Traditional sub-Saharan African harmony

Traditional sub-Saharan African harmony is a music theory of harmony in sub-Saharan Africa music
based on the principles of homophonic parallelism (chords based around a leading melody that follow its
rhythm and contour), homophonic polyphony (independent parts moving together), counter melody
(secondary melody) and ostinato-variation (variations based on a repeated theme). Polyphony (contrapuntal
and ostinato variation) is common in African music and heterophony (the voices move at different times) is
a common technique as well. Although these principles of traditional (precolonial and pre-Arab) African
music are of pan-African validity, the degree to which they are used in one area over another (or in the same
community) varies. Specific techniques that used to generate harmony in Africa are the "span process",
"pedal notes" (a held note, typically in the bass, around which other parts move), "Rhythmic harmony",
"harmony by imitation", and "scalar clusters" (see below for explanation of these terms).

Contents
General overview
Scales
Principles
Homophonic parallelism and homophonic polyphony
Secondary melody
Ostinato-variation
Cadences and chord structures
"Target Chords"
Polyphony
Techniques
Span process
Pedal notes
Rhythmic harmony
Harmony by imitation
Scalar clusters
Variation principle
Traditional African harmony as the basis for jazz and blues harmony
See also
References
Sources
External links

General overview
"By Western standards, African music is characteristically complex...Two or more events tend to occur
simultaneously within a musical context. Even players of simple solo instruments (such as the musical bow
or the flute) manage to manipulate the instrument in such a way to produce simultaneous sounds by playing
overtones with the bow, by humming while bowing, and the like...Overlapping choral antiphony and
responsorial singing are principal types of African polyphony. Various combinations of ostinato and drone-
ostinato, polymelody (mainly two-part), and parallel intervals are additional polyphonic techniques
frequently employed. Several types may intermingle within one vocal or instrumental piece, with the
resulting choral or orchestral tendency being the stacking of parts or voices. Consequently three- or four-part
density is not an uncommon African musical feature. Such densities are constantly fluctuating so that
continuous triads throughout an entire piece are uncommon. Canonic imitation may occur in responsorial or
antiphonal sections of African music as a result of the repetition of the first phrase or the introduction of
new melodic material in the form of a refrain. The latter may involve a contrasting section or a completion
of the original melody." —Karlton E. Hester[1]

Chordal relationships that occur as a result of the polyphony, homophonic parallelism and homophonic
polyphony found in African music are not always 'functional' in the western musical sense. However, they
accomplish the balance of tension-release and dissonance-consonance. In addition, they form varieties of
chord combinations and clusters, as well as varying levels of harmonic patterning.

Scales
Chords are constructed from scales. Pentatonic and
hexatonic scales are very common scales across
Africa. Nonetheless, heptatonic scales can be found
in abundance. Anhemitonic scales, equal heptatonic
scales, and scales based on the selected use of
partials are used in Africa as well. The same
community that may use one set of instruments tuned
to a certain scale (i.e. pentatonic), can use a different
scale for a different set of instruments, or song type Anhemitonic pentatonic scale in descending order as
(i.e. heptatonic) (Gerhard Kubik[2][3][4]) conceptualized by African musicians

In traditional African music, scales are practised and

thought of as descending from top to bottom. African harmony is based on the scales being employed in a
particular musical setting. Scales have a profound impact on the harmony because Africans modalize their
music. Modalization is the process of applying modal concepts in a non-modal setting. African music uses
recurring harmonic reference points as a means of musical organization. Therefore, African music is not
modal or purely based on one mode. Nonetheless modal concepts are employed in African music. This
predates exposure to western and Arab musics.

Principles

Homophonic parallelism and homophonic polyphony

Homophonic parallelism is the harmonizing of a single melody, or subordinate melody and moving with it
in parallel. This means the notes that harmonize the melody follow its characteristic shape and rhythm. This
type of parallelism is common to all African peoples. The degree to which it is employed varies. It is
important to note that parallelism in thirds (inversely tenths), fourths, fifths, and octaves (inversely unison)
are pan-African methods of homophonic parallel harmonization. These intervals are interchanged depending
on the melody they are accompanying and the scale source of the harmonization.
Homophonic polyphony occurs when two different melodies are
harmonized in the style of homophonic parallelism, and either
(1) occur simultaneously by means of overlapping antiphony or
(2) over at the simultaneously as a result of melodic
counterpoint.
Homophonic parallelism in a Traditional
This parallelism is not to be confused with strict parallelism. African context. Rhythm is simplified in
this example. Parallelism in this example
Gerhard Kubik[2] states that much variation and freedom is
is based on thirds.
permitted in parallel parts, with the stipulation that words
remain intelligible (or in the case of instruments the melody
remains recognizable), and the scalar source is observed. The
harmonic line harmonized normally moves by step rarely jumping beyond a fourth.

