TRAINING OF VISUAL SKILLS AND

TRANSFERABILITY TO OVERALL
RUGBY PERFORMANCE
IMPROVEMENT

ANELIA LUDEKE
TRAINING OF VISUAL SKILLS AND TRANSFERABILITY
TO OVERALL RUGBY PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT

By

ANELIA LUDEKE

DISSERTATION

Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of the degree

DOCTOR PHILOSOPHIAE

In

OPTOMETRY

In the

FACULTY OF HEALTH SCIENCE

At the

UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG

SUPERVISOR: PROF JT FERREIRA

NOVEMBER 2010
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to offer individual thanks to the following people for their assistance in helping

me complete this thesis.

Professor Jannie Ferreira for supervising me to the completion of this thesis. Thank you for

your motivation, advice and patience.

Juliana van Staden at the Statcon Department for assisting me with the statistical results. I

admire you for your passion and commitment toward your work. Thank you for your advice

and support.

The staff at the Department of Optometry for their encouragement and moral support.

My parents, Koos and Julie Prinsloo, for all the years of encouraging me to persevere with

my studies.

All my family and friends for their continuous support.

Praise to God for giving me the strength, wisdom and courage to finish.

Frans for encouraging and supporting me through all this time, I would not have been able to

complete this thesis without your love and support.

Our beautiful little girl, Izebella, who unknowingly gave me the inspiration to finish.
 ABSTRACT

Vision is a learned skill that implies an appropriate interpretation of what is seen and

interpreted (Abel, 1999). Neural pathways are established as a result of learning,

strengthened by achieving a task goal and grow stronger as practice progresses (Edelman,

1992).

According to Davis, Kimmet and Auty (1990) it takes 500 hours of practice to change a skill

and use that skill competently during competitions. Therefore, training sessions should be

structured around learning the perceptual and cognitive skills needed for successful decisions

in different environments (Vickers, 2007). Four elements - skill execution, concentration,

response time and decision-making - were identified and are known to have a great effect on

overall sports performance (Coffey and Reichow, 1995; Erickson, 2007 & Vickers, 2007). A

reliable model that could be used to evaluate performance levels by applying these four

cardinal elements of performance has been developed through this study.

Twenty five rugby players participated in the study which was conducted over a period of

three years. The sample was divided into four groups of which three were experimental and

one was a control group. Two of the three experimental groups, who came from different

regional teams, had specific visual training in the national side. The third experimental group

had off-season visual training only and the control group had no visual training at all. Two

methods were used to evaluate performance: in the first method three independent top class
raters conducted the performance evaluation and the second was based on data collection.

Both methods involved the Verusco© system.

The results indicated a poor correlation among the raters: two of the three raters agreed that

Group 4 (Regional team B, that played for the national side and had specific visual training)

performed significantly better than Group 3 (Regional team B that had no visual training) in

decision-making during season 1 and Group 1 (Regional team A) showed a significant

improvement in skill execution from season 1 to season 2. Group 1 (Regional team A) had

non–specific off-season visual training. Groups 2 (Regional team A, that played for the

national side) and 4 (Regional team B, that played for the national side) received specific

visual training and Group 3 (Regional team B) had no visual training at all.

According to the Verusco Trymaker Pro© system Group 3 (Regional team B that had no

visual training) and Group 4 (Regional team B, that played for the national side and had

specific visual training) showed significant improvement in decision-making from season 1

to season 2. Group 4 (Regional team B, that played for the national side and had specific

visual training) showed significant improvement in concentration from season 2 to season 3.

No correlation was found between the raters and the Verusco TryMaker Pro© system. For

this reason it was important to develop a reliable objective method for evaluating

performance like the one developed in the current study for the establishment of better and

more reliable results. The four main elements of performance were established and an index

for each of the elements was developed in order to establish an objective model for

performance.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION 2

1. Project Background 2

2. Production of skilled movement 6

3. Introduction to the corner stones for sports vision 13

4. Introduction to rugby and the visual demands in rugby 14

5. Aim of the study 17

CHAPTER 2

PERCEPTION 19

1. Introduction 19

2. Corner stones for sports vision 20

3. Visual demands in rugby 32

CHAPTER 3

INFORMATION PROCESSING 42
CHAPTER 4

PERFORMANCE 58

1. The acquisition of motor skills 58

2. Expert versus novice athletes 72

CHAPTER 5

METHODOLOGY 82

1. Research design 82

2. Procedures 83

CHAPTER 6

RESULTS 97

1. Introduction 97

2. Different non-parametric analysis procedures 99

3. A comparison between the Verusco system and the individual raters 102

4. A correlation between the individual raters 103

5. Agreement among the individual raters 113

6. The significant results of individual raters and that of the

Verusco system 115

 7. A model for the objective evaluation of vision related performance in rugby 134

8. The analysis of the four elements of performance using the data from the

Verusco system 137

CHAPTER 7

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION 143

1. Introduction 143

2. The four elements of performance 153

3. Conclusion 161

4. Recommendations 166

CHAPTER 8

REFERENCES 169

CHAPTER 9

APPENDIX 1 212

APPENDIX 2 214

APPENDIX 3 259

APPENDIX 4 260
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1. Project background
2. Production of skilled movement
3. Introduction to the cornerstones for Sports
Vision
4. Introduction to Rugby and the visual demands in
rugby
5. Aim of the study

1
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1. PROJECT BACKGROUND

What does the word vision mean? What effect does vision have on sport performance?

Are there differences in visual processing between elite and novice athletes? What is it that

distinguishes elite athletes from novices? Will improvement in visual skills necessarily

transfer to overall sport performance? All these questions have been asked in the past.

Experts have developed better specific programs to process information available in a sport

task (Abernethy, 1991; Bressan, 2003; Ferreira, 2002; Magill, 2001; Williams et al., 1999).

Abernethy (1986) introduced a two visual system approach. Hardware skills represent the

physical differences in the mechanical and optometric properties of the visual system and

software skills are the cognitive differences in the analysis, selection, coding and general

handling of visual information (Abernethy, 1987).

Research done by Abernethy and Wood (2001) has shown that visual training does not

necessarily transfer to overall sport performance. The reason for this could well be that in

office training or training of the hardware skills were used and not sport specific exercises

(Abernethy & Wood, 2001) as well as a limitation in the musculoskeletal system (Kluka,

2
1999). The skills involved in the hardware system include static and dynamic visual

acuity, depth perception, accommodation, fusion, colour vision and contrast sensitivity

(Abernethy, 1986; Ferreira, 2002).

The software system includes aspects such as eye-hand and eye-body coordination, visual

adjustability, visual concentration, central-peripheral awareness, visual reaction time and

visualization (Ferreira, 2002). Calder (1999) found that sport-specific visual awareness

training significantly improve the on-field skill performance of hockey players. The

training involved a combination of hardware and software skill interventions both in office

and on the field.

The word vision is synonymous with the following concepts namely: eyesight, perception,

seeing, insight, discernment, mental picture, image, revelation, intuition (Adams et al.,

2000). The visual system provides information about the external environment and is

responsible for the conscious identification of objects that leads to visual perception

(Kluka, 1999; Schmidt & Wrisberg, 2008). Our vision incorporates both information from

the retina and that of eye movements and is known as active vision. Both the inputs from

the retina (active vision) and that from within the brain are being processed for visual

perception (Wurtz, McAlonan, Cavanaugh & Berman, 2011).

Sight is a physiological characteristic, but vision is a skill that must be learned because it

implies a proper interpretation of what is seen (Abel, 1999). Neural pathways are

established as a result of learning. Achieving a task goal strengthens neural pathways

which become increasingly stronger as practice progresses (Edelman, 1992). During a

3
learner’s life cycle many dynamically interconnected sub-systems develop at different rates

and stages (Handford et al., 1997). However, these subsystems may also constrict

behaviour as a whole and act as ‘rate limiters’ (Handford et al., 1997; Newell & Van

Emmerik, 1991; Thelen, 1995).

Researchers have shown that the brain matures neurologically when players are between

nineteen and twenty years of age. Physiologically, in the case of females, the body reaches

maturity between the ages nineteen and twenty and approximately three years later for

males (Balyi & Hamilton, 1999). Furthermore it takes 8-12 years or ten thousand hours of

training for talented players to reach elite levels (Ericsson & Charness, 1994; Ericsson et al,

1993, Sosniak, 1985). Therefore, players in the performance phase, ages 18 years and

older, are close to their maximum ability as far as physical and skill capacities are

concerned (Sosniak, 1985).

According to Davis, Kimmet and Auty (1986) it takes 500 hours worth of practice to

change an existing skill and to be able to use that skill during competitions. It could

therefore be difficult to improve speed, power, strength, endurance and technical skills of

players in the performance phase because players’ adaptation reserves are reduced

(Tschiene, 1988). However, it is still possible to optimize their capacities through specific

stimulus exposure and precise training (Tschiene, 1988).

Other constraints in motor behaviour could be due to fluctuations in a player’s emotional

state, caused by anxiety and arousal (Bootsma et al., 1992; Schmidt & Wrisberg, 2008), or

goal setting which may vary from performance to performance (Latash, 1993). These

4
factors could contribute to poor performance during competitions when time and intensity

are of critical importance (Bootsma et al, 1992).

The work reported in this thesis was undertaken to determine whether neurologically

mature players still have the ability to show improvement in performance, and also to

define the role that vision and specifically the visual skills have on performance. Previous

research did not evaluate sports performance during competitions. This current study is

unique in the sense that a number of players’ performance were evaluated during

competitions only and conducted over a period of 3 years. The video clips selected to

evaluate players during competitions are a reflection of their performance. Furthermore

conducting the study over a 3 year period has reduced the effect of variants in open skill

sports greatly, allowing the results to be valid. Four critical factors in sport performance

have been selected in the evaluation process from literature: skill execution, concentration,

response time and decision making, which are all known to have a considerable effect on

overall sports performance (Coffey and Reichow, 1995; Erickson, 2007 & Vickers, 2007).

This study has also developed a reliable model which could be used to evaluate

performance levels based on these four factors of sport performance.

5
2. PRODUCTION OF SKILLED MOVEMENT

The processing stages in the production of skilled movement involve three major

components: input, processing and output.

Perceptual Decision Effectors

mechanism mechanism mechanism
(senses) (CNS) (muscles)

Figure 1.1 A modified information processing model of skilled performance (Erickson,

2007)

Input is established through the five visible senses: vision, hearing, smell, taste, and touch

as well as two movement senses: the vestibular and proprioceptive systems (Lombard,

2007). Therefor perception is established both externally and internally. Perception is the

process by which information is perceived in the environment and is linked to specific

physical behaviour (Vickers, 2007). Perception is acquired externally through sight, smell,

taste, hearing and touch and internally through the vestibular and proprioception systems.

The vestibular apparatus is situated in the inner ear and detects orientation and movement

of the head (Guyton, 1992). Equilibrium is maintained through signals from the vestibular

apparatus to the vestibular nuclei in the brain stem (Guyton, 1992). The nervous centers

need to receive appropriate information, not only about the movement of the head, but also

about the orientation of the head with respect to the body. The proprioceptors of the neck

and body transmit the necessary information to the vestibular and reticular nuclei of the

brain (Guyton, 1992).

6
According to Lombard (2007) eighty five percent of sensory information perceived from

the external environment is perceived through the visual system. Equilibrium can be

maintained through the visual system, even after destruction of the vestibular apparatus and

loss of proprioceptive information from the body (Guyton, 1992). The main sensory

receptors are therefore the visual and hearing senses (Lombard, 2007).

Sensory experience causes immediate reaction or may be stored as memory for future use

in order to determine appropriate reactions. The information received through the receptors

enters the central nervous system through the spinal nerves and are relayed to all parts of

the nervous system (Guyton, 1992). This includes the primary sensory areas: the spinal

cord, the reticular substance of the medulla, pons and mesencephalon, the cerebellum, the

thalamus and the somesthetic areas of the cerebral cortex (Guyton, 1992).

The major function of the central nervous system is the processing of information in order

to initiate the most appropriate motor response. However, the brain discards more than

ninety nine percent of information as irrelevant and serves as an integrative system where

only the most relevant information is processed for the appropriate motor function (Guyton,

1992). Relevant information is determined through stimulus identification, response

selection and response programming (Schmidt & Wrisberg, 2008).

Muscles and glands are known as effectors because they perform the functions transmitted

through the nerve signals. Reception of nerve impulses to the muscular system results in

motor action (Guyton, 1992; Schmidt & Wrisberg, 2008). Both extrinsic and intrinsic

feedback allows for change in the quality of the action and reinforces learning.

7
Schmidt (Schmidt & Wrisberg, 2008) introduced the conceptual model of motor

performance. Identifying information about a stimulus, select the program needed to

perform an action and program the action, are influenced by the information that is stored

in our memory and in the motor programs we have developed. A motor program is a set of

motor commands that is pre-structured and results in the production of a coordinated

movement (Schmidt & Lee, 2005). The movement commands moves through the spinal

cord to the muscles. The movement is being influenced by feedback loops. The M1 loop

relays sensory information from the muscles to the spinal cord. This automatically

maintains balance and stability. The M2 loop goes from the muscles up the spinal cord to

the brain to stored programs for the actions that is being performed. The M3 loop requires

conscious perception and attention from the sensory system (Vickers, 2007). These

feedback loops reacts to the reference of past and present experiences and movement is

corrected if an error has been perceived. The final two sources of feedback are related to

external information. Knowledge of results arises from the outcome of the movement and

knowledge of performance is concerned with technique and form. These two sources of

feedback have a great effect on how humans learn and perform motor skills (Vickers,

2007).

