CURRENTS IN THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN (*)

by I. E n g e l (E N SG )
Fisheries Research S tatio n , H a ifa , Israel

Ships have been p lo u g h in g th ro u g h the E astern M e dite rrane an since

tim e im m e m o ria l.
The “ sea-dogs ” of olden tim es were certainly not u n p ro v id e d 'Vfiib.
in fo rm a tio n abo ut the currents in this region. However, lite ra ture on this
subject has u p till now been ra th e r rare.

SURFACE OBSERVATIONS

It is to N ie l s e n (1912) th a t we owe the m ost co m m o n ly k n o w n picture

o f the currents in the E astern M editerranean. T his consists of a W e st
East c irc u la tio n along the A fric a n coast, becom ing a p p ro x im ate ly South-
N orth off the L ev an tine states a n d ta k in g fin a lly an East-W est direction
starting fro m the G u lf of Iske nde run. T his picture has been corroborated
by the presence of w aters o f deltaic o rig in along the Isra e li coast, as
established by L iebman (1930), as w ell as by the presence in Isra e l’s coastal
p la in of a llu v ia l deposits co m ing fro m the N ile (R im , E m e r y a n d B e n t o r ,
E m e r y a n d N e e v , N e e v ). F u rthe rm o re , R o u g h (1945) a ttrib ute s to the
Nile the s ud d e n decrease in s a lin ity w h ic h he noted a t B e iru t after the
floods o f th is river.
Nevertheless N ie l s e n ’ s p o in t o f view has h a d to be som ew hat m od ified
on account o f later studies.
Indeed G h u v e l (1931) established the existence in the E astern M e di­
terranean of counter-currents w h ic h he attrib u te s above a il to w in d action.
S tu d y in g the influence of the Nile flood waters along the Isra e li coast,
O r e n (1952) discovered two varieties o f w ate r developing side b y side,
each of different salin ity a n d colouring. He fo u n d , moreover, th a t the least
salt w aters — i.e. those m ost affected by the Nile — are n ot necessarily
to be fo u n d near the shores, a nd also th a t the line separating these two
k in d s of w ater moves aw ay fro m the coast as it progresses n o rth w a rd s.
A kyüz (1957) in his stud y o n h y d ro lo g ical conditions in the G u lf o f
Isk e n d e ru n shows th a t the surface c ircu latio n there form s two edd y u n its.

(*) T his study has been p a r tia lly subsidized b y the In te r n a tio n a l A to m ic Energy
Agency in V ien na (A ustria), un der Research C ontract No. 118/RB.
 In 1956 the Calypso E x p e d itio n directed by L acom be a nd T c h e r n ia
(1959) fo u n d currents w ith a southw esterly direction at its stations 173
a n d 174，as was also noted by E m e r y a n d G e o r g e (1963).
E m e r y a n d N e e v (1960) in th e ir stu d y on the Israeli beaches d ra w
a tte n tio n to the N orth-South currents n o t far fro m shore — or rather,
S outh- N orth currents that, fo llo w in g a sem i-circular p ath, reverse the ir
d ire c tio n a nd become N orth-South. S im u lta n e o u sly , the angle between the
w ave fro n t a n d the coast progressively changes its o rie n ta tio n proceeding
fr o m the S o u th to the N orth. W h e re a s th is angle faces tow ards the N o rth
in the sou th o f Israel it opens tow ards the S outh in the n o rth of th a t
c o u n try . These observations are m oreover c onfirm d by coastal sand depo­
sits. These a cc u m u la te fro m N o rth to S o uth above a ppro x im ate ly latitu d e
32°, a n d in the opposite d ire ctio n below this latitud e .
E m e r y a n d G e o r g e (1963) w he n stu d y in g Lebanese beaches likew ise
notice th a t in the m a jo r ity o f the ir observational stations waves approach
th e shore fro m the N orthw est in such a w ay th a t the angle m ade b y the
d ire c tio n o f the w ave fro n t a n d the shore generally faces South. South-
N o r th currents have o n ly been observed by the auth ors in three border
s ta tio n s in the region o f T rip o li.
F in a lly the A tlas O cé an o g rap h iq u e et M étéorologique de la M édite r­
ra n é e (1957), s u m m a r iz in g surface curren t directions for the w hole extent
o f the g rid coverage, does not in dicate a n y p a rtic u la rly preferred direction
in a n y g rid square in the region.
T he velocity o f the currents seems seldom to rise above 6- 12 m iles
pe r d ay (12- 25 c m /s ).
However, E m ek y a nd N e e v (1960) in A p ril 1959 fo u n d a v e ra g e s of
a b o u t 50 c m /s in Israeli w aters. T his is also the m a g n itu d e assum ed by
G r u v e l for the S y ria n countries.
O n the contrary, H e c h t (1964) adopts a value o f 17 c m /s d u rin g the
N ile ’s flood w ater period ( Septem ber-October). A t a ppro x im ate ly the same
tim e of year — in O ctober 1962 — E m e r y and G e o r g e (1963) carried out
velo city m easurem ents off the L e ban o n. They fo u n d p re d o m in a n t velo­
cities o f abo u t 6 c m /s at the m ost, a n d a m a x im u m of about 25 cm /s.
O n the other h a n d O r e n a n d K o m a r o v s k y (1961) have sum m arize d
the recordings a t the A shd o d s ta tio n in Israel taken a t a dep th o f 7 m u s in g
a N eyrpic currentm eter. T he c u rren t velocities there varied fro m 0.00 c m /s
to 21 c m /s ，a n d the m ost fre qu e nt average was 10 cm /s.