"A.M. Jones states that 'generally speaking all over the continent south of the Sahara, African harmony is in
organum and is sung either in parallel fourths, parallel fifths, parallel octaves or parallel thirds.' Parallelism,
however, is not without limitations. Melodic and scale considerations, as has been shown, are of primary
importance in deciding what notes are employed in harmonizing tunes and, consequently, what intervals are
formed. The adaptation of parallelism to fit melodic requirements is much more apparent in the music of
those areas of Africa where the pentatonic scale is the norm. Kirby has shown how the demands of a
pentatonic scale result in the employment of sixths in Bantu polyphony, where parallelism in fifths is the
principle. He points out that the limitations of the pentatonic scale make for the awareness of other intervals
instead of what apparently was the strict duplication of the melody at the same interval employed by early
European musicians."—Lazarus Ekweme[5]

Secondary melody

The harmonization of a subordinate melody – be

it responsoral or with regular repetitions within
the cycle – is often based on a counter melody The two measures on the left show the framework for
or secondary melody. From this melody the span chorus. This framework is the secondary melody that this
process, pedal notes and other techniques can be chorus response is based on. The two measures on the
used to for the harmony supporting the main right show the application of the span process in both the
melody. upward and downward direction on the secondary melody
(counter melody). This example is in thirds.
Gerhard Kubik[2] notes "In the Ijesha multipart
singing style the basic chorus phrase, to which
harmonically parallel lines may be added above
and below, is the one in the middle, standing at
the same pitch level with the leader's
phrase...The basic chorus line is the one with The same secondary melody from the example above this
which the chorus member singing alone would time with the span process applied only in the upward
invariably link 'in unison' with the leader's direction.
phrase. as other chorus members join in, more
voices are then added above and below in
intervals perceived as consonant. These additional voices are essentially euphoric in concept; they are
equivalent to a basic one, but are only collaterally dependent on the voice of the leader".

Lazarus Ekweme[5] quotes J. H. Kwabena Nketia saying "In chorus response, there is primacy in the sense
that one line is regarded as the basic melody. But the supporting line, by virtue of its running parallel to it,
shares its characteristic progressions and is accordingly treated as a secondary melody. Indeed, when a
cantor has to sing the chorus response, he may have the freedom of singing either of the two or of moving
from one section to the other."
Secondary melody in this case refers to the voice harmonizing the chorus response. However, the chorus
response is the secondary melody, which is harmonized. The harmonizing parts can vary just as the chorus
response (or secondary melody) may vary. The added harmony part embellishes its own line as an
independent melody, instead of following rigidly the intervocalic distance from the main chorus line in
parallel movement.

The underlying concept is to create a melody and then a responsoral secondary melody. This secondary
melodic line or phrase is then harmonized in parallel motion. The harmonic line harmonized normally
moves by step rarely jumping beyond a fourth.

Ostinato-variation

Musical instruments in traditional African music often serve as a modal and/or rhythmic support for vocal
music. Instrumental Music can also be heard frequently without vocal music and to a lesser extent solo.
Harmony produced through ostinato produced on instruments is common place. These ostinati can be
varied, or embellished, but otherwise provide modal support. Ostinato used in African music is a principal
means of polyphony although other procedures for producing polyphony exist. Arom Simha states "music in
the Central African Republic, regardless of the kind of polyphony or polyrhythm that is practiced, always
involves the principle of ostinato with variations."[6]

The principle of ostinato with variations is significant to African music and its polyphonic nature as most
forms of traditional African polyphony are based on this principle. Simha continues "If one had to describe
in a formula all the polyphonic and polyrhythmic procedures used in the Central African Republic, one
might define them as ostinato (ostinati) with variations." The ostinato is normally used to create a modal
pattern or background.