8
 Error
Input

M3

Stimulus identification

Response selection

Response programming Intended outcome

Desired state Comparator
And anticipated
feedback

Motor program
Actual state

M2
Ambient vision

Spinal cord

Intrinsic Feedback
M1

Extrinsic Feedback
Muscles Proprioceptive feedback

Output Exteroceptive feedback

Focal vision

Knowledge of results
Movement outcome
Knowledge of performance

Figure 1.2 Motor learning and control (Schmidt RA & Wrisberg CA, 2008)

9
One of the first information processing models for skilled performance was introduced by

Abernethy (1986) when he introduced the two visual system approach which has been

mentioned before. He introduced the visual system as a computer analogy of information

gathering and processing and divided it into a hardware and a software visual system.

Schmidt (1991) developed a model for motor learning and control from a cognitive-

behavioural perspective. The model consists of fourteen information-processing events, as

seen above.

Erickson (2007) improved the processing model of skilled performance which also explains

the schematic model of information processing. He proposed three central processing

mechanisms: the perceptual mechanism, the decision mechanism and the effector

mechanism. The perceptual mechanism receives information from the sensory receptors

which is then filtered and only the necessary information is processed. This mechanism is

responsible for organizing and interpreting processed information (Erickson, 2007).

The processed information is then delivered to the decision making mechanism which

determines the appropriate motor response, guided by an athletes past experiences. The

effector mechanism initiates and controls the motor response. Thus, neural commands,

which are necessary to produce the required motor response, are sent to the appropriate

brain centers in order to execute the motor action.

Vickers (2007) noted the importance of the perceptual-motor link between perception and

sports performance. When vision is involved, successful decision making is dependent on

10
‘gaze control’, the ability to know where, when and what to look at. She developed a

Three-Step Decision-Training Model as a method of coaching which is specifically aimed

at improving a players’ ability to make decisions about his/her actions. Figure 1.3

represents Vickers’ model.

1. Identify one decision the player has to make in competition. Highlight one
cognitive skill needed to make that decision.

Cognitive Skills

Anticipation Pattern
recognition
Attention Memory
Focus & concentration Problem solving
Decision making

2. Design a drill or progression of drills that trains the decision in a relevant sport
context using one of the cognitive triggers.

Cognitive Triggers
Object cues Reaction time cues
Location cues Memory cues
Quiet eye Kinaesthetic cues
Self-coaching cues

3. Select one or more of the decision tools to train the decision in a variety of contexts.

Decision-training tools
Variable practice Questioning
Random practice Video feedback
Bandwidth feedback External focus of
instruction
Hard first instruction &
modelling

Figure 1.3 Three-Step Decision Training Model (Vickers, 2007)

11
The perceptual-cognitive motor process is specified in each step.

Step 1: Identify a decision, and highlight a cognitive skill

Vickers (2007) recommended that each practice should focus on at least one of the seven

‘cognitive skills’ which have been identified. The seven cognitive skills are: anticipation,

attention, focus and concentration, pattern recognition, memory, problem solving and

decision making.

Step 2: Design an activity with a cognitive trigger

A drill or progression of drills should be designed or progression of drills to make decisions

similar or identical to the decision identified as the focus for practice. Each drill must have

a ‘cognitive trigger’. Vickers (2007) identified seven triggers: object triggers, location

cues, quiet eye cues, memory cues, reaction time cues, kinesthetic cues and self-coaching

cues. These triggers encourage players to focus their attention on relevant information or

to use their experience in decision making.

Step 3: Use decision-making tools to promote cognitive involvement

This step makes use of the seven tools of decision training to steer practice activities. The

seven decision training tools are known as: variable practice, random practice, bandwidth

feedback, questioning, video feedback, hand-first instruction and modeling and external

focus of instruction.

12
According to Vickers (2007) training sessions should be structured around learning the

perceptual and cognitive skills needed for successful decision making in different

environments.

To conclude, Vickers (2007) designed a coaching model to facilitate decision making in

sport. Decisions that players make during competitions must be identified initially. Drills

that train the decisions specifically in context need to be developed, and then drills for

decisions made in different contexts introduced.

3. INTRODUCTION TO THE CORNERSTONES FOR SPORTS

VISION

Coffey and Reichow (1990) identified benchmarks for sports vision: prevention of eye

injuries, visual correction through contact lenses which emphasize environmental factors in

sport, assessment of visual inefficiencies and visual abilities, and the enhancement of

specific visual abilities. Sports vision is built on four main cornerstones: protective

eyewear, corrective eyewear, visual skills evaluation and performance enhancement

(Ferreira, 2001).

Corrective eyewear, also known as ophthalmic devices, is used in correcting ametropic

visual impairments, such as myopia, hyperopia and astigmatism. The most common

ophthalmic devices used for the correction of these conditions are spectacles and contact

lenses (Moore & Ferreira, 2002).

13
Protective eyewear involves protection against eye injuries and exposure to environmental

factors. Protection of the eyes is particularly necessary in sports involving small, high

velocity projectiles (Vinger, 2000).

According to Moore and Ferreira (2002) the hardware and software visual skills which are

important in sport are static visual acuity, contrast sensitivity, accommodation flexibility,

fusion flexibility, stereopsis, colour vision, eye-hand coordination, eye-body coordination,

central peripheral awareness, visual reaction time and visual concentration. The

importance of these skills is different for different types of sports.

Performance may be enhanced by developing visual abilities, visual perception, decision

making and visual response time (Abernethy, 1991; Regan, 1992). Corrective eyewear,

protective eyewear and visual skill abilities can contribute to performance improvement

(Moore & Ferreira, 2002).

4. INTRODUCTION TO RUGBY AND ITS VISUAL DEMANDS

Rugby is a competitive, physical contact sport that requires physical and emotional

commitment to the game and has the capacity to produce great excitement (Winder, 1991).

It is one of the few sports which provide the opportunity for players with different

physiques and skills and of different genders and ages to participate in a controlled

environment (International Rugby Board, 2007).

14
Rugby is played by two teams, each consisting of fifteen players. The object of the game is

to contest for possession of the ball and score points. Rugby is a game that consists of

many parts (Pool, 2006), scrums, lineouts, mauls, rucks, kick offs, re-starts, attack and

defense (International Rugby Board, 2007). Scrums, lineouts, attack and defense are

known as unit skills. Support play, rucks and mauls, and kick offs and re-starts are known

as mini unit skills (Crawford, 1998 & Pool, 1992, 2006).

‘A Scrum is formed in the field of play when eight players from each team, bound together

in three rows each, close up with their opponents so that the heads of the front rows are

interlocked. This creates a tunnel into which a scrum half throws the ball, after which the

front row players compete for possession by hooking the ball with either of their feet.

The purpose of the lineout is to restart play after the ball has gone into touch, with a throw

in between two lines of players.

A maul occurs when a player carrying the ball is held by one or more opponents, and one

or more players of the ball carrier’s team bind on the ball carrier.

A ruck is a phase of play where one or more players from each team, who have to stay on

their feet, in physical contact, close around the ball on the ground. They then use their feet

to try to win or keep possession of the ball.

Kickoffs occur at the start of the match and the restart of the match after half time. Restart

kicks occur after a score or a touch down.

15
As one team attempts to maintain continuity of possession, the opposing team contests for

possession. This provides the essential balance between continuity of play and continuity

of possession and explains the difference between attack and defense.’

- International Rugby Board (2007).

A player needs the ability to perform a certain number of individual skills namely:

running, kicking, catching, tackling, handling the ball both while running and on the

ground and maintaining body position in contact (Stewart, 1987). Without these individual

skills it is difficult to perform as a mini unit or a unit.

According to Calder (1999), visual and specific visual awareness training improve both

visual skills and sport-specific skills significantly. The visual skills which play the biggest

role in rugby are eye-hand coordination, eye-body coordination, visual response time,

central-peripheral awareness and visual concentration (Calder, 2002; Ferreira, 2001), which

is in correlation with Erickson (2007) and Vickers (2007) where these skills form part of

the four critical performance factors in sport. Since vision is the most important sensory

system used for feedback (Lombard, 2007), more emphasis should be placed on vision and

the role it plays in the sporting environment (Pool, 2006).

16
5. AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of the study was three-fold:

• there is a difference in the performance levels of groups of rugby participants in the

same training environment, performing at the same level of competition;

• groups of rugby participants in the same training environment who have been

exposed to visual training show a difference in performance levels over time when

performing at the same level of competition;

• the training of specific visual skills transfers to the overall improvement of rugby
performance.

Previous studies have shown improvement in visual skills (Calder, 1999; Loran &

MacEwen, 1995; Ludeke & Ferreira, 2003; Trachman & Kluka, 1993). Calder (1999)

found a significant improvement in the visual skill performance of field hockey players

who had sport-specific visual awareness training. The difference between the current study

and other studies involves players being evaluated during game situations. There is a

difference between performance during practice and performance during competition since

arousal and anxiety levels differ (Schmidt & Wrisberg, 2008). The question still remains,

however, whether specific visual training improves sport performance. Furthermore, how

much restriction is placed when an athlete reaches his/her performance phase, which is

between eighteen years and twenty-three years of age (Sosniak, 1985)?

17
 CHAPTER 2

PERCEPTION

1. Introduction
2. Cornerstones for Sports Vision
3. Visual demands in Rugby

18
 CHAPTER 2

PERCEPTION

1. INTRODUCTION

The word perception is synonymous with the word sense. The human brain perceives

information through seven senses: Five visible senses known as sight, hearing, smell, taste

and touch, and two movement senses are perceived through the vestibular system and

proprioception (Guyton, 1992 & Lombard, 2007). Although all seven senses play a role in

perception, sight is the most valuable sense, since eighty five percent of information is

perceived through the visual system (Gavrisky, 1969).

Chapter 2 consists of two sub headings, the four cornerstones of sports vision and the

visual demands in rugby. Perception through the visual system needs to be of exceptional

quality to produce good performance, which is established by using visual aids such as

corrective and protective eyewear. The visual skills discussed below explain the

various aspects which are necessary for vision as a whole. Performance follows

perception. After information has been perceived and processed, the reactor system is

activated and reaction takes place. The specific visual requirements for rugby are

discussed in detail below to emphasize the importance of vision in rugby.

19
2. CORNERSTONES FOR SPORTS VISION

The four corner stones for sports vision are the following:

• Corrective eyewear

• Protective eyewear

• Visual skills

• Performance enhancement

2.1 CORRECTIVE EYEWEAR

An athlete needs good vision for competing at national and international levels. Good

vision is defined as the minimum refractive status required for an athlete to perform at

his/her maximum level in a specific sport (Buys, 2002). The most common method of

visual correction would be correction through spectacles and contact lenses. Contact lens

wear is an obvious choice for visual correction in dynamic sports such as rugby, soccer,

baseball, hockey and racquet sports (Erickson, 2007). The using of contact lenses limits

problems such as visual field restrictions, aberrations, surface reflections, frame comfort

etc. According to a study done by Bausch & Lomb (1994) at the Olympic Games 15.5 %

of the athletes wore contact lenses as corrective method, while only 3.2 % wore spectacles.

The method for correcting ametropia should be sport specific and individual specific

(Garner, 1985; Hazel, 1995; Ramkisoon, 2002; Spinell, 1993), but hazardous and

environmental factors should also be taken into consideration. Rugby is a collision sport

20
which makes the wearing of spectacles difficult and therefore Soft contact lenses or other

unconventional methods such as orthokeratology would be a better choice (Ferreira, 2001).

Orthokeratology is a procedure that is used for low grade myopic patients up to 4.25D and

up to 1.50D for with-the-rule astigmatic patients (Marsden, 2000). Specially designed

lenses called reverse geometry lenses are worn overnight in order to improve unaided

visual acuity. Wearing these lenses results in the flattening of the central anterior corneal

curvature to reduce myopia, leaving the individual with a close to emmetropic state of

vision (Barr et al., 2003; Caroline, 2001; Lui et al., 2000; Ramkisoon, 2001; Swarbrick,

2006). According to Ramkisoon (2004), orthokeratology is a safe and effective way to

correct refractive error. Orthokeratology is a method which establishes normal, functional

vision, without requiring any optical aids. It is therefore a great alternative method to

correct refractive errors in athletes.

2.2 PROTECTIVE EYEWEAR

Participation in sports, especially sports involving balls, sharp objects, racquets, sticks, bats

or body contact exposes athletes to eye injuries (Vinger, 2000) and protective eyewear

protects them against eye injuries, exposure, environmental factors etc.

21
There is a spectrum of eye injuries which is classified according to specific sports (Ferreira,

2000)

• A sharp or penetrating injury is usually caused by a sharp object, which could

happen when throwing darts.

