims to improve grasslands and necessitate roads and electricity
economic efficiency. grids that disrupt the migration patterns of local
There are some examples of economic species.
instruments not directly aimed at internalizing The damage is already evident in the cross-
environmental costs but rather at promoting Gobi traffic, where drivers churn up so much
pollution control measures. These include tax dust that some use their headlights in the middle
incentives such as accelerated depreciation for of the day to pierce the gloom.
pollution control equipment. While these
instruments are likely to contribute to reductions Nomad families in the area blame the mines
in pollution, they are not very cost-effective from for dried up wells, shrinking watering holes and
the government's point of view. Furthermore, clouds of dust that blacken the lungs and
they may provide an incentive to companies to stomachs of their animals.
invest in "end-of-pipe" technology, that is, to treat Two-thirds of the state's Human
emissions rather than to prevent pollution from Development Fund – which has come from
occurring in the first place through appropriate mining revenues – has been spent on monthly
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