I I .— GEOSTROPHIC CIRCULATION

T he general pa tte rn o f the geostrophic c irc u la tio n in the region is

sh o w n in figures 2，3 a n d 4.
These figures refer to the p ic tu re at the surface layer, a n d at depths
o f 20 m a n d o f 500 m , respectively.
 F ig . 1
S ta tio n de Recherches des Pêches m a r itim e s à C aïffa (Israël)
S tu d y o f the L e v a n tin e B asin
P o sitio n P la n
O bservations s ta tio n s :
A tla n tis . C hypre - 02.
Calypso. V av ilo v .
 F ig . 2
S tatio n de Recherches des Pêches m a ritim e s à C aïffa (Israël)
S tu d y o f the L e v an tin e B asin (Chypre - 02)
C o nto urs o f the pressures of the u n it w a te r c o lu m n at the sea surface
 32°

F ig . 3
S tatio n de Recherches des Pêches m a r itim e s à Gaïffa (Israël)
S tudy of the L evantine B asin (Chypre - 02)
C ontours of the pressures of the w ater c o lu m n (in m b) at a depth of 20 m
 ^
o s'sSs z u !w 3 J

ul

ul

30
25
扣
SSS3ÍIA
^

10
8
642

F ig . 4
S tatio n de Recherches des Pêches m a r itim e s à Caïffa (Israël)
S tudy o f the L ev an tin e B asin (Chypre - 02)
C o nto u rs of the pressures of the w ater c o lu m n (in m b) at a depth of 500 m
 The representation o f the geostrophic current in these figures is m ade
b y u sing the pressures in the hydrostatic co lu m n , w ith the sea surface as
reference level.
T he basic data for d raw in g u p these figures were obtain ed fro m the
sam ples tak e n d u rin g the “ Chypre-02 ” project of the H a ifa Fisheries
Research Station in S um m e r 1963. U n d e r the supervision o f O .H . O ren
18 stations, as indicated in figure 1， fo r conventional m e asu re m e nt of
tem perature a n d salin ity were occupied.

Com putational technique

It is w ell k n o w n th a t the geostrophic current can be defined by consi­

d ering the pressure differences between tw o points.
C harts can be d raw n up, using the k n o w n pressure d is trib u tio n w ith in
a sea，w h ic h w ill show the current lines, the ir directions, a nd d ata on
cu rren t velocity.

a) C o m p u ta tio n o f hydrostatic pressure

C o n trary to the usual practice o f u sin g a deep reference level, here
the sea surface was chosen for this purpose.
T his procedure was at first adopted n o t o n ly because the M editerranean
Sea in the sum m er m o n th s has a c alm surface b u t also because we do not
k n o w the depth of a plane surface in fu ll e q u ilib riu m . L ate r on it w ill
be seen th a t our assum ptions were -well fo unded.
N u m e rica l results were obtained for layers equal in d e p th to the
distances between two standard depths, a p p ly in g the fo rm u la :
Pz = Po + gpmh (1)
where

Pz the total pressure of the hy d ro sta tic c o lu m n at z d epth a n d at

the base of the layer being considered ;
Po the pressure at the top o f this layer;
the m ean value for densities a t the top a n d the b o tto m of this
layer;