• A blow by a blunt object could be caused by a Cricket or Squash ball for example.

• A blow to the skull that might injure the optic pathways or cause a blow-out

fracture could happen in rugby or soccer for example.

Studies done on ocular trauma perceived during soccer or rugby games showed a relatively

low incidence (Burke et al., 1983; Jones, 1989; Larrison et al., 1990; Orlando & Doty,

1996; Vinger & Capao-Filipe, 2004). However athletes could be reluctant to wear

protective eyewear because of discomfort or poor vision or fogging or because of cosmetic

reasons (Erickson, 2007)

According to Woods (1987) 90 % of all eye injuries might be prevented if correct

protective measures are taken, but wearing protective eyewear is not always possible.

2.3 VISUAL SKILLS

Moore and Ferreira (2002) highlighted the importance of visual skills in sport and that the

importance of these skills is different for different types of sport. As previously mentioned

Abernethy (1986, 1987) divided visual skills into hardware and software visual skills. The

following visual skills are known as hardware visual skills: visual acuity, contrast

22
sensitivity, colour vision, stereopsis, and accommodation and fusion flexibility. The

software visual skills are: eye-hand coordination, eye-body coordination, central-

peripheral awareness, visual response time, visual concentration and decision making.

2.3.1 Static visual acuity

It is defined as the ability to see details of a stationary object distinctly under high contrast

conditions and is presented in a Snellen fraction. The universal method to test static visual

acuity involves the Snellen acuity chart. The Snellen letter is constructed on an equal-sided

grid, so that each limb width is one-fifth of the letter height. The size of the letters is then

expressed as Snellen fractions such as 6/6, 6/9, 6/12, etc. A normal static visual acuity is

considered to be 6/6 in adults (Buys, 2002; Ferreira, 2001).

Examination of static visual acuity using the Snellen E chart reveals serious validity issues.

The three-dimensional dynamic sports environment differs drastically from the clinical

assessment technique of determining the static visual acuity of the athlete (Planer, 1994).

Applegate and Applegate (1992) examined the effect of varied static visual acuity on the

foul-shooting performance of male subjects in basketball. They reported no significant

decrement in performance in visual acuities between 6/6 and 6/7.5. Considering the visual

demands of the respective environments for different sports, visual acuity will depend on

the requirements of a specific task (Blundell, 1985; Williams, Davids & Williams, 1999).

For example, rifle shooting requires high resolution of a target, whereas the visual acuity of

a rugby player needs to be far less accurate (Ferreira, 2001).

23
2.3.2 Contrast sensitivity

Contrast sensitivity measures athlete’s ability to process temporal or spatial information

about objects and their background under varying lighting conditions. It indicates the

smallest amount of contrast required to detect a visual stimulus (Kluka, 2001). The test

used to measure contrast sensitivity is the Vistech Chart, which consists of 6 rows of 8cm

diameter sine-wave gratings. In each row the spatial frequency remains the same but the

contrast differs. From row to row however, the spatial frequencies differ from top to

bottom (Buys, 2002; Ferreira, 2001).

Very little research has been published on the effect of contrast sensitivity function (CSF)

on sports performance. Trachtman (1995) investigated the enhancement of CSF through

sports vision programs and found that contrast sensitivity function can be improved as a

result of relaxation of accommodation biofeedback training. Researchers (Hoffman, Polan

& Powell, 1984; Kluka et al., 1995) have shown that athletes from different sports in which

the ball moves at high velocities have superior CSF compared to age-matched control

groups or non-athlete groups. Why athletes display higher CSF profiles than non-athletes

has not been clearly articulated. Whether athletes participate in sport because of their

superior CSF abilities or whether participation in sport enhances CSF is not yet clear

(Kluka, 2001).

2.3.3 Colour vision

Colour Vision deficiencies are assessed by the Farnsworth D15 test. Both red-green

deficiencies and yellow-blue anomalies are detected by this test (Buys, 2002; Ferreira,

2001). Colour vision deficiencies do not play a major role in rugby specifically (Ferreira,

24
2001). It is interesting to note, however, that approximately one in eleven white males is

colour deficient (Loran, 1999). This suggests that in a team, including the coaches, match

officials, reserves and medical and managerial teams, there could be two to three

participants who find it difficult to recognize certain colours. The ability to detect colour

differences between the uniforms of teammates and opponents may help a rugby player to

decide whether to throw a last minute pass or retain possession of the ball (Abernethy,

1991). Luckily this problem can easily be overcome by intensifying the colour contrasts

(Loran, 1999) or correcting the deficiency with colour contact lenses.

2.3.4 Stereopsis

Stereopsis is the ability to perceive depth, on the basis of retinal disparity clues. It is the

ability of the athlete’s eyes to utilize fused images rapidly and accurately to judge the

distance from an object (Katz, 1998). When an object point fails to stimulate

corresponding retinal points for the two eyes, it is said to stimulate on corresponding

points. The resulting stimulus situation is known as retinal disparity. Therefore, stereopsis

can only be achieved through binocular vision (Buys, 2002; Ferreira, 2001).

Miller (1960) tested 162 subjects from five sports: volleyball, basketball, fencing,

swimming and gymnastics. According to Miller (1960) expert and intermediate athletes

showed superior depth perception compared to a group of novice subjects in the five sports

that are named above. An expert or elite athlete is one who consistently achieves the

highest statistics in a specific task in his or her sport, as documented by external authorities

(Vickers, 2007). Novelty is a deficiency of the simple motor-program notion, which

presumes that people are unable to produce new movements because they have not

25
developed specific motor programs for producing it (Schmidt & Wrisberg, 2008).

Blundell (1984) found significant differences in depth perception between championship

tennis players and both intermediate and beginner groups. The relationship between the

clinical evaluation and the context of depth in the sports action is questionable because the

evaluation is static compared to the dynamic environments of most sports. Perception and

estimation of depth change constantly with changes in movement of both the object and the

athlete (Williams, Davids & Williams, 1999). It is therefore difficult to estimate the

specific role of stereo depth in dynamic sport environments.

2.3.5 Accommodation flexibility

It is the ability to change accommodative and vergence postures quickly. Accommodation

is defined as the ability of the eye to focus clearly on objects at various distances, using the

crystalline lens (Buys, 2002; Ferreira, 2001).

In a study completed by Abernethy and Wood (2001) it was found that no significant

difference occurred in pre- to post training of accommodation. All participants in the

experiment experienced improvements. Authors concluded that it was the result of test

familiarity and not to the visual training program. The importance of accommodation in

certain sports such as rugby and cricket is debatable. In cricket specifically bowlers bowl

at speeds of between 80 – 150 km/h (McLeod & Jenkins, 1991). At the slow speed of 80

km/h the batsman needs to make a decision when the ball still has to travel 10m or 0.5s.

The whole process of perception, decision-making and stroke execution takes

approximately 0.45s. Any action that is initiated later than this will be ineffective (Ferreira,

2003; McLeod & Jenkins, 1991). Thus, the accommodation demand at 10m is almost

26
negligible (Ferreira, 2003). Rugby, on the other hand, is played at a much slower pace and

with a much bigger ball. Rugby players are capable to achieve passing velocities of

between 18.3 m/s and 38.1 m/s (Moritz & Haake, 2006). The question relating to the

importance of superior accommodative demand in certain sports is necessary to ask.

2.3.6 Fusion flexibility

Fusion is divided into motor and sensory fusion. Motor fusion is the movement of the eyes

that is made in response to retinal disparity stimuli in order to maintain single binocular

vision. Sensory fusion is the process where the visual stimuli images on the two retinas are

combined into a single percept (Buys, 2002; Ferreira, 2001).

Abernethy and Wood (2001) assessed vergence by using a Risley rotating prism to diverge

and converge the eyes while viewing distant objects, but found no improvements in

vergence in the participants. The changing temporal and spatial demands of dynamic

sports require disjunctive movements such as convergence and divergence to maintain

binocular vision (Blundell, 1985). In a Russian study about phoria and athletic

performance Graybiel, Jokl and Trapp (1955) reported that champion athletes were

significantly more orthophoric than non-athletes. Tatem (1973) found that athletes,

represented by basketball players, baseball players, gymnasts, tennis players and wrestlers,

were superior in vertical phoria compared with physical education majors. It would seem

that an athlete’s need to maintain fusion may be greater than that of a non-athlete. In fast

games such as cricket and tennis continual stress of the extra ocular muscular system may

deplete the fusional reserves over time and lead to performance decrements (Blundell,

1985).

27
2.3.7 Eye-hand coordination

Eye-hand coordination involves the synchronization of eyes and hands in the effectiveness

of a perceptual motor response to a visual sensory stimulus (Buys, 2002; Ferreira, 2001). It

is a measure of an athlete’s ability to effectively respond to a stimulus that involves hand

action. Previous studies on performance of eye-hand coordination where perceived fatigue

factors were present, showed no deterioration in this skill (Mollenberg et al., 2001).

Gender differences, where male athletes achieved faster times than female athletes in this

particular skill, have been reported (Coffey & Reichow, 1990; Klavora & Esposito, 2002).

It is a learned skill and can be improved by implementing various training techniques

(Loran & MacEwen, 1995).

2.3.8 Eye-body coordination

Eye-body coordination is the efficacy of an athlete to adjust his/her timing in response to a

visual stimulus and requires that the senses of vision, equilibrium and proprioception are

integrated (Buys, 2002; Ferreira, 2001; Rini & Werner, 1976). This skill is important in all

sports where rapid and efficient shifting of the balance in the legs and feet is required.

More attention should be given to making athletes more aware of their sensory abilities and

the fact that these abilities could be improved by following specific training programs

(Loran & MacEwen, 1995; Trachman & Kluka, 1993).

2.3.9 Central peripheral awareness

Central peripheral awareness is the ability of the athlete to maintain central fixation on a

target, yet be aware of what is happening to the sides or in the peripheral visual field (Buys,

2002; Ferreira, 2001). Central vision occurs in only three degrees of the total visual field

28
(Guyton, 1992). Central peripheral awareness is a function of visual perception and

evaluates the athlete’s ability to respond to central and peripheral stimuli without moving

the head (Buys, 2002; Ferreira, 2001). When this ability is lacking, athletes are required to

look around before they can respond, which often results in slow responses (Calder, 1999;

Planer, 1994). Previous studies have shown that athletes have a larger range of horizontal

and vertical visual fields than non-athletes (Berg & Killian, 1995; Graybiel et al., 1955;

Williams & Thirer, 1976). Athletes’ form recognition at peripheral locations also

appeared better than that of non-athletes (Buchellew, 1954; Christenson & Winkelstein,

1988; Hughes et al., 1993; Johnson, 1952). Central peripheral awareness is trainable

(Calder, 1999).

2.3.10 Visual response time

Visual response time is the time required to perceive and respond to visual stimuli (Buys,

2002; Ferreira, 2001; Planer, 1994). Kluka (1991) defined visual response time as the time

required from information processing until the first motor response, i.e. the speed with

which the brain interprets information and the action that follows after this. Visual acuity

does not have an influence on visual response time, but direction of motion in depth,

dynamic visual acuity and sport specific experience does (Gray & Regan, 2006; Millslagle,

2004). A superior ability in the latter skills could lead to superior visual response time.

Improving visual response time can result in faster visual processing of information and a

reduction in the time required for the neuromuscular system to send information to the

muscles (Erickson, 2007).

29
2.3.11 Visual concentration

Visual concentration is the ability to pay constant active attention to visual stimuli. It is

also a measure of how little visual information is required for the athlete to respond to a

stimulus (Buys, 2002; Ferreira, 2001). It is the driving force behind arousal and selective

attention (Downing & Pinker, 1985). Since this represents the driving force of the visual

perceptual system, hampered visual concentration can result in an overall poor motor

response. This may result in responses not only being too slow, but also inaccurate and

even inappropriate (Planer, 1994).

2.4 VISUAL PERFORMANCE ENHANCEMENT

A skill is a learned ability. It brings about a pre-determined result with maximum certainty

and maximum efficiency (Crawford, 1998). Leonard and Reyman (1988) defined skill as

the ability to achieve a result with optimal confidence and the minimal use of time and

energy. Magill (1993) defined skill as an action or task that has a specific goal to achieve,

it is an indicator of quality of performance. Schmidt and Lee (2005) defined skill as

“movements that are dependent on practice and experience for their execution, as opposed

to being genetically defined”. Skill acquisition implies learning and therefore skills can be

improved (Bressan 2003; Calder 1999; Ferreira, 2003; Hazel, 1995; Knudson & Kluka,

1997; Sherman, 1980). Motor skill learning involves a set of internal processes associated

with practice or experience leading to relatively permanent changes in human performance

(Kluka, 1999; Schmidt & Lee, 2005).

30
Coffey and Reichow (1995) divided visual enhancement training into three categories:

(1) Improving inefficient or inconsistent visual abilities; (2) developing visually dependent

motor function that is not as fast, quick, accurate or automatic as desired; (3) and

improving visual cognitive functions, which are critical for visual decision making during

competitions.