Arom Simha continues "This definition does not conflict with Western musicological definitions of the term.
Thus Riemann defines ostinato as 'a technical term that describes the continual return of a theme surrounded
by ever changing counterpoint [...] The great masters of the age of polyphony loved to write a whole mass or
long motets on a single phrase constantly repeated by the tenor. But the repetitions are not always identical,
and the little theme would appear in all sorts of modified forms' (Riemann 1931:953)."

Many African musics correspond exactly to this definition and are musical pieces based on a phrase, which
reappears in varied and modified forms. These ostinato can be continuous or intermittent, vocal or
instrumental, and may appear above or below the main line. Frequently in African music two or more
ostinatos moving contrapuntally are employed, with or without a longer melodic line to create an orchestral
texture (dense textures are desired and aimed for by both composers and performers alike). This type of
polyphony is of the contrapuntal or horizontal type. In practice each ostinato moves in independent melodic
and rhythmic patterns.

Cadences and chord structures

Chords are normally formed using one of two techniques: the span process or scalar clusters. These chords
can be embellished as a result of variation in which any combination of notes permitted by the scale can be
used in a chord. However, in common practice, chords are formed by harmonizing in 3rds, 4ths, 5ths, 6ths,
etc. The type of chord formed depends on the scale system being used.

Recent research has shown that African music has chord progressions. Gerhard Kubik states "until recently,
little attention has been paid to a further structuring element, namely, the tonal-harmonic segmentation of a
cycle. In most African music, cycles are sub-divided into two, four or eight tonal-harmonic segments." (A
theory of African music, Volume II, page 44, paragraph 5).
In addition, the use of the tritone interval for tension is common in Africa. Oluwaseyi Kehinde[7] notes "it is
interesting that the interval of the tritone (augmented fourth or diminished fifth) is a salient feature in both
vocal and instrumental music throughout Africa” (Karlton E. Hester and Francis Tovey use the same phrase
to describe it). Gerhard Kubik in his article "bebop a case in point: the African matrix in Jazz harmonic
practices"[4] and his book "Africa and the Blues"[8] echoes this point. This is significant to chords used as
reference points or chord progressions in African musical structures.

Through the use of parallelism cadential patterns are inevitable. O.O. Bateye clarifies: "The subdominant
(plagal) cadence is (resulting from the frequent tendency toward parallelism in African music) the favored
cadence and not the perfect cadence, which is the norm in classical western music...Cadential patterns are
frequent in African music and invariably result as a consequence of melodic movement either by thirds,
fourths, or fifths – that is as a consequence of what may be referred to as shadow harmony ... A cadential
descending minor third is frequently noted between the minor third step and the tonic (Reiser, 1982:122) in
African music."[9] These cadential movements are made using the melody and the scale as the guiding
factor.

He continues "T.K. Philips objects to the te-doh and fah-me cadences as being authentic for African music,
but nevertheless, as has been pointed out, are a frequent occurrence in African music utilizing scales other
than the pentatonic. The presence of drones (see pedal notes below) is a common feature of African music."

"Target Chords"

African music whose scalar source for the harmony is based on anhemtonic (every note is consonant with
every other note) pentatonic and hexatonic scalar sources, Targeting specific vertical structures in relation to
the secondary melodic phrase being harmonized is not a concern although this does happen.

For scalar systems that are not anhemtonic, target chords or vertical structures that are targeted for resolution
are common place. Although the arrangement of the notes may be altered and/or embellished notes viewed
as dissonant traditionally will be omitted from that structure. In Harp music and xylophone music with 2
beaters these structures are dyads and are targeted for resolution by means of suspensions, anticipations, and
other techniques of variation.

The "target chord" concept is applied equally to homomphonic parallelism and its various iterations as it is
to polyphony. These vertical combinations by means of their strict repetition serve as an organizing structure
to the improvised nature of the harmonic motions.

Polyphony

Polyphonic techniques used in African music include:

Melodic counterpoint – related to homophony, however there is no predominant melodic line or

no hierarchy among the parts. Although it is not a general rule, all the parts frequently observe
the same rhythmic values.
Polymelody – two different melodies with different start and end points occurring
simultaneously.
Ostinato-variation – variations on a theme with an onstinato or ostinati above or below the
melody line.
Hocket – interlocking, interweaving and overlapping rhythmic figures which are tiered on
different pitches in a scalar system.
Polyphony by polyrhythmics – Polyphony normally does not occur unless the melodies are
rhythmically independent. When two African melodies occur at the same time and are
 rhythmically independent it is polyphony.
Polyphony by inherent patterns – using auxiliary and passing note groups separated by
disjunct intervals gives the facade of two melodies occurring back to back. This technique is
used often by solo instrumentalists to create a pseudo-polyphony.