( ^),po + p«

h the h e ig ht of the layer ;

g — the gravity value at the sta tio n ’s latitud e cp a n d at the z d e p th
at the bottom of the layer. The values o f g have been co m puted
by fir s t o f a ll a p p ly in g th e H e lm e r t f o r m u l a ( S v e r d r u p - Jo h n s o n -
F le m in g , p. 4 0 4 ):

g0 = 9.80616 (1 - 0.002644 cos 2<p + 0.000007 cos2 2(p)，

then the fo rm u la :
9z = + 2.202 _10-6z.
 W it h the value o f h y d ro sta tic pressure th u s obtained at each station,
isob aric contours were then d raw n . F igures 3 a n d 4 give exam ples for
depths of 20 m a n d 500 m respectively.
F o r the isobars in figure 2 the fo rm u la expressing pressures (1) w as
reduced to the term s :

p = g 0 >p ^ u n it o f h e ig h t (2)
w ith
p = th e p re ssure of th e h y d r o s ta tic c o lu m n ;
g 0 — the g ravity value at the sea surface;
p = the density o f sea w ater, s a m p le d at the surface.
I n the results, calculate d by m eans of the above fo rm u la , by ta k in g
acc o u n t o f d ecim als fo r the h e ig h t instead of the u n ity figures we arrive
at a p ic tu re o f the geostrophic c irc u la tio n on the surface. T his is repre­
sented in figure 2 w h ic h in a d d itio n offers the possibility , in id e n tica l condi­
tions, of a c o m p a riso n w ith the theoretical contours, such as those of
B. Sa in t G u il y (1961).
It is obvious th a t c u rre n t lines re su ltin g fro m the above co m p u tatio n s
can differ fr o m the actu al cu rren t lines as a re sult of atm osph eric condi­
tions. W e m a y note in this respect th a t the average v a ria tio n in atm os­
ph eric pressure betw een the Is la n d o f C yprus a n d the L evan tine coast rises
in s u m m e r to a b o u t 1 - 2 m illib a rs . T his v a ria tio n is com parable in size
to the v a riatio n s in h y d ro sta tic pressure o b ta in ed at the sam e places at a
d ep th of 20 m . H ow ever the size o f these differences in a tm o sph eric pres­
sure seems in s u ffic ie n t to affect a ppre ciab ly the d is trib u tio n of pressures
at a d e p th o f 500 m .
M oreover, a co m p a riso n of figures 2, 3 a n d 4 shows th a t the aspect
o f the isobars re m a in s a p p ro x im ate ly the sam e fro m the surface d o w n to
considerable depths. It follow s first o f a ll th a t the d is trib u tio n of h y d ro ­
static pressure depends at a ll depths on the sam e causes, a n d then th a t
this d is tr ib u tio n is in d e pe n d en t of tem po ra ry atm o sph eric conditions, the
densities b e in g m ore w id e ly d istrib u te d in tim e.
O n the o the r h a n d by a g a in c o m p a rin g these figures we see th a t they
show clearly th a t the d is trib u tio n of h y d ro sta tic pressure is liable to
a lte ratio n on account o f b o tto m cond itions. The b ath y m e tric chart of
G ie r m a n n (I9 6 0 ) shows, in fact, th a t there exists a sill in the n e igh bo urh ood
o f the line betw een Cape A ndreas in C yprus a n d L a ta k ia in Syria. T his
sill lim its a n y p o ssib ility of c irc u la tio n tow ards the N o rth beyond a depth
o f 550 m . T he isobars then take the opposite direction, i.e. tow ards the
S ou th. T h is fact is already a p p a re n t in figure 4 for a depth of 500 m .
T hus w ith in cre asin g depths the pressures w o u ld become m ore a n d m ore
d istrib u te d acco rdin g to rings corresponding to the bottom topography.

b) The s tu d y of velocities
S v k r d h it p -Jo h n s o n -Fl e m in g (p. 391) state :

Ap
sin © (3)
1.458 . 10-4
where :
V = the current velocity;
g = the m e a n g ravity value for the place u nde r consideration;
Ap = th e d if fe r e n c e in h y d r o s ta tic p ressure b e tw e e n th e tw o g iv e n
po in ts;
ip = the m e an la titu d e for the place.
The n om ogram s given in the m a rg in s of figures 3 a n d 4 were estab­
lished using this fo rm u la .
It is w ell k n o w n th a t velocities th u s co m puted have o n ly a relative
valuo, a n d m oreover th a t they are affected by the forces o f friction .
T h u s the v irtu a l viscosity effect in its m ost sim ple expression is
reduced to the re latio n (D e fa n t, p. 3 1 4 ) :

R — — k p p2 (4)
where :
R = the re su ltan t force of fric tio n expressing the loss o f velocity;
p = the density of w ater ;
V = th e v e lo c ity o f flo w ;

k = the coefficient o f v irtu a l viscosity.