Erickson (2007) highlighted the following areas which are necessary for visual

performance enhancement: Treating vision insufficiencies, improving visual skills,

developing visual information processing skills, and enhancing visuomotor capabilities.

Vickers (2007) proposed her Decision Training Model for training and improving decision

making. She maintained that decision training is not just a relationship between perception

and motor performance, but also establishes an automatic connection between stimuli and

response. By using this model the cognitive thought processes of the players are developed

during practice sessions.

Decision-making is the process by which an appropriate movement response is selected as

well as the ability to assess a large number of situational cues and to select the most

appropriate response (Hodge & McKenzie, 1999). The ability to process visual

information quickly and accurately and facilitate performance during competitions

improves as expertise improves (Erickson, 2007). Studies done in badminton, baseball,

cricket, hockey, soccer, squash and tennis have shown that experts use advanced cues in

order to anticipate the outcome of an action (Abernethy, 1988; Abernethy, 1990; Abernethy

& Russell, 1984; Abernethy & Russell, 1987; Helsen & Pauwels, 1987; Houlston & Lowes,

31
1993; Isaacs & Finch, 1983; McLeod, 1987; Paull & Glencross, 1997; Starkes, 1995;

Williams & Burwitz, 1993).

3. VISUAL DEMANDS IN RUGBY

Schmidt and Lee (2005) defined skill as “movements that are dependent on practice and

experience for their execution, as opposed to being genetically defined”. The learning of a

motor skill occurs in stages: cognitive, associative and autonomous stages (Magill, 1993).

The cognitive stage is marked by a large number of errors in performance and is highly

variable. During the associative stage many of the basic fundamentals of the skill have to

some extent been learned. The errors are fewer and less gross in nature. The final stage of

learning is the autonomous stage. Here the skill has become almost automatic, the

individual has learned to perform most of the skill without thinking about it at all (Magill,

1993).

The following factors influence skilled performance: Player fatigue, arousal level, anxiety,

environmental conditions, knowledge of the performance required, previously learned

experiences, stages of growth and development, fitness levels, degree of motivation,

physical ability, vision, technique and the ability to think, interpret and select (Bootsma et

al., 1992; Crawford, 1998; Latash, 1993; Pool, 1992; Schmidt & Wrisberg, 2004).

The skills important in rugby are divided into individual skills, unit skills and mini unit

skills. Individual skills involve handling, running, kicking, tackling, falling in a tackle and

32
contact skills. Unit skills include the set pieces: lineouts and scrums, as well as attack and

defense. Support play, 2nd phase play and kick starts are known as mini unit skills

(Crawford, 1998 & Pool, 1992, 2006).

3.1 INDIVIDUAL SKILLS

Individual skills form the fundamentals of rugby performance (Crawford, 1998)

Passing requires that an individual uses both hands, runs straight, looks at the receiver,

swings his arms and follows through. He needs to be aware of his surroundings. Different

passing techniques are used throughout a game: the standard pass, the dummy pass, the

spiral pass, the cleaning pass, the dive pass and the lob pass (Crawford, 1998; Pool, 1992,

2006). For executing the standard pass, both hands are required and the fingers are held

down the seam of the ball. The standard pass is used as the preferred option in most

instances since it is easier to catch and pass. By adjusting the fingers across the seam of the

ball, the standard pass is altered to the spiral pass. The spiral pass is used for passing over

longer distances because it ensures better accuracy and more speed. A dummy pass is used

for creating a gap in the defense in order to run through. The cleaning pass is used by the

scrum half to clear the ball away from a congested area and is achieved by spiraling the

ball, in order to get more distance. The foot is placed next to the ball and the ball is passed

in a single movement. The diving pass is used only if the scrum half is unable to use the

clearing pass and, when making a dive pass, the scrum half has to avoid any interference

from the opposition. The lob pass is used to pass over an opponent to a teammate. Visual

33
awareness is necessary to avoid interference from the opposition (Crawford, 1998; Pool,

1992, 2006).

Receiving a pass requires a player to keep his chin up and eyes open. The receiver should

position himself at the right depth to maintain his running speed and extend his arms in the

direction that the pass is coming from. This creates a target for the passer and increases

accuracy. He should keep his eyes on the ball until the ball has been received into his

hands (Crawford, 1998; Pool, 1992, 2006).

Catching a kicked ball should always be done from a side-on position. This protects the

player should a tackle be made and ensures that the ball will not be lost forward. A player

should contest for possession by jumping for the ball. The leading arm should be extended

towards the direction of the ball. The catch is made above eye level and the arms are

brought into the body (Crawford, 1998; Pool, 1992, 2006).

Picking up the ball from the ground requires that a player approaches the ball side on,

keeping his eyes on the ball. The front foot should be placed ahead of the ball while the

player keeps a low body position and a wide balance base. The ball should be secured with

both hands, one at the front and one at the back (Crawford, 1998; Pool, 1992, 2006).

Running involves four scenarios, running while in possession of the ball, creating space by

pushing off a defender while running, running in support of a ball carrier and running in

defense. The key factors for running are all the same: Always run towards a defender,

34
anticipate where the point of attack is going to be, position the ball away from the defender

and accelerate into space (Crawford, 1998; Pool, 1992, 2006).

The most important skills required for kicking are timing, balance, keeping the eyes on the

ball and keeping the head down. There are different kinds of kicks: kicking for distance,

the drop kick, the grubber kick, the up and under kick and the chip kick (Crawford, 1998;

Pool, 1992, 2006).

The accurate execution of a kick is determined by applying the right technique. A distance

kick is executed by holding the ball at a 45º angle, keeping the eyes on the ball, keeping the

head and shoulders still, placing the ball on the foot with the dominant hand, swinging the

leg straight through, pointing the toe downward at contact with the ball, following through

with the kicking foot and extending the opposite arm of the body to maintain balance.

The drop kick is executed by holding the ball in both hands, with the ball pointing

downwards. The eyes should be kept on the ball with the head and shoulders held still.

The ball is dropped to the ground to the side of the non-kicking foot and in front of the

kicking foot. The non-kicking foot should face the target. The height of the ball is

determined by the strike of the ball. For low kicks the ball should be struck close to the

ground. For high kicks the ball should be struck once it has bounced a bit higher. It is

important to follow through with the kicking foot towards the target.

The aim of the grubber kick is to have the ball roll end over end to allow it to be picked up

more easily. The ball is held in both hands while moving forward into a kicking position.

35
The eyes should be kept on the ball with strong peripheral awareness. The knee of the

kicking foot should be bent on the point of contact. The ball is kicked with the top of the

foot by using a short stabbing motion.

The up and under kick is used for applying pressure; the ball is kicked high into the air,

allowing for the attacking players to contest for the ball. The ball is struck with the top of

the foot. The point of contact is just behind the point of the ball, raising the toes on

contact. The eyes should be kept on the ball with the head held down. The higher the

follow through, the higher the ball will be kicked.

The chip kick is kicked just over the line of defense. The ball is kicked with the top of the

foot, bringing the toes up on contact with the ball, with a short follow through. It is

important to enable a backspin on the ball, which ensures that the ball pops up, making it

easier to regain possession of the ball. The eyes should be kept on the ball, and head held

down.

Forward momentum from the opposition is prevented through tackling. The defensive

player should position himself on the inside of the ball carrier, which limits the ball

carrier’s options. It should be the aim of the tackler to turn the ball carrier in the tackle in

order to regain possession of the ball.

When a player is being tackled, securing the ball is essential in order to establish pressure

and continuity in attack. The ball should be held in both hands, which promotes ball

security and continuity options.

36
The critical elements of performance, forms a fundamental part in the individual skills

where players need to take locations of opponents and teammates in consideration before

any decisions can be made. The elements are known as skill execution, concentration,

response time and decision making and have a great effect on overall sports performance

(Coffey and Reichow, 1995; Erickson, 2007 & Vickers, 2007). A reliable model that can

be used in the evaluation of performance levels through the four cardinal elements of

performance has been developed through this study.

3.2 UNIT SKILLS

The scrum acts as a restart when the forwards are bound together in a physical battle to win

possession of the ball. The scrum consists of a hooker, props, locks and loose forwards.

The ability to secure good possession of the ball in the scrum creates a platform for the

team to launch an attack. The decision-making players should be able to initiate the

attacking patterns according to the actions and location of the opposition. The two most

important visual skills needed in this activity will be awareness and decision making

(Crawford, 1998; Pool, 1992, 2006; Winder, 1991).

A lineout is awarded once the ball has crossed the touchline. Each lineout should consist of

a minimum of two players and a maximum of eight players from each team. That is, the

thrower or hooker, the jumpers, the lifters and the support players. The player who throws

the ball into the lineout has numerous options in order to dictate the lineout, since his team

determines the length of the lineout. The most significant factor in the lineout is delivering

37
the ball accurately to the intended receiver. This requires that the type and speed of the

service of the ball are assessed exactly during each throw in order to secure the ball

successfully. It is important that there is good communication between the thrower and

the jumpers and that every player understands his role. The jumper should react quickly,

keep his eyes on the ball and catch the ball with soft hands. The team who secures good

possession from the lineouts dominates play. (Crawford, 1998; Pool, 1992, 2006; Winder,

1991).

Attack is determined by the quality and speed of possession. The main purpose of attack is

applying continuous pressure on the opponents until a breach in the defense line occurs, in

order to score points. This is established by selecting, implementing and executing the

most effective strategies for each scenario during the game. The responsibility of decision-

making rests mainly on the scrum half, the fly half, the captain and the leader of the

forwards (Winder, 1991). According to Pool (2006) a player needs to have the ability to

summarize the situation before receiving the ball in order to select the most appropriate

action. It is the purpose of the seven backline players to create and exploit attacking

opportunities.

Winder (1991) stated four basic principles for successful backline play:

‘to progress beyond the gain line when in possession and to support the player in

possession of the ball to maintain continuity of play; to assess developing situations

continually and maintain awareness for creating and exploiting attacking and counter-

attacking opportunities; to pressurize opponents into making handling or decision-making

errors and to prevent them from crossing the gain line.’

38
The objective of the defense players is to prevent the ball carrier from crossing the

advantage line, limit time and space and enforce mistakes. However, the main objective is

to regain possession of the ball.

3.3 MINI UNIT SKILLS

Mini unit skills could also be described as continuity skills. These skills are utilized for

retaining possession of the ball. The purpose of the ball carrier is to maintain possession

while crossing the advantage line and generating ball retention to establish forward

movement by the supporting players.

Two distinct phases of continuity play are rucks and mauls. A maul is formed when the

ball is held above the ground and the ball carrier and one player from each team is in

physical contact with the ball carrier. The objective of the maul is to engage in group

opposition in order to move forward. The ball is transferred to the back of the maul in

order to initiate further play through the scrum half. A ruck is formed when the ball is on

the ground and one or more players from each team are in physical contact over the ball,

while staying on their feet. A ruck is formed with the purpose of establishing quick ball

possession and maintaining continuity (Crawford, 1998; Winder, 1991).

Kick-offs and drop-outs are used to resume play. The purpose of the restarts is to regain

possession of the ball, which requires consistency from the player taking the kick and

39
delivering the ball accurately to the target area. Securing possession during restarts is

achieved through structured and repetitive practice (Crawford, 1998; Winder, 1991).

The execution of all the above skills is dependent on each individual player, his strengths

and weaknesses, his ability to perform fine motor skills as well as his ability to interpret

visual information. According to Pool (2006) the difference between an average and elite

player is vision. The elite or talented player is always aware of his position and that of the

opposition. Pool (2006) also maintains that vision and decision making are inseparable.

Thus, the player with exceptional visual awareness is a superior decision maker, and

therefore an extraordinary athlete.

40
 CHAPTER 3

INFORMATION
PROCESSING

41
 CHAPTER 3

INFORMATION PROCESSING

An athlete who consistently achieves the highest statistics in a specific task in his or her

sport, as documented by external authorities is known as an elite athlete as mentioned

before (Vickers, 2007). Novelty is a deficiency of the simple motor-program notion, which

presumes that people are unable to produce new movements because they have not

developed specific motor programs for producing it (Schmidt & Wrisberg, 2008). Novel

athletes have a greater opportunity for ineffective and inefficient movements (Kluka,

1999). The distinction between elite and novice athletes is found in the execution of the

software skills (Ferreira, 2003; Ludeke & Ferreira, 2003). Elite athletes have the ability to

react more quickly to a stimulus than novices. According to Abernethy (1990) the

difference between expert performers and novices lies in the expression of the motor

system.

Receptor Decision Effector

mechanism mechanism mechanism
(Senses) (CNS) (Muscles)

Figure 3.1 A modified information processing model of skilled performance ( Erickson,

2007)

Where in the process of perception, processing and reaction is superiority created? Is it

possible that expert performers utilize a different visual pathway under stressful conditions

42
than novices do? Before this question can be answered one needs to look at the anatomy of

the nervous system.