(Definitions Arom Simha[6])

Techniques
Traditional African music often employs the following techniques to create harmony:

Span process

Gerhard Kubik describes succinctly a process he

attributes to the formation of chords used in
parallelism throughout Africa. This process he
calls the "span process". He states "The Span
A chorus response in a heptatonic tradition. The use of the
process or skipping process,(is) a structural
span process (or skipping process) results in the freedom of
principle implying that usually one note of a
singers to add vocal parts. Here four part chord is used right
given scale is skipped by a second singer (or
before the final word of the chorus response. 3 and four part
instrumental line) to obtain harmonic clusters are common in African music. However, their use is
simultaneous sound in relation to the melodic generally restricted by the number of singers available and
line of a first vocalist (or instrumental type of scalar system being used for the song in question.
line)".[2][3][4][8] The harmonic line harmonized
normally moves by step rarely jumping beyond
a fourth.

Pedal notes Span process applied to a hexatonic scalar system. The

resulting chord combinations can be seen to the right.
A frequent technique employed in African
music (either as a means of variation or as part
of a harmonic reference point) in which notes are repeated (on a
monotone) in a part while others move in parallel motion above it.
When there are at least 3 singers, the two or more upper parts follow the
shape of the tune, while maintaining the intonation of the words, in
parallel or similar motion. The lowest part repeats a basic drone (pedal
notes can equally be found in higher voices as well). The repetitions
may be temporary or extended depending on the performers and the
particular musical piece. The employment of pedal notes is often the
sources that oblique motion and contrary motion in African choral Triadic harmony in African music.
music. This technique is also applied to instrumental music.—Lazarus This example is based on the
Ekweme[5] pentatonic scale. Triads
consisting of the intervals of a
third and a fourth are just as
Rhythmic harmony common as those containing 2
intervals of a third. Triadic
The use of harmony to enhance a rhythmic accent or to emphasize a harmony is normal used to
note in the melody. [5] these normally occur at the end of melodic emphasize a point in the song
phrases, but may take place anywhere it is desirable to accentuate a note text and/or melody.
or text in the melody.
Harmony by imitation

This occurs when an added part imitates the shape of a portion of the
melody (or other portion of the song) at a higher or lower pitch and
after the initial musical phrase but overlapping with it. Due to tonal Here a pedal note in the lowest
inflections (in the regions using tonal languages), the shape of the new voice is being employed. The
musical phrase is similar to, but not necessarily identical with, that of harmony above moves in parallel
the previous one. The use of imitation accounts for a wide variety of within the scalar source for the
interval combinations within the scale system being used in African harmony. In this case it is the
musics.[5] pentatonic scale.

Scalar clusters

In parallel motion, rhythmic harmony or in

harmonic patterns varying interval combinations
can be found. However, all these intervals are A chorus response in a heptatonic tradition. The use of the
limited to those permitted by the scale. The span process (or skipping process) results in the freedom of
intervals of the second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, singers to add vocal parts. The use of four part harmony
seventh, octave, ninth and tenth can all be emphasizes the final parts of the chorus response. this is
found. As African music and harmony is based rhythmic harmony.
on a cyclical structure with recurring reference
points and harmonic reference points (or chords)
some of these intervals are seen as color tones
while others have structural significance. Generally
the tones and intervals of structural significance are
based on thirds, fourths, fifths, and octaves.

Simha states[6] "In Central African polyphony, one

can in fact find clusters of all the combinations of
intervals allowed by the scale. The number of
sounds included in vertical combinations varies
with the number and type of performing
instruments: while there are no more than two in
Sanza music, it is not unusual to find four in
xylophone music. In the limiting case, it can
happen that the 5 sounds of the scale are
simultaneously emitted as a cluster. This particular
type of verticality can easily be explained by
referring each sound comprising a 'chord' or sound
cluster to its own melodic axis. It then becomes
clear that the vertical configurations are the (partly
fortuitous) consequence of the horizontal conception of melodic counterpoint."
This is an example of Traditional African Harmony by
imitation. The melody here plays a phrase in the first
measure and sequences it melodically in the second
measure. The second voice (in the bass clef) imitates
the melody in the first measure. As a result, singing both
the new phrase and original phase at once creates
harmony between the parts. this harmony may be in
parallel motion (as seen above) or it may be of a
different type depending on the variations the melody
makes on the original phrase.