However, the n u m e rica l ap p lica tio n o f this re latio n is restricted before­
h a n d to the pro b lem of the d e te rm in a tio n o f k t the coefficient of v irtu a l
viscosity,
In fact the sole relevant value av ailable is that given by D e f a n t (p. 317 )，
fro m the w ork o f T a y lo r , nam ely

k = 2.6 . 10-3.

In the above fo rm u la this value o f k restricts the c u rre n t velocities

to a b o u t 95 c m /s.
However, T a y l o r ' s value is v a lid for p a rtic u la r conditions, a n d its
a u th o r w arns us th a t the value co uld change for other cases a n d could
increase u p to 100 tim es this value.
T his m eans th a t this coefficient’s value m u s t be sought by m eans of
c o m p u tatio n .
To this end we note th a t the re la tio n used by T a y lo r is s im ila r to
the e q u a tio n of E c k m a n n ( D e f a n t ， p. 420). T his last, expressing the
in te ra ctio n of w in d a nd sea c ircu latio n , is w ritte n :

T = 2.6 . 10-3 . .u?2 (5)

w here :
T = the force re su ltin g fro m w in d fric tio n on the sea surface ;
pf = the density o f a ir;
w = the velocity o f the w in d expressed in cm /s.
T his fo rm u la has been checked a n d fo u n d v a lid for w in d velocities
o f 20 m / s a nd more.
O n the other h a n d the average fo r relative velocities, deduced fro m
the distance between isobars, for a d e p th of 500 m is of the order of 20 c m /s.
 T hus ta k in g the scale ratio in to account, we obtain fo r the ratio of
the above equations :
T 2.6 . I O—3 . 1.29 4.10 +«
R — 2.6 • 10-3 . 1.02922 . 400
W e k n o w also th a t the effect produced o n a n e n v iro n m e n t depends
solely on the acting force a n d on the p a rtic u la r structure of this envi­
ro n m e n t. In other w ords, the action of one k in d o f w ater on another k in d,
or o f the w in d , is the sam e provided th a t the forces involved are identical.
It follow s th a t we s h o u ld fin d e qu ality in the results of these two
relations, i.e. T = R,
In order to obtain th is it is necessary a n d sufficient to a d ju s t the R
value sc as to arrive at this e quality, or else — a nd th is comes to the
same — to m u ltip ly the sole u n k n o w n (i.e. the T aylor coefficient) by
the re su lt o f the above m e n tio n e d ratio.
T hus we fin a lly arrive at a value of the order of k — 3 . 10~2 for the
coefficient of the v ir tu a l viscosity o f sea w ater.
F u rth e rm o re , in a recent pu b lica tio n , w ritte n by O r e n a n d E n gel
(1965), is w as stated th a t the w aters of the Eastern. M editerranean could
be d iv ide d in to three superim posed layers according to th e ir at gradients,
the depths o f the theoretical lim its of these layers being d efined by the
po in ts o f intersection of their best g radient stra ig h t lines. The th ir d and
deepest of these layers is characterized by n il gradients, a fact relating
to c o nd itio ns th a t tend to a fin a l e q u ilib riu m in deep w ater.
T his tendency tow ards com plete s tability sho uld also be reflected in
the velocity o f currents by a progress tow ards a total slackening. F u r ­
therm ore, the g ra p h ic representation of velocities should c o n firm the fact
by sho w in g a bre ak in the curve at the d e p th of the intersection of the
best stra ig h t lines relative to the at gradients.