The nervous system harbours a large number of lines of communication which control the

entire body. The principles of signalling in the brain are based on the following (Nicholls et

al., 2001):

1. Neurons act as the building block for perception

2. The input that a neuron receives determines the complexity of a message

Brainstem mechanisms controlling eye movements

Parietal
cortex Optic
tectum Tectopulvinar
Area 7 system

Pulvinar

Dorsal Magno
stream system
(where?) Areas 18 & 19 Area 17
(extrastriate cortex) (striate LGN
cortex)
Ventral
stream Occipital cortex Thalamus Parvo system
(what?) thalamus

Areas 20, 21 & Geniculostriate system

22

Temporal cortex

Figure 3.2 The Human Visual System - Derived from the brain from top to bottom

[http://thebrain.mcgill.ca]

The Tectopulvinar and Geniculostriate systems are explained in the text below. In order to

assist easier understanding the systems have been colour coded throughout the text.

43
The central nervous system is a gathering of cells which constantly receive information,

analyze and perceive it and makes decisions about it (Nicholls et al., 2001). Information is

processed in the retina already, after which it is transported via two main pathways, the

retinotectal and retinogeniculate pathways. The retinotectal pathway ends into the superior

colliculus, which is connected to motor nuclei in the brainstem as well as the visual cortex.

The retinogeniculate pathway forms two main streams, the magnocellular and parvocellular

streams, which carry dissimilar information to the visual cortex. From there information is

carried via two pathways, the dorsal and ventral streams, which end in the posterior parietal

cortex and the inferior temporal cortex respectively.

The retina acts as an illustration of the general principles of the nervous system (Guyton,

1992). Light which enters the eye passes through layers of transparent cells to the

photoreceptors. The signals that leave the eye through the optic nerve fibers of ganglion

cells provide the entire input for all of our vision (Guyton, 1992). Thus, before the sensory

signals reach the brain, a great deal of processing has already taken place (Milner &

Goodale, 1995).

The photoreceptors that are present in the retina are connected to the bipolar cells.

Photoreceptors have no obvious dendrites or axons (Nicholls et al., 2001). Activity in

photoreceptors does not arise through input from another neuron, but from an external

stimulus. The bipolar cells are connected to the ganglion cells. The axons of the ganglion

cells form the optic nerve. Axons of ganglion cells in the optic nerve conduct impulses

rapidly because they are surrounded by an insulating lipid sheath called myelin (Nicholls et

al., 2001).

44
Apart from this main connection of cells, there are also lateral connections through the

horizontal and the amacrine cells (Nicholls et al., 2001). Only amacrine and ganglion cells

give propagated action potentias, whereas photoreceptors, horizontal cells and bipolar cells

produce local graded signals.

Ganglion cells carry diverse information throughout the central and peripheral nervous

system (Milner & Goodale, 1995). The cell body contains the nucleus and other

intracellular organelles (Nicholls et al., 2001). The long process that leaves the cell body to

form connections with target cells is known as the axon. Dendrites are the branches upon

which incoming fibers make connections and act as receiving stations for excitation or

inhibition (Nicholls et al., 2001).

Glial cells do not have axons or dendrites and are not directly connected to neurons. Glial

cells are abundant throughout the nervous system and play a number of roles in neuronal

signalling (Nicholls et al., 2001). Myelin, which wraps itself around axons during

development, is formed by glial cells.

Information is transmitted to neurons by electrical and chemical signals (Guyton, 1992).

Nerve cells with similar properties are grouped together in layers throughout the nervous

system. The brain uses stereotyped electrical signals to process information. The signals

consist of changes in voltage, produced by electrical currents flowing across cell

membranes (Guyton, 1992).

45
Electrical signals generated by neurons fall into two main classes, localized graded

potentials and action potentials (Nicholls et al., 2001). Localized graded potentials are

generated by an extrinsic stimulus such as light falling on a photoreceptor in the eye.

Signals generated in synapses are highly similar in their electrical characteristics, but have

very different origins. All these signals are graded and localized to the site of origin and

their spread depends on the passive properties of nerve cells (Nicholls et al., 2001).

Action potentials are initiated by localized graded potentials (Nicholls et al., 2001). They

multiply rapidly over long distances and occur in a neuron with fixed amplitude and

duration. They are the only signals which provide the brain with information about the

visual world (Nicholls et al., 2001). The great number of cells and the diversity of

connections, rather that the types of signals, are what account for the complexity of the

tasks that can be undertaken in the brain.

Figure 3.3 Tectopulvinar System – Some axons in

the optic tracts bypass the LGN and terminate in the

optic tectum at the superior colliculus of the

midbrain.

The brain from top to bottom -

[http://thebrain.mcgill.ca]

46
Nerve impulses leave the retinas and pass through the optic nerves. At the optic chiasm all

the fibers from the nasal halves of the retinas cross to the opposite side, where they join the

fibers from the opposite temporal retinas to form the optic tracts. The fibers of each optic

tract form part of the visual pathways from the eye to the brain (Nicholls et al., 2001).

Referring to the diagram on the human visual system -

The retinotectal and the retinogeniculate pathways are the two largest pathways from the

eye to the brain (Milner & Goodale, 1995). The older retinotectal projection passes through

the magnocellular pathway and ends in the superior colliculus, which is interconnected

with a large number of other brain structures, including premotor and motor nuclei in the

brainstem and spinal cord (Milner & Goodale, 1995). It also sends projections via thalamic

nuclei, to a number of different sites in the cerebral cortex (Guyton, 1992; Milner &

Goodale, 1995).

The superior colliculus, a sensorimotor structure located on the dorsal surface of the

brainstem (Dreher & Robinson, 1991) is able to mediate some oculomotor movements

without cortical involvement (Dreher & Robinson, 1991). The superior colliculus plays an

important role in visual attention and spatial orientation ( Klier et al., 2003; Krauzlis et al.,

2004; Kustov & Robinson, 1996; Sparks, 1999). Neurons in the superior colliculus are

sensitive to vision motion stimuli, which are the result of saccadic eye movements or body

movement (Dreher & Robinson, 1991). This implies that the superior colliculus is

responsible for navigational processing and therefore related to the peripheral or ‘where’

retina (Dreher & Robinson, 1991).

47
Each colliculus only represents the contralateral half of the visual field, and excludes the

ipsilateral half (Lane et al., 1973). This is due to the absence of anatomical connections

between the retinal ganglion cells in the temporal half of the retina and the contralateral

superior colliculus in primates (Dreher & Robinson, 1991). In many lower animals, visual

form is detected by this older system, using the superior colliculus in the same manner that

that mammals use the visual cortex. Is it possible that expert performers utilize this

pathway under pressure? The tectopulvinar system is a much shorter pathway and,

therefore, the motor reaction can be executed in a shorter period of time. The question

therefore remain: Is it possible that expert performers utilize a different visual pathway

under pressure than novices?

The newer retinogeniculate projection terminates in the dorsal part of the lateral geniculate

nucleus of the thalamus (LGNd), and is the most prominent visual pathway in primates

(Guyton, 1992; Milner & Goodale, 1995). Neurons in the lateral geniculate nucleus project

in turn to the cerebral cortex, with almost all of the fibers terminating in the primary visual

area or striate cortex (area V1) in the occipital lobe. The general belief is that subjective

visual experience in humans depends on the integrity of this projection system (Milner &

Goodale, 1995) and is responsible in humans for the perception of virtually all aspects of

visual form, colours and other consciously perceived vision (Guyton, 1992).

Although Ramon y Cajal’s (1995) scheme of the organization of the nervous system still

holds in general, essential new pathways and feedback groups have been discovered. One

of the earliest projections to leave the optic tract consists of a small bundle of fibers and

terminates in the suprachiasmatic nucleus, which, lies just above the optic chiasm in the

48
hypothalamic area (Milner & Goodale, 1995). There are also projections to the ventral

portion of the lateral geniculate nucleus, the pulvinar nucleus, the nucleus of the optic tract,

various pretectal nuclei, and a set of three nuclei in the brainstem known collectively as the

nuclei of the accessory optic tract (Milner & Goodale, 1995).

The lateral geniculate body serves two principal functions. Firstly, it serves as a relay

station of visual information from the optic tract to the visual cortex by way of the

geniculocalcarine tract. The signals from the two eyes are kept apart in the lateral

geniculate nucleus. This nucleus is composed of six nuclear layers (Guyton, 1992). The

second function of the lateral geniculate body is to control the transmission of signals to the

visual cortex (Guyton, 1992). The nucleus receives control signals from two major

sources. The corticofugal fibers return these signals from the primary visual cortex to the

lateral geniculate nucleus and the reticular areas of the mesencephalon. Both of these are

inhibitory and, when stimulated, can either turn off or suppress transmission through

selected portions of the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus (Guyton, 1992).

Another distinction between the inputs to the visual cortex is derived from the projections

arising from the retina (Livingston & Hubel, 1988; Schiller & Logothetis, 1990). The cells

in the deeper layers, I and II, are larger than those in layers III, IV, V and VI giving rise to

the terms magnocellular and parvocellular layers (Perry et al., 1984). This classification

corresponds to that of the large and small retinal ganglion cells which project to the lateral

geniculate nucleus. Between each of the magno and parvo layers lies a zone of very small

cells, the interlaminar or koniocellular layers. Konio cells are functionally and

49
neurochemically (Hendry & Yoshiaka, 1994) distinct from magno and parvo cells and

provide a third channel to the visual cortex (Casagrande, 1994).

The axons of magnocellular (M) and parvocellular (P) neurons project to different

subdivisions of layer IV of primary visual cortex (Fitzpatrick et al., 1985). Different

functional properties are represented in the different layers. For example, cells in the four

dorsal parvocellular layers of the monkey LGN respond to lights of different colours with

fine discrimination (Goodale & Servos, 1999; White et al., 1998). In contrast, layers I and

II, the magnocellular layers, contain M-like cells which conduct impulses faster and are

colour insensitive (Golras, 1969; Kaplan & Shapley, 1982; Schiller & Malpeh, 1978).

They are much more sensitive to contrast than the P neurons (Goodale & Servos, 1999;

Sclar et al., 1990).

These two major pathways respond to different stimuli and may have different energetic

requirements and different oxygen demands (Liu et al., 2006). The magnocellular and

parvocellular pathways are not entirely separated. Interactions between these two

pathways can be found even in the visual cortex, V1 (Fitzpatrick et al., 1985; Lachica et al.,

1992; Sawatari & Callaway, 1996; Yabuta & Callaway, 1998).

Lateral geniculate neurons project through the optic radiation into the primary visual cortex

V1. The columnar organization of the visual cortex is evident in the constancy of receptive

field location through the entire depth of the cortex (Hubel & Wiesel, 1963; 1974;

Mountcastle, 1957). The visual cortex is organized into vertical clusters of cells with

similar functional attributes (Hubel & Wiesel, 1963, 1974). Cortical neurons which are

50
preferentially driven by the right or the left eye are grouped in ocular dominance columns.

Orientation columns consist of neurons of which the line or edge preferences are at similar

angles. Direction of movement (Weliky, 1996), spatial frequency (Tootell, 1981) and image

disparity (Le Vay & Voight, 1988) also appear in columnar arrangements in the visual

cortex.

The primary visual cortex is the terminus of the most direct visual signals from the eyes.

Signals from the macular area of the retina terminate near the occipital pole, while signals

from the more peripheral retina terminate in concentric circles anterior to the pole and

along the calcarine fissure. The secondary visual areas lie anterior, superior and inferior to

the primary visual cortex. Secondary signals are transmitted to these areas for further

analysis of visual meanings.

Two separate channels for the control of different phases of movements have already been

suggested in 1979 by Paillard and his colleagues (Beaubaton et al., 1979; Paillard et al.,

1981; Paillard, 1982; Trevarthen, 1968). According to their hypotheses, one system

analyzes positional cues and the other analyzes motion cues. The position channel is

activated by fixating on a target through the use of central vision. The motion channel uses

peripheral vision and tracks movement in the peripheral field (Previc, 1990).

Ungerleider and Mishkin (1982) distinguished two broad streams of projection from V1, a

dorsal stream and a ventral stream. The dorsal stream tells ‘where’ every object is at each

instant and whether it is moving. It uses information for action (Culham & Valyear, 2006).

After leaving the primary visual cortex, the signals of this pathway next flow generally into

51
the posterior midtemporal area, and thence upward into the broad occipitoparietal cortex.

At the anterior border of the latter area, the signals overlap with signals from the posterior

somatic association areas which analyze form and three-dimensional aspects of somatic

sensory signals (Newsome & Pare, 1988). Studies (Culham & Kanwisher, 2001; Fogassi &

Luppino, 2005; Grefkes & Fink, 2005; Ungerleider & Mishkin, 1982) have shown that

areas within the posterior parietal cortex might be active. This occurs not only when an

individual is preparing to act, but also when other actions are observed and during the

perceptual processing of attributers relevant to the action, even when no actions are

executed. The second pathway, namely the ventral stream, passes from the primary visual

cortex into the inferior ventral and medial regions of the occipital and temporal cortex. It is

the principal pathway for analysis of visual detail (Underleider & Mishkin, 1982). This

pathway is concerned with such visual features as recognizing letters, reading, determining

the texture of surfaces and determining detailed colours of objects.