This not only occurs when using pentatonic scales. Gerhard Kubik[4][8] notes that the use of a partials
derived system, or a Bordon system can also lead to the use of scalar clusters as consonance. In addition
communities, and ethnic groups that use pentatonic systems many times also employ hexatonic and
heptatonic scalar systems.

Variation principle
The variation principle describes the process of
altering, embellishing, and modifying of
melodic, rhythmic, harmonic, and/or other parts
of a musical structure. These variations are
made within and/or around the role of the part
being varied. These variations rarely break the
Scalar Clusters resulting from embellishments or
function of the part to be varied. In African ornamentation to reference points in xylophone music.
music these variations are often improvised. Clusters themselves can be used deliberately as a
Variation in African music are abundant and the reference point in a traditional African composition. This is a
musicians view them as necessary. Simha simplified version of 4 reference points embellished with
Arom[6] states, "All musical pieces are other scale tones. The second measure shows the scalar
characterized by cyclic structure that generates source of the harmony. Due to variations and melodic
numerous improvised variations: repetition and concerns scalar clusters occur not only incidentally but at
variation is one of the most fundamental times are purposely aimed for by the musicians.
principles of all Central African musics,as
indeed of many other musics in Black Africa."
He continues, "Finally, improvisation, which I have described as the driving force behind melodic and
rhythmic variations, plays an important part in every group. But there is no such thing as free improvisation,
that is, improvisation that does not refer back to some precise and identifiable piece of music. It is always
subordinate to the musical structure in which it appears..."

Variation is a very important aspect in African music (and the musics of the African diaspora). At every
level of music variation is expected, with the stipulation that the structure of the part being played is not
compromised. Harmony is no exception. He[6] explains: "Melodic and rhythmic variations can, however,
affect the instrumental formula, just as they can appear in the song the formula supports and summarizes.
These variations engender a large variety of vertical combinations, or consonances." Vertical combinations
in African music have two different yet complementary functions. One function is that of being a structural
reference point. The other is that of being an embellishment, or "color tone".

Arom Simha proceeds to note "We have already remarked that specific vertical combinations in each
formula act as temporal reference points by virtue of their regular repetition at a given position in the
periodic cycle. These combinations are the points at which several superposed melodic lines meet. They are
usually based on octaves, fifths, and fourths, precisely the intervals which make up sections 1-4 of Chailley's
resonance table (i960: 35), and this is certainly no accident. We may therefore assume that they take on a
structural function." These vertical combinations that constitute reference points are chords that, together,
form a chord progression. This is similar to the concepts of chords and progressions in cyclical forms in
Jazz, Blues and other musics of the African diaspora.

Simha concludes "All other consonances can be viewed in the same way as the result of conjunctions of
different melodies, but unlike the regularly repeated ones, their content (and at times even their position) is
an arbitrary consequence of the numerous melodic and, particularly, rhythmic variations allowed in the
various realizations of the formula. Consonances of this type seem intended to provide color, over and above
the melodic nature of their constituent elements. This is a natural consequence of the fact that musicians
tend to make full use of their available resources to enrich and variegate the texture of sound when
performing cyclic music." These harmonic variations combined with rhythmic variations explain (in
addition to the implementation of pedal notes) both "oblique" phenomena (anticipations and suspensions)
and horizontal phenomena (drones and broken or ornamented pedal points).