«•.so mi« r.nevcNNet

F ig . 5
S ta tio n de Recherches des Pêches m a ritim e s à C aïffa (Israël)
C o m p u ta tio n of currents — S tatio ns Nos. 15 an d 16
(Chypre - 02)
 In figure 5 the relevant m e a n values fo r a t obtained at the border
statio n s 15 a n d 16 are show n, a n d also the velocities re su ltin g fr o m d if ­
ferences in h y d ro sta tic pressure at these sam e points. These velocities
therefore arise fro m the a p p lic a tio n o f the general fo r m u la (3) given at
th e b e g in n in g o f th is section a n d w hose results have been corrected for
fr ic tio n effects by m eans o f re la tio n (4).
A s to the v ir tu a l viscosity term , the fo llo w in g k values have been
tak e n into acco u nt :
A* = 2 6 . 1 0 —3 ; a v a lu e deduced fro m th e m a g n itu d e of th e r a tio
T / R « 10.
k = 33 . 10-3; a v a lu e deduced fr o m the result of the ra tio T / R = 12.6.
/: = 3 . 10—2 ; a value o b ta in ed by tr ia l a n d error.
As we see on the g ra ph, for k = 3 . 10—2 the correspon d ing velocity
curves reach th e ir m a x im u m at the “c ritic a l” d e p th o f the in te rsectio n
o f the slopes relative to the at g radients. B eyond this d e p th the r e m a in in g
p o in ts of the curve show u p a re g u la r decrease in velocity.
It sh o u ld be noted, how ever, th a t this same k value is noted also at
the border of the other two layers.
A no the r exam ple of breaks refers to stations 14 a n d 15 a n d is illu s ­
trated in fig ure 6, Nevertheless the m a x im u m in re su lta n t velocities is
here reached at the theoretical border betw een the tw o u p p e r layers.
There it can moreover be seen th a t the bre ak in d ic a tin g the b e g in n in g

F ig . 6
S ta tio n de Recherches des Pêches m a r itim e s à C aïffa (Israël)
C o m p u ta tio n o f currents — S tatio ns Nos. 14 a n d 15
(C hypre - 02)

o f total slack e n ing stands o u t clearly even a m o n g the decreasing re s u lta n t

velocities, as a re sult o f the c o n tin u o u s increase in relative velocities.
F o r other values of k ，on the contrary, the breaks occur e ith e r below
or above the “ c ritic a l ” depths o f the intersections.
 T his fixes the v ir tu a l viscosity value at Ä: = 3 . 10—2 (*).
The p r im a r y consequence o f this valu e of /c = 3 . 10~2 is th a t in deep
sea it restricts the cu rren t velocities to about 8 c m /s — or m ore exactly
8.15 c m /s . T h is m a x im u m fo r re su ltan t velocities corresponds to relative
speeds of the o rd e r o f 14-18 c m /s , a n d a ll m o tio n h a lts for relative velocities
o f a b o u t 32 c m /s .
The scale fo r converting relative velocities in to re su lta n t velocities
is given beside th e n o m o g ra m sho w n in figure 4.
C o m p u ta tio n s s im ila r to those set o u t above, b u t carried o u t w ith
o the r results fr o m the “ Chypre-02 ” P ro je c t c o n firm everywhere the
v a lid ity o f the k ~ 3 . 10-2 value, as far as relative velocities of m ore
th a n 14 c m /s are concerned. F o r cases o f s m alle r velocities this c o m p u ta tio n
T 1 ■1M1T*Û
A l
TTChO O ÖT'WtV» + 1UŁ
»T XJ.CM. 1.
1»i "»m A
"»Tł
L .M X A X «
HA.PłA X Ol A r ł « AT* łłł/"»»"*
i Vr lA X m
vxl n et
WO VV X X V -X V«
o n4-*ry
O A (.A l3 —

fac to ry results are obtained, b u t in o ther places — in spite of the existence