The dorsal or parietal pathway is important for assessing motion and the spatial

relationships of form – properties similar to the M channels. Lesions in the dorsal, parietal

path result in neglect of a portion of the visual field and disruption of visuomotor

orientation. Lesions in the temporal cortex or the ventral pathway diminish visual

identification of objects, their colours and fine details (Underleider & Mishkin, 1982),

reflecting the properties of the P channels. The ventral stream is activated by awareness

(Tong et al., 1998), whereas the dorsal stream remains activated by objects, even when

these objects are not consciously perceived (Fang & He, 2005). Culham and Valyear

(2006) suggested that these unperceived stimuli relevant to actions are processed in the

52
dorsal stream. Thus, the dorsal stream could account for the ability of subjects to act

accurately towards objects without explicit awareness (Tong et al., 1998).

Goodale and Milner (1992) challenged the Ungerleider and Mishkin (1982) viewpoint since

their findings are based on perceptual representation. According to Goodale and Milner

(1992) and Milner and Goodale (1993, 1995) more emphasis should be placed on the

output requirements of the two systems. They propose that the dorsal stream, in close

conjunction with the premotor and prefrontal cortex, provides a specialized system for

controlling skilled action and that the ventral stream is primarily concerned with perceptual

functions, such as visual learning and object recognition. Thus, the systems involved in

transforming visual information into motor output are probably performed independently of

visual perception (Goodale & Milner, 1992).

The analysis of motion remains largely automatic and unconscious. Motion is analyzed by

the magnocellular-parietal component of the visual pathway. Magnocellular pathway

neurons are sensitive to moving stimuli, and this trait is maintained through V1 and V2 to

the middle temporal association cortex (area MT or V5). Area MT is retinotopically

mapped (Maunsell & Newsome, 1987). Neurons in this area are selective for the speed

and direction of a moving stimulus (Maunsell & Van Essen, 1983; Zeki, 1974) and are

clustered together into columns with similar preferred directions (Albright, 1984; Malonek

et al., 1994). When small regions of MT were chemically lesioned with a neurotoxin, a

monkey’s ability to detect a moving pattern of dots in a corresponding region of the visual

field was impaired, while thresholds for contrast were unaffected (Newsome & Pare, 1988).

53
It appears that representations within the left parietal cortex play a crucial role in the

storage and integration of knowledge about learned hand-object interactions, and that these

representations are distinct from those mediating the visuomotor transformations

underlying simple grasping actions (Johnson-Frey, 2003). Responses to observed actions

might depend on the richness of the observer’s own experience with such actions (McLeod,

1987). According to Buccino et al. (2004), the parietal cortex has a special role in observed

actions, which the observer intends to imitate later. These effects are more pronounced in

the left hemisphere, because of the role of the left hemisphere plays in acquiring and

storing skilled-movement representations (Buccino et al., 2004). Thus, parietal responses to

observed actions are most strongly activated when those actions are within the observer’s

repertoire (McLeod, 1987).

Since the neurons in the various layers in the LGN are predominantly innervated from

either eye, the first opportunity for significant interaction between the eyes must occur in

the cortex. The separation is maintained in layer IV of V1, where each simple cell is driven

by only one eye, the other being without effect. Mixing between the two eyes occurs in the

subsequent relay stations – which is in layers deeper toward the white matter and in layers

closer to the cortical surface.

How do the two sides of the brain mesh the right world and the left world together with no

hint of a seam or discontinuity? A cell in the right cortex that responds to a horizontal bar

in the middle of the field of vision should be connected somehow to its counterpart in the

left cortex which responds to the continuation of the same bar. Such interactions would

allow a complete picture to be formed with a minimum number of connections between the

54
two hemispheres. In experiments highly specific connections between neurons with

receptive fields exactly at the midline have been found to run from cortex to cortex through

the corpus callosum (Hubel & Wiesel, 1967).

Thus the shorter pathway to the motor cortex is through the retinotectal pathway.

The question can therefore be asked if elite athletes have mastered the use of this

pathway for information processing rather than using the longer retinogeniculate

pathway. Could it be that they process information to the motor cortex faster, which

gives them the edge over novices?

According to Ripoll et al. (1995) expert athletes develop specific cognitive skills to solve

complex sports problems. The link between perception and action processing is acquired

from early childhood (Hommel et al., 2001). The repetitive occurrence of movements

eventually leads to the creation of perception-action networks (Kibele, 2006). Researchers

(Trachtman & Venezia, 1994; Boer, 1986; Griffin & McBride, 1986) stated that athletes

who function in an enhanced alpha state utilize visual feedback information more rapidly,

hereby producing improved reaction times. Through extensive experience and anticipation,

the number of possible movement sequences may be limited, resulting in an appropriate

motor reaction (Tendenbaum, 2003). Although this argument on the concept of degrees of

freedom is still being investigated, there are no discrepancies between researchers on the

concept of practice. Athletes need extensive practice in order to develop automaticity and a

more sophisticated program, this then leads to higher order coordination in open skill

events (Schmidt et al, 1998). During continuous practice perceptual schemata of the

nervous system are formed, which improve in the understanding and anticipation of

55
specific game situation (McLeod & Jenkins, 1991). Accurate performance is therefore

reached through constant practice (Ericsson et al., 1993; Helsen et al., 2003). As

previously mentioned Ericsson and two colleagues (1993) found that elite performers, by

the age of twenty, had each totaled ten thousand hours of practice. By contrast the merely

good performers had totaled eight thousand hours, and the amateurs never practiced more

than about four thousand hours. One could therefore argue that elite athletes have special

perceptual schemata because of their extensive exposure to practice, enabling quicker

processing of information to the motor cortex. This could well be the distinction between

experts and novices.

Erickson’s (2007) model of skilled performance explains the schematic model of

information processing as mentioned before. He proposed three central processing

mechanisms: the perceptual mechanism, the decision mechanism and the effector

mechanism. The perceptual mechanism receives information from the sensory receptors,

after which it is filtered and only the necessary information is processed. This mechanism

is responsible for organizing and interpreting processed information (Erickson, 2007).

The processed information is then delivered to the decision making mechanism which

determines the appropriate motor response. This mechanism is guided by an athlete’s past

experiences. The effector mechanism initiates and controls the motor response.

56
 CHAPTER 4

PERFORMANCE

1. The acquisition of motor skills

2. Expert versus novice athletes

57
 CHAPTER 4

PERFORMANCE

1. THE ACQUISITION OF MOTOR SKILLS

A motor skill involves movement of the body that is goal-directed (Abernethy, 1991) and

can be measured according to a level of performance (Honeybourne, 2006; Schmidt &

Wrisberg, 2008). As mentioned before, Schmidt and Lee (2005) defined skill as

“movements that are dependent on practice and experience for their execution, as opposed

to being genetically defined”

Fitts (1964) was one of the first to classify motor skills. Skills involved in organizing

movement are discrete, serial and continuous (Fitts, 1964; Honeybourne, 2006; Kluka,

1999; Schmidt & Wrisberg, 2008). Skills with a defined beginning and end are known as

discrete skills, for example kicking and catching (Fitts, 1964; Honeybourne, 2006; Kluka,

1999; Schmidt & Wrisberg, 2008). Discrete skills which are linked together in order to

produce more complicated actions are known as serial skills, such as a gymnastic routine

(Fitts, 1964; Honeybourne, 2006; Kluka, 1999; Schmidt & Wrisberg, 2008). Movements

with no definite beginning or end are referred to as continuous skills (Schmidt & Wrisberg,

2008), such as swimming, skating and cycling (Fitts, 1964; Honeybourne, 2006; Kluka,

1999; Schmidt & Wrisberg, 2008). Other classifications followed, Broer (1966) classified

skills by purpose while Laban’s (The Dell, 1970) classification provides variations in

58
shape, effort, and movement technique as they relate to experiencing and learning through

motor behavior. Gentile (1972) and colleagues (1975) have developed a most

comprehensive and inclusive motor skill classification system. They classified skills based

upon environmental predictability. These skills are known as closed and open skills

(Abernethy, 1991; Honeybourne, 2006; Kluka, 1999; Schmidt & Wrisberg, 2008;

Wisemantel, 2002). Open skills are performed in a changing environment where timing

plays a role. This is in contrast with closed skills which take place in a predictable

environment with no time constraints (Abernethy, 1991; Honeybourne, 2006; Kluka, 1999;

Schmidt & Wrisberg, 2008; Wisemantel, 2002).

Motor performance is produced by executing a motor skill and motor learning takes place

as a result of continuous practice. Motor performance is an external process while motor

learning happens internally (Abernethy, 1991; Davis et al., 1986). Motor control indicates

human performance and the internal processes that command them (Kluka, 1999). Motor

learning is defined as a set of internal processes associated with practice or experience

leading to relatively permanent changes in the capability for motor skill (Schmidt & Lee,

2005). Motor development is known as a field of study concerning the changes in motor

behavior occurring as a result of growth, maturation and experience (Schmidt & Lee,

2005).

Fitts and Postner (1967) developed the classic three-stage model for the learning of a motor

skill. The first stage is known as the cognitive stage and represents the early stage of

learning where the learner determines which requirements are needed to perform the new

task (Abernethy, 1991; Honeybourne, 2006; Kluka, 1999; Wulf, 2007). Frequent errors

59
make performances quite variable. The learner senses that the behavior does not produce

the desired outcome but does not know what to do or how to do it differently to enhance

the quality of each performance (Kluka, 1999).

The second stage is the associative stage. The skills are performed more consistently

(Abernethy, 1991; Honeybourne, 2006). Movement becomes more automatic and stable

and attention could be directed towards other aspects of performance (Wulf, 2007).

Considerable improvement in performance takes place during this phase (Honeybourne,

2006). The learner also develops the ability to identify inappropriate performances and to

attempt solutions in subsequent trials of the skill in dynamic environments (Kluka, 1999).

The final phase of skilled learning is reached after extensive practice and is known as the

autonomous phase (Abernethy, 1991; Honeybourne, 2006; Wulf, 2007). Skills are largely

performed automatically at this stage and feedback is no longer necessary for motor control

(Abernethy, 1991; Honeybourne, 2006; Wulf, 2007). Movements are accurate and

effortless (Wulf, 2007), while motor programs have been formed completely and are stored

in the long-term memory (Honeybourne, 2006). Performers at this stage should direct

attention frequently towards the associative phase, since motor programs are reinforced by

practice in order to maintain superior levels of skill performance (Abernethy, 1991;

Honeybourne, 2006). It is not only the quantity of practice but also the quality of practice,

the quality of drills and the learning experience that leads to superior skill performance

drills and the learning experience (Kluka, 1999).

Traditional information-processing models of motor skill performance emphasize three

processes for the production of movement: perception, decision-making and execution of

60
movement (Abernethy, 1991; 1996). These models draw an analogy between the mind and

a computer and tend to neglect the role of the environment in executing action (Handford et

al., 1997; Schmidt & Lee, 1999; Schmidt & Wrisberg, 2008). Perception is an active

process which interprets sensory-stored information, as mentioned before (Lombard, 2007).

Decision-making is the process by which perceptual information is used for selecting an

appropriate movement response (Hodge & McKenzie, 1999). Execution of movement

results from organization, initiation and controlling of the selected response (Abernethy,

1991; Wisemantel, 2002). These information-processing models of motor control are no

longer universally accepted, but still provide a useful heuristic approach when considering

motor performance (Carello et al., 1984; Kelso, 1995).

The ecological approach has been proposed as a viable alternative to the information-

processing model, the former being modeled as a complex, dynamic human bio-mechanical

system (Davids et al., 1994; Williams et al., 1999). The acquisition of skilled movement is

proposed as a system which consists of two sub-systems: the dynamic system approach

(Kugler et al., 1980; 1982) and the perception-action approach (Gibson, 1966; 1979).

According to the dynamic system approach the way physical and chemical systems are

organized is responsible for constraining and stimulating behaviour. An example would be

the interaction of systems within the body which enables a person to walk. This process is

known as spontaneous self-organization (Haywood & Getchell, 2001). The components

which initiate movement are therefore as follows: self-organization of body systems, the

performer’s environment, and the demands of the task (Clark, 1995; Haywood & Getchell,

61
2001). Other features taken into consideration by the dynamic system are the maturation

and discontinuous nature of development (Haywood & Getchell, 2001).

Gibson (1966, 1979) proposed the perceptual-action approach. According to him the

development of perception and action cannot be separated. People assess their

environment in relation to themselves (Konczak, 1990). Individuals perceive their

environment constantly, which creates optic flow that provides information about time and

space (Gibson, 1966; 1979). Optic flow includes changes in the optic array created by

observer movement, for example, how visual information is perceived as it moves toward

or by us as a consequence of our own movements (Vickers, 2007). Therefore an individual

is able to perceive the change in size of the image of an oncoming car directly, judging the

time of collision without a complicated calculation of time and speed (Haywood &

Getchell, 2001). Other experiments showed that when an object travels toward a person

such as a ball approaching, or the person moves toward the object such as toward the take-

off point in long jumping, the change in size of the image on the retina is enough to trigger

a change in action (Lee, Lishman & Thomson, 1982).

Constant practice produces accurate performance (Ericsson et al., 1993; Helsen et al.,

2003); yet the performance of motor skills requires attention. According to Wulf et al

(1998, 1999, 2001) motor skill learning can be enhanced by the external focus of attention.