David Locke[10] in an article entitled "improvisation in west African music" states "...African musicians do
improvise on various aspects of music, including melody, text, form, polyphony, rhythm, and timbre." These
improvisations are based on preexisting musical structures and as such are variations and embellishments.
The Principles and techniques outlined above are all subject to variation not only by region, and the people,
but also, by spontaneously improvised variations during performance. This creates complex harmonies. This
is similar to the way Jazz musicians during a performance will alter a chord and embellish it with different
"color tones", while still emphasizing principle chord tones so as not to disrupt the chord progression of the
song.[11]

Homophonic parallelism is also affected by this variation principle. With regards to improvised vocal parts
within homophonic parallelism Gerhard Kubik[2] in his book "Theory of African music", volume I says,
"Another implicit concept of this multi-part musical system is linearity, i.e. each voice exists in its own
right, though at the same time there remains the perspective of simultaneous vertical sound. All participants
sing the same text, but their melodic lines are not parallel throughout, as might be expected from the tonal
inflections of the language. on the contrary, oblique and counter-movement is consciously employed in
order to emphasize the individuality of each participating voice. contrary motion is not always perceptible in
recordings because the voices merge with one another. In practice an individual singer in the group can
change the direction of his melodic line whenever he likes...An individual singer can also string up several
variants of his voice part successively along the time-line. In 'chiyongoyongo' for instance, there are dozens
of simultaneous variants possible and each are perceived as correct. this leads to a very lively style of
variation, in which each individual voice is conceived to be linear and independent while contributing to the
euphoric whole."

He continues "Where the precepts of tonal languages permit it (and this is the case in eastern Angola) we
can thus find a kind of multi-part singing which transcends the "parallel harmony," so often described by
authors as typical of one or the other African style. The multi-part singing style of the peoples of eastern
Angola, including the Mbwela, Luchazi, Chokwe, Luvale and others is only parallel in theory. the creation
of harmonic sound is accomplished within a relatively loose combination of individual voices, fluctuating
between triads, bichords and more or less dense accumulations of notes. the exact shape of the chords, the
duplication and omissions of individual notes in the total pattern may change with every repetition."

Traditional African harmony as the basis for jazz and blues

harmony
See:

Gerhard Kubik's A case in point: Bebop: the African matrix in Jazz harmonic practices
Gerhard Kubik's Africa and the Blues
Gerhard Kubiks's Theory of African Music volumes I and II
David Locke's Improvisation in west Africa
Karlton E. Hester's Bigotry and the Afrocentric “Jazz” Evolution
Gunther Schuller Early Jazz, Its Roots and Musical Development

See also
Parallel harmony
Polyphony
Homophony
Harmony
Chords
Chord progression
Heterophony
 Countermelody
Harmonization
Improvisation
Africa
Quartal and quintal harmony
Tertian
Secundal
Extended chord
Jazz
Mbube

References
1. Karlton E. Hester, Bigotry and the Afrocentric “Jazz” Evolution, Third Edition, Global academic
publishing, published, April 30, 2004
2. Gerhard Kubik, Theory of African music, volume I, University of Chicago Press, Lid., London,
published 1994
3. Gerhard Kubik, Theory of African music, volume II, University of Chicago Press, Lid., London,
published 2010
4. Gerhard Kubik, Bebop: a case in point. The African Matrix in Jazz Harmonic Practices. Black
Music Research Journal, published March 22, 2005
5. Lazarus Ekwueme, Concepts of African musical theory, Journal of Black Studies, Vol 5. no. 1,
Sage publications, inc. published 1974.
6. Simha Arom, African Polyphony and Polyrhythm. Structure and Methodology (Préface de
Györgi Ligeti), Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, published 2004 [1991].
7. Oluwaseyi Kehinde, Dissonance and Chromatic Inflections in Traditional African Music, British
Journal of Arts and Social Sciences ISSN 2046-9578 (https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:j
rnl&q=n2:2046-9578), Vol. 3 No. 1, published 2011, British Journal Publishing, Inc. 2011
8. Gerhard Kubik, Africa and the Blues, University of Mississippi Press, published 2000
9. O. O. Bateye, Defining African Traditional Musical Traits: Resource Material for African Art
Music Composition, Nigerian Music Review Vol. 6 2005: pp. 61–74
10. David Locke, Improvisation in west African music, Music Educators Journal, Vol. 66, No. 5,
Published by: MENC: The National Association for Music Educationpublished Jan., 1980,
pp. 125–133, Published by: MENC: The National Association for Music Education
11. http://www.tinotenda.org/improvisation.htm

Sources
Joseph Hanson Kwabena Nketia, The Music of Africa, W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.,
published 1974.

External links
http://www.tinotenda.org/improvisation.htm
http://www.tinotenda.org/aspects.htm
https://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-57093
https://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-57094
 https://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-57095

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