o f a b re ak (po ssib ly show n u p by tangents) at the critical d e p th of the
intersection — the m a x im u m in velocities o n ly appears below this depth.
Nevertheless th is a n o m a ly seems to be due less to the u n c e rta in ty of
the value a lre a d y fo u n d for the v irtu a l viscosity coefficient th a n to
c o nd itio ns p e c u lia r to the flow. There m a y be cases w here either the flow
m a y fo llo w e dd y pa th s or else places w here there are sign ifican t alteratio ns
in the c irc u la tio n betw een the tw o po in ts bein g considered.
W e c o uld , o n the o ther h a n d , envisage cases w here the positions of
these velocity “ breaks ” near the sea surface w o u ld a llo w n o t only the
lim its o f the fie ld o f a p p lic a tio n of the v irtu a l viscosity coefficient de­
te rm in e d above to be fixed, b u t also a re la tio n te n d in g tow ards the value
given in the E c k m a n n a n d T aylor equations.
H a v in g th u s arrive d at c a lib ra tin g the c u rre n t velocity, it w ill n ot be
w ith o u t interest to determ ine its velocities o n the m e d ian line of two
a d ja c e n t isobars. T hen, by jo in in g u p the po in ts o f the same value, to plo t
line s o f e q u a l velocity of current. F ig u re 7 is a d ia g ra m of this at a depth
o f 500 m .
C o m p a riso n o f this figure w ith the b a th y m e tric chart o f the region
(G ie r m a n , 1960) shows th a t the places w here the m a x im u m velocities are
fo u n d correspond to the deepest parts of the b o tto m , whereas the areas
o f n il velocity are generally confined to the sm allest depths.
It fo llo w s th a t the developm ent of geostrophic currents a n d con­
seq uen tly the re s u ltin g d en sity d is trib u tio n take place in sea w ater
according to layers m o u ld e d o n the b o tto m to p o g ra p h y . T his re sult is,
m oreover，in agreem ent w ith N eum ann’s ded u ctio n s (S v e rd ru p - Jo h n so n -
F l e m in g , p. 469), w h ic h state th a t the b o tto m c o n d itio n s w ill be reflected
in t h e t e m p e r a t u r e a n d s a lin it y d is t r ib u t io n u p to le v e ls n e a r th e s e a s u r fa c e .

(*) T his is, m oreover, a v alue very close to th a t fo r the constant in the v ir tu a l
fr ic tio n expression given by S v e r d r u p - J o h n s o n - F l e m i n g (p. 480) where :
0.0302
T = --------- . Vs
f ^ + \a
( 10gY )
S tatio n de Recherches des Pêches m a r itim e s à C aïffa (Israël)
(Chypre - 02)
C ontours o f iso-velocity lin e s (in cm /s) at a de p th of 500 m
 F ig . 8
S ta tio n de Recherches des Pêches m a ritim e s à C aïffa (Israël)
S tu d y o f the L e v an tin e B a sin {Chypre - 02)
V ertical section of isopycnic lin es
 T h u s the procedure for, a n d the v a lid ity of, the above c o m p u ta tio n s
have b o th been proved.
It can be seen fro m figure 7 th a t the region can be d iv id e d in to two
separate sectors, at a dep th of 500 m ，by a tongue o f “ slack w aters ”•
In the sector N o rth of the line B e iru t to Gape Greco in C yprus the
d is trib u tio n o f lines of e qu al velocity of c u rre n t conform s w ith o u t fu rth e r
accurate in fo r m a tio n to the alre ad y stated b o tto m conditions. T he lines of
equal velocity of cu rre n t are d istrib u te d acco rding to b o tto m relief, the
lines for the h ig h e st velocities covering the greatest depths.
I n the so u th e rn sector, on the contrary, the d is trib u tio n of these lines
of equal velocity o f c u rren t shows a clear a n a lo g y w ith the w ater m o tio n
w hen it is a case of a “ w ash-trough b o tto m ’， . In this case, as is w ell
k n o w n , the heaviest elem ents converge to w ard s the axis o f m o tio n , i.e.
tow ards the places w here the velocity is cancelled out. O n the vertical
sections sho w in g isopycnic lines given in figure 8 (E n g e l, 1965) this
is proved by the existence o f a c o lu m n enclosing the densest waters
(at 彡 29.25).
It re m a ins to be stated w h y we started b y choosing a reference level
at the sea surface. The a ctu al outcom e is the d e fin itio n in d e p th o f “ slack
w aters ” h a v in g n o m o tio n , as the re su ltan t o f h ig h gradients in hydrostatic
pressure a n d consequently o f velocities c an ce llin g them selves o u t th ro u g h
turbu le nce fric tio n .
F o r the case o f a m e asu re m e n t coverage capable of d e te rm in in g the
d ep th of the reference p lan e it w o u ld o n ly be necessary to start fro m this
plane in the reverse d irectio n in order to c o m pu te the velocity of surface
currents.