Thus, emphasis should be placed on the outcome of the action rather than on production of

the action. An example would be to direct a golfer’s attention to the head of the club

during the downswing rather than the swing of the arms.

62
Researchers (Ferrari, 1996; McCombs, 1989; Watkins, 1984; Wulf, 2007) have shown that

when an individual is actively involved in the learning process, information is processed

more deeply. Providing individuals with appropriate feedback and reinforcement is yet

another perspective of motor behavior. Figure 4.1 illustrates the process of feedback.

External Feedback Internal

Augmented Sensory

Knowledge of results Vision

Knowledge of performance Audition

Biofeedback Proprioception

Cutaneous

Figure 4.1 Graphic of the feedback system (Kluka, 1999)

There are two main classes for feedback, the first is internally from the production of

movement and is referred to as intrinsic feedback. Schmidt and Lee (2005) define intrinsic

feedback as ‘sensory information that arises from movement’. The second source of

feedback comes from external sources, such as feedback from a coach, video material or

formal analysis of movements, and is known as extrinsic feedback (Vickers, 2007).

Sources of extrinsic feedback may be grouped into two categories, knowledge of results

and knowledge of performance (Kluka, 1999). Knowledge of results refers to the outcome

63
of a movement, while knowledge of performance refers to the characteristics of the

movement itself (Vickers, 2007). Augmented feedback, refers to information that is

provided outside the individual from a variety of sources during and after performance

(Kluka, 1999), which induces an external focus of attention, also leads to improved

performance (Shea & Wulf, 1999). Learning is more effective when feedback is presented

after good rather than bad trials (Chiviacowsky & Wulf, 2007). Feedback seems to have a

negative effect when given during the performance stage, but it seems to be more effective

when given during practice (Hurley & Lee, 2006). However, too much augmented

feedback may cause an individual to become too dependent on the coach, that leads to an

inability to process and interpret information independently (Salmoni et al., 1984; Williams

& Hodges, 2005).

Other factors that play a role in the acquisition of motor skills include the complexity of the

task, players’ current skill levels, internal and external motivation (Reid et al., 2007),

exposure to other sports between the ages eight to fourteen (Baker et al., 2003; Berry &

Abernethy, 2003; Côte et al., 2003), and sustained sport-specific practice (Ericsson et al.,

1993; Helsen et al., 2003).

Sosniak, (1985) explains the phases of learning as follows. The first phase of learning is

known as the playful phase and takes place between ages three to seven years. The effect

of this phase seemed to be to get the learner involved and hooked, and to get the learner to

need and want more information and expertise. The second phase of learning takes place

during the middle years, between the ages of ten and fourteen. This period is marked by a

tremendous amount of time spent on details. In the second phase of learning, teacher

64
instruction becomes more rational and less informal than earlier, and technical skills are the

core of lessons. A sense of competence is developed over a period of four to six years, and

a typical transition is made to the third phase of learning, the later years, between the ages

of sixteen and twenty (Sosniak, 1985). The later years is the time to make the ‘learned’ an

integral part of the learner and to find the meaning and emotion of the larger experience,

and to make it your own. Over the period of years the learner began finding and solving

their own problems and satisfying themselves rather than the teacher. Although the phases

of learning are not biologically determined, it empirically derives from the learner’s

experiences.

Balyi and Hamilton (2003) went further and designed a model of long term athlete

development. According to Balyi & Hamilton (2003) the baseline for the development of

an adult athlete is set between the ages six to sixteen. Critiques of this model argue that the

model is misguiding because of the lack of proper research evidence (Ruff, 2009).

Although the validity and reliability of this model is questioned, it still provides the stages

in athletic development. Balyi & Hamilton (2003) propose six stages of athletic

development which are shown in the schematic proposal below.

65
Figure 4.2 A long term athlete development (Balyi & Hamilton, 2003)

Overall development of motor skills should be established during the fundamental stage.

Specializing too early in a specific sport may result in one-sided preparation, injuries, early

burnout and early retirement (Balyi & Hamilton, 2003). However, there are sports which

require early specialization, but then specialization should only start from the age of eight.

These are gymnastics, rhythmic gymnastics, figure skating, diving and swimming (Balyi &

Hamilton, 2003).

Learning to train involves the fundamental training of sport skills. It is established between

the ages nine to twelve for girls and eight to eleven for boys (Balyi & Hamilton, 2003).

Stage three is the train-to-train phase, when sport-specific skills are consolidated and the

66
engine is built. The train-to-train phase is established during ages eleven and fifteen for

females and twelve to sixteen for males (Balyi & Hamilton, 2003). The train-to-compete

phase involves optimizing the engine and training positional skills inherent to the sport.

This is established through ages fifteen to twenty one for females and sixteen to twenty

three for males. Ages eighteen plus for females and nineteen plus for males are known as

the training-to-win phase. Performance and positional skills are maximized during this

stage and athletes at this level compete for excellence. The last developmental phase is

known as the retirement phase during which players are retained for coaching

administration (Balyi & Hamilton, 2003).

These developmental stages act as a guide for planning optimal performance. According to

Ericsson & Charness (1994) it takes ten thousand hours of extensive practice to excel at

anything.

Abernethy (1991) defined decision making as the process during which perceptual

information is used to determine an accurate response. There are combinations of factors

which play a role in decision making, namely coaches, players, playing patterns, context

and time (Johnson, 2006). Decision making is a dynamic process. It is usually made in a

natural or known environment with some degree of task familiarity (Orasanu & Connolly,

1993). Decisions in sport unfold over time (Johnson, 2006), but decision-making may also

be altered over time due to new information processed and physiological fatigue. Thus, the

same scenario at the beginning and end of a game may result in different decisions.

According to Johnson (2006) most decisions made by athletes are made under moderate or

high time pressure. An elite athlete should be able to make accurate decisions under high

67
pressure and execute them correctly (Abernethy, 1991). Decision training therefore

requires dynamic sampling of real events (Alain & Sarrazin, 1990; Williams et al., 1999) to

ensure that the athlete acquires the necessary knowledge in order to perform the appropriate

movement in time. Researchers (Blaxton, 1989; Morris et al., 1997) shown that the best

results were found when testing and learning environments closely resembled each other.

Other factors which play a role in performance are levels of arousal or the levels of

activation of the central nervous system. The relationship between arousal and the level of

performance is based on the inverted U hypothesis (Schmidt & Wrisberg, 2008). The best

level of performance takes place at a moderate arousal level, although each person has his

or her own zone of optimal function (Wrisberg, 1994).

Figure 4.2 below, explains the effect of arousal in performance. At a low level of arousal

an athlete has access to a large number of irrelevant cues, causing a sub-optimal level of

performance. At a moderate level of arousal only the most relevant cues are observed,

which can lead to an improvement in performance. High levels of arousal are the cause of

perceptual narrowing, and therefore, athletes miss valuable cues which can lead to freezing

or slower reaction timing (Easterbrook, 1959).

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 P
E
R
F great
O
R
M
A
poor
N
C
E
low moderate high

AROUSAL

Figure 4.2 The cue-utilization hypothesis (Easterbrook, 1959)

Response selection requires processing, which can either be controlled or automatic

(Schmidt & Wrisberg, 2008). When a person performs a task requiring different mental

patterns, he/she has to decide between a number of responses. This type of processing is

slow, demands attention and is known as controlled processing. Automatic processing is

often found among highly skilled athletes. This is a fast processing method which requires

little attention and is the result of an enormous amount of practice (Schmidt & Wrisberg,

2008). With practice a person develops a production unit which is associated with a

specific stimulus and generates a specific action. An example of such a production unit

according to Allard & Burnett (1985) is seen in elite volleyball players where players react

to their opponent’s movement patterns. The movement patterns indicate what type of shot

will be executed (Allard & Burnett, 1985). Automatic processing therefore leads to quick

decision-making and response.

69
Although this method of processing is beneficial, an unexpected change in action at the last

moment could lead to an inappropriate response. Because of the initial response towards a

stimulus, a second movement will be delayed. When an athlete wants to cause a delay in

an opponent’s response, the time between the fake and the real movement should be

between 60 and 100 ms (Schmidt & Wrisberg, 2008). If the time is shorter than that, the

opponent may ignore the fake movement and react to the intended movement. If the time

is longer than 100ms, the opponent may react with only a slight delay which may not be

much slower than a normal response. The motor system can only produce one effective

motor program at a time. Therefore athletes need extensive practice in order to develop

automaticity and a more sophisticated program which leads to higher order coordination in

open skill events (Schmidt et al, 1998).

Training should be done both implicitly and explicitly. Substantial evidence proves that

implicit video-based perceptual training results in improved performance (Farrow &

Abernethy, 2002; Hodges et al., 2003; Howard et al., 1992; Raab et al., 2005; Vinter &

Perruchet, 2002). Thus, experienced athletes react faster than novices, due to earlier

stimulus processing which has been established through repeated instances during training

and competitions as part of the implicit learning process (Blundell, 1985; Hughes et al.,

1993; Kibele, 2006; Radlo et al., 2001). According to Kibele (2006) a two stage learning

process occurs during stimulus-reaction behaviour. During the first stage internal codes of

perceived movement sequences are established which are interconnected with motor codes.

This leads to fast motor reaction. The second stage is associated with perception (Kibele,

2006). Perception of a movement sequence activates the previously established motor

codes and primes a motor response without conscious control. Thus, fast motor responses

70
rely on two control systems, off-line control and on-line control (Elsner & Hommel, 2001;

Hommel, 2003). Off-line control involves a conscious intention to act. On-line control

takes place when motor processes are primed by perception, based on past experiences of

stimulus processing (Tulving & Schacter, 1990). Hommel et al (2001) state that motor

actions are linked to perceptual processes by a common coding of events. Therefore action

planning takes place according to the anticipated characteristics of the intended goal. The

link between perception and action processing is acquired from early childhood (Hommel

et al., 2001). The repetitive occurrence of movements eventually leads to perception-action

networks being created (Kibele, 2006). Thus, an individual will act on sensory input, even

if the effects were not intended (Hoffmann et al., 2004).

According to Vickers (2003) decision-making can be trained explicitly through traditional

behavioural training methods or through the decision training approach. Behavioural

training is skill orientated and leads to better skill performance (Vickers, 2003). The

movement pattern is broken down into small chunks and then slowly put together until the

entire movement has been mastered. Decision training involves a more cognitive

approach, rather than focusing only on executing the movement, and proposes that skills

should be learned in their entirety. Decision training leads to superior performance

(Szymanski, 1997; Vickers, 2003). Vickers et al (1999) indicated that behavioural training

was a more effective training method for novices, while decision training benefited

intermediate and advanced performers more. In an experiment done by Raab et al (2005) it

was shown that behavioural training induced better performance in the short term while

decision training improved performance in the long term. Thus, a combination of

71
behavioural and decision training should be introduced in order to improve both the

technical and tactical aspects of the game (Raab et al., 2005).

Many hours of training are needed to bring about minor improvements in elite performers.

There are several possible movement sequences for every motor response (Kibele, 2006)

but, through extensive experience and anticipation, the number of possible movement

sequences may be limited, resulting in a proper motor action (Tenenbaum, 2003). Motor

action only takes place once a critical threshold level has been reached and the perceived

movement features correspond with the motor codes of the motor response (Prinz, 1997;

Wickens et al., 1994). Thus only particular stimuli will initiate a motor action (Kibele,

2006). In order to establish accurate perception-action responses, perceptual skill training

is required, which produces action codes initiated by motor responses (Farrow &

Abernethy, 2002; Kibele, 2006).

2. EXPERT VERSUS NOVICE ATHLETES

Researchers (Ripoll, 1991; McLeod & Jenkins, 1991) show that a relationship exists

between an athlete’s level of expertise and his/her level of solving problems. Decision-

making by elite athletes depends on actual facts and needs less information to predict

forthcoming events. Research done by Newell and Simon (1972) showed that outstanding

performance is a result of increased knowledge skill, and experience. This was confirmed

by recent studies (Ericsson & Charness, 1994), which showed that extended training alters

the cognitive and physiological processes of experts. Ericsson (2003) has studied experts

72
in many fields and found that expert performers neutralize automaticity by developing

increasingly complex mental representations so they can achieve higher levels of control of

their performance. The elite performer is one who is able to maintain cognitive control

over all conditions encountered, no matter how difficult or unusual (Ericsson, 2003).

Another difference between experts and novices concerns the mode of visual scanning,

which is synthetic in experts and analytic in novices (Ripoll, 1991). Synthetic analysis

entails directing the gaze in a position from which the maximum number of events are seen

and grouped on the basis of one visual fixation (Mackworth & Burner, 1976; Papin et al.,

1984). It results in a mental process called ‘chunking’, when elements that occur in close

temporal proximity tend to combine into a pattern (De Groot, 1966), which constitutes an

essential aspect of skill acquisition (Keele, 1986). With limited time and a large amount of

information scattered over a large area, this behaviour becomes a necessity in most sport

situations.