III. — CONCLUSION

T he p ic tu re o f geostrophic currents at the sea surface, as show n in

figure 2，agrees w ith the observations th a t are lik e ly to change the N ie l s e n
picture.
F u rth e rm o re , the c o m p u ta tio n data p lo tte d on this figure enable us to
ex plain the cause of p h e n o m e n a noted by Liebm an, O re n , E m e ry a n d Ben-
t o r ， E mery a n d Neev, E m e ry a n d G e o rg e , w h ils t g ra n tin g the po s sib ility
of R o u c h ’s p o in t of view. A t the same tim e the A kyüz eddy u n its in the
G u lf o f Isk e n d e ru n m a k e the representation o f such a n eddy u n it in figure 3
plausib le for a d ep th of 20 m near the S yrian coast. The existence of such
a n eddy u n it is, fu rth e rm o re , confirm ed b y N orth-South cu rren ts, as
surveyed by E m e ry a n d G e o rg e , along the N o rth Lebanese coast. Its
connection to the eddy u n its in the G u lf o f Isk e n d e ru n is probable, a nd
its extension tow ards the S o u th at a definite epoch, provides an e x p lan atio n
for the Southw estern c u rren ts disclosed b y L acom be a nd T c h e r n ia .
In the fa ir ly stable a tm o s p h e ric c o nd ito ins o f s u m m e r the geostrophic
c irc u la tio n th u s constitutes the p r in c ip a l c o m po n en t o f the to ta l c irc u la tio n .
 A cc o rdin g to a v a ila b le data, c u rre n t velocities at the surface are sm all.
In this connection it has not been possible to o b ta in accurate co m p u te d
values. However, fo r reference purposes, we m a y say th a t the m e an value
of p e rm a n e n t c u rre n ts fo r the port of A shdod is a b o u t 10-12 c m /s N N E.
U nd e r the surface layer the v irtu a l viscosity w o u ld seem to lim it the
w ater m o tio n to a b o u t 8 c m /s . T his same cause w o u ld also give rise in
deep w aters to “ s lack waters ” of n il m o tio n , re su ltin g fro m h ig h gradients
o f h y d ro sta tic pressure，a n d consequently velocities th a t becom e n il th ro u g h
tu rbu le nce fric tio n .
Beyond a d e p th o f 550 m a ll po s sib ility of c irc u la tio n tow ards the N orth
stops, at a p p ro x im a te ly the la titu d e of Cape A ndreas in C y p rus o n account
of the existence o f a sill.
C onsequently at great depths the w ater m o tio n could o n ly occur in
the m easure th a t the balance o f in te rn a l forces allow s it, a n d o n ly on paths
fo llo w in g the b o tto m topography . T his fact w o u ld e n ta il currents fo llo w in g
ring-shaped p a th s, g iv in g rise to eddy u n its w h ic h are lik e ly to be reflected
r ig h t u p to the sea surface.
O n the o ther h a n d we m a y deduce the existence in deep sea o f local
c irc u la tio n d iffe rin g fr o m the regional circu latio n at the surface. T his is
the effect of b o tto m c o nd itio ns a n d is already noticeable at the 500 m
depth, th u s m a k in g w ate r m o tio n a n d the density d is trib u tio n dependent
u p o n the b o tto m to po g raphy .
To sum up, the pressure d is trib u tio n a n d the developm ent o f the
re su ltin g currents o ccur according to layers m o u ld e d on the b o tto m
to po g raphy . The hig h e st velocities are fo u n d at places w here the depth
is greatest, w hereas the “ slack w ater ” areas are related to lesser depths.
Conversely one m ig h t seek a re la tio n s h ip betw een oceanographic data
a n d geology. S lack w ate r areas, g iv in g rise to u n d is tu rb e d sedim e n tation ,
are related to places w here sed im e n ta tion is the m o s t intense, a n d con­
sequently concern the lesser depths. O n the other h a n d the directions
of the geostrophic c u rre n t lines coincide in m a n y places w ith the aspect
of isobaths of the b o tto m , w ith the N ile ’s a llu v ia l deposits a n d , in a general
w ay, w ith the coastal relief.
T he present p ic tu re of the coastal regions a n d the b a th y m e try o f the
E astern M e d ite rra n e a n w o u ld seem to have as o rig in the action, on a solid
a n d pre-existing shelf, o f the geostrophic c irc u la tio n as the p rin c ip a l
co m p o n e n t of the to ta l c ircu latio n .

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CH A RT :

B r itis h A d m ira lty : M e dite rrane an, E astern P o r t i o n . — Crete to Alexan-

d retta : Chart No. 2606 reduced.