Land and McLeod (2000) found that both low skilled and high skilled cricket players

tracked the ball as the ball was first delivered, but it was only the high skilled performer

who used a rapid anticipatory saccade to the bounce point, followed by a brief period of

tracking before the ball was struck. Thus, the elite performer is better at adapting his gaze

and picking up information so that the rapidly changing conditions may be perceived in

time to adjust the action effectively (Abernethy & Russell, 1984; Adams & Gibson, 1989;

Martell & Vickers, 2004; McLeod, 1987). McLeod (1987) also found that the difference

between expert and novices does not lie in the speed with which the perceptual system is

operated, but rather in organizing the motor system in such a way that the output of the

73
perceptual system is maximized. Less expert players follow the ball according to their

chronological order of vision; whereas experts use a holistic scanning process to orient

their gaze independently from the ball towards the intersection of several other visual cues.

Helsen and Pauwels (1992) and Ripoll (1991), state that experts use less fixations and the

mean duration of each fixation is higher than that of non-experts. This is in contrast with

Williams et al (1994) and Williams and Davids (1998) who found that expert players have

a higher frequency of fixations but of shorter duration. Both these findings are true

(Martell & Vickers, 2004), since a higher frequency of fixations occurs at the beginning of

an action and the longer duration of fixations during the last thirty percent of the action.

Abernethy and Russell (1987) and Goulet et al (1989), described no relationship between

subjects’ levels of experience and their visual strategies. The nature of the task where, for

instance, a player had to predict a forthcoming serve in badminton and tennis, could play a

role in this predicament. The chronology of the ritual, throwing the ball in the air, the serve

and the strike which appear in the same order, is in contrast with continuous situations

where players have to solve various unpredictable problems during longer periods of time

(Ripoll, 1991).

Studies done by Ripoll et al (1995) showed a clear relationship between the level of

experience and the visual strategies when the situation is continuous, long lasting and

presents a high level of uncertainty regarding the chronology and nature of events. They

also found that expert athletes develop specific cognitive skills to solve complex sports

problem situations and that expertise has more to do with the ability to detect specific cues

than with the speed of the response (Ripoll et al., 1995).

74
Anticipation is the ability to predict what will occur when preparing to perform a skill or

tactic (Vickers, 2007). It involves the ability to know or predict a series of events that

coincide with an external environmental demand (Tyldesley, 1981). An anticipation timing

task involves common skills such as hitting a pitched baseball, walking through a crowd

and passing another car while you are driving in traffic (Magill, 1993). Thus, a person

must accurately time his or her own movements with the action of another object. Visual

search is actively looking for information in the environment that will enable the performer

to determine what to do in a situation. This search is especially critical in situations where

there is a limited amount of time available for making an appropriate decision and response

(Magill, 1993). Anticipation depends on being able to select critical environmental cues in

advance so that the performer can anticipate action requirements. Visual search is

therefore and important element in performing in “time pressure’ situations. A need for

visual search exits for decision-making in many sport performance situations, where there

are many sources providing possible cues and there is a limited amount of time for

searching for and selecting the correct cues. For example, to return a serve in tennis, a

serve traveling at 40 to 45 m/sec allows the receiver only 500 to 600 msec for determining

how to respond. The player must search for the cues that will provide information about

the direction, speed, landing point and bounce characteristics of the ball so that an

appropriate return stroke can be selected, organized and executed (Magill, 1993).

Ripoll (1991) experimented with top level table tennis players to establish whether the level

of uncertainty of a situation influences the interaction between visual and motor behaviour.

Visual behaviour showed the following characteristics: (1) when there was no uncertainty,

gaze was not often directed towards the opponent; (2) during the ball flight the players

75
adopted an anticipated visual behaviour of directing the eyes in advance towards different

points on the ball’s flight; (3) during the strike, the head and the eyes which was stable

inside the orbit and aligned according to the position of the head axis, were quickly

directed towards the predicted direction of the ball-bat point of collision (Ripoll, 1991).

When there was no uncertainty, the players could plan ahead and time their subsequent

responses. Thus, the ball was returned without the player even looking at the opponent or

pursuing the ball.

Experienced table tennis players (Ripoll, 1991) develop a strategy to achieve an optimal

compromise between the limits of the ocular-motor properties and the physical

characteristics of the flight of the ball. Buser and Imbert (1975) found that the visual

pursuit capacity is limited to 0.7 rad s-1 and confirms the theories of Whiting (1969), Bahill

and La Ritz (1984) that it is not necessary to keep one’s eyes on the ball. Thus, expert

players employ cognitive strategies which adapt the sensory motor system in order to

overcome the basic limitation of the information processing system (Glencross, 1978;

Ripoll & Fleurance, 1988).

Increased levels of uncertainty on visual and motor behaviours showed an increase in the

scanning process and a decrease in the mean duration of each fixation, which meant that

the ball was systematically tracked over a longer period. The chronology of the visual

fixations was analyzed by Ripoll (1991), and it was found that players reduced the

uncertainty of the situation by asking the following questions internally: What kind of

stroke will the opponent make? At what moment will it be released? Where will it be

directed? The nature of the stroke could be solved by analyzing the orientation of the

76
opponent’s shoulder-line and guessing from previous occurring events. Analyzing the

angle formed by the forearm and the racket orientation could project the subsequent

landing (Abernethy & Russell, 1987; Goulet et al., 1989). Ripoll (1991) stated that an

increased level of uncertainty affects motor and visual behaviour. Pressure and uncertainty

cause antagonistic effects between the identification stage, when the semantic process

occurs, and the execution stage, when the sensor motor process is carried out (Ripoll,

1991). The greater the uncertainty, the more complex the visual strategy and the longer the

motor response took. Thus motor behaviour occurs once the semantic process has been

carried out and when the situation has been identified clearly. The semantic memory is the

sub-system of long-term memory that stores and provides our general knowledge about the

world that has been developed from past experiences (Magill, 1993).

An athlete has to pay attention to either the semantic or the sensory motor dimension of the

task in open skill sports (Ripoll, 1991). He can either use the maximum allocated time to

identify the situation in order to select the appropriate response, thus focusing on the

semantic characteristics, or process the situation incompletely and select an inadequate

response. Therefore an athlete cannot prepare himself correctly and organize his sensory

motor mechanisms before he understands the specific characteristics of the situation.

According to Ripoll (1991) expert athletes’ behaviour shows that high level skill demands,

coordination between the sensory motor and semantic visual functions in order to reach a

high level of performance.

McLeod and Jenkins (1991) stated that expert sportsmen are not dramatically better at

performing their tasks than non-experts. Everybody possesses the ability to produce

77
accurate timing, all that is needed is constant practice (McLeod & Jenkins, 1991). In a

study done by Abernethy (1987) in badminton, he only found a difference of about ten

percent in superiority between experts and novices, experts were found to be able to pick

up earlier advance information than novices. The expert group included players up to

national level and the novices had never played a game competitively. Continuous practice

leads to perceptual schemata of the nervous system being formed and, therefore, to

improvement in the understanding and anticipation of specific game situation (McLeod &

Jenkins, 1991).

After a perusal of the literature the following areas are necessary for visual performance

enhancement: treating vision insufficiencies, developing visual skills, improving visual

information processing skills, and enhancing visuo-motor capabilities and cognitive

functions (Coffey and Reichow, 1995; Erickson, 2007 & Vickers, 2007). In the current

study the following four major elements of performance enhancement were identified for

improved rugby performance: improving skill execution, visual concentration, response

time and decision-making.

As previously mentioned a motor skill entails movement in the body in order to achieve a

specific action (Abernethy, 1991) and can be measured according to the level of

performance (Honeybourne, 2006; Schmidt & Wrisberg, 2008). Visual concentration is the

ability to pay constant active attention to visual stimuli. It is also a measure of how little

visual information is required for the athlete to respond to a stimulus (Buys, 2002; Ferreira,

2001). Visual response time is the time required to perceive and respond to visual

stimulation (Buys, 2002; Ferreira, 2001; Planer, 1994). Decision-making is the process by

78
which an appropriate movement response is selected. It is the ability to assess a large

number of situational cues and select the most accurate response (Hodge & McKenzie,

1999). The ability to process visual information quickly and accurately and facilitate

performance during competitions improves as expertise improves (Erickson, 2007).

How is it possible to determine whether visual skills enhancement can be transferred to

performance? The challenge remains to find an objective, reliable way to evaluate

performance in game situations.

The ideal would be to analyze rugby players under conditions which are related to

performance, therefore analyzing them during competitions. It is difficult to determine

accurate performance during practice, because certain factors which are not present then,

play a role during competitions, such as emotional stress, arousal and pressure. Both a

subjective and objective method of evaluation was chosen to evaluate players during

competitions. The subjective method of evaluation was applied, using three independent

raters. However, other studies which used raters as part of their evaluation process found

an inconsistency among the raters (Venter, 2008; Van Velden, 2011). It was therefore

important to establish an objective method for evaluating the visual skills of rugby players.

The Verusco© system was identified for this purpose. This system analyses each

individual skill of every player for every single game played during a specific competition.

The only problem was that individual skills were discussed separately and not as a whole,

meaning that skills such as decision-making and response time were not accounted for. For

this reason a model was designed in order to evaluate these skills specifically. The

individual skills which play a role in decision-making and response time were all

79
incorporated to form part of an index of skills, with the purpose of establishing whether or

not improvements in performance took place over time. As decision-making, response

time, visual concentration and skill execution form the four main elements of performance,

used in this investigation, it might be possible to evaluate the transferability of

performance, using an objective method of evaluation.

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 CHAPTER 5

METHODOLOGY

1. Research Design
2. Procedures

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 CHAPTER 5

METHODOLOGY

1. RESEARCH DESIGN:

The first part of the study involved professional raters who evaluated twenty five players

over a three year period. The players who participated in the study were evaluated both by

means of a subjective and objective system of evaluation and were randomly selected from

two professional, regional rugby teams. The sample was divided into 4 groups - three

experimental groups and a control group. Some of the regional players also played for the

national side. Two of the three experimental groups had specific visual training with the

national side and came from different regional teams. The third experimental group had

off-season visual training and were regional players only. The control group were also

regional players only, but had no visual training at all. Thus, the third experimental group

and the control group consisted of regional players who did not play for the national side.

The purpose of the control group was to evaluate whether changes in performance could be

visually related.

The second part of the study involved the design of an evaluation model or index, based on

elements which rely on visual motor responses. This model is designed for evaluating the

four factors of performance (Coffey and Reichow, 1995; Erickson, 2007 & Vickers, 2007),

82
selected specifically for rugby: skill execution, visual concentration, decision-making and

response time.

2. PROCEDURES

2.1 SELECTION OF SUBJECTS

Ethical clearance for the study has been granted by the Ethics Committee of the University

of Johannesburg, the Rugby Unions for which the rugby players played as well as

Verusco©. Neither the Rugby Unions nor the players were identified for reasons of

confidentiality. Fifty subjects were selected to participate in the study. The subjects were

between twenty three and twenty eight years of age and played rugby professionally. The

subjects who were included in the study had to have played in the same regional team for

the period of the study which progressed over three years. Twenty five players actually

completed the study after three years. Some of the players went to play overseas and some

of them joined other provincial teams. This made the sample group small and could have

influenced the results.

The study was done in order to find an objective and reliable way to evaluate visual motor

performance and was divided into two parts. The first part involved the use of raters who

would evaluate players’ performances by studying video clips of each of the twenty five

players. The second part made use of the statistics produced by the Verusco TryMaker

83
Pro© system in order to develop a performance index which would establish an objective

evaluation process.

2.1.1 PART 1

The subjects were divided into four groups: group 1 (n=7) and group 2 (n=3) were

randomly selected from the same regional team, called Regional team A. Groups 3 (n=9)

and 4 (n=6) were randomly selected from another regional team, Regional team B. The

players selected for Groups 2 (Team A) and 4 (Team B) were regional players who were

also selected for the National side. The diagram below explains how the four groups were

distributed.

Group 1 (Regional team A) Off-season visual training

Group 2 (Regional team A, that played

for the National side) Specific visual training

Group 3 (Regional team B) No visual training

Group 4 (Regional team B, that played

for the National side) Specific visual training

84
The groups could not be equally distributed. This was due to no control over the selection

processes of the different teams. The players who were part of the study did not always get

selected to play from season to season. Some of the players left the country to play

overseas or left their current teams to play for other regional teams. The players that were

part of the study did not always get selected to play the same number of games. No

specific visual screenings were done prior to initial group assignments.

Group 1 had off-season visual training which involved basic visual training over a period

of three months. The training was done three times per week in the gymnasium, every

session lasting twenty minutes. Decision-making drills pertaining specifically to rugby

were performed during the official training sessions. The drills were designed to improve

strategic and tactical decision making, as a team, as units (backline and forward players), as

mini-units (inside and outside backs, lose forwards, locks and prop forwards) and also to

improve position specific rolls and responsibilities.

Group 2 trained in the same environment as group 1, with the exception that these players

had received specific visual awareness training in the national side. The training was not

done continuously and extended over a period of four months. Visual awareness training

on the field was done twice a week at ten minute intervals. These players also did

computer based visual training for a minimum of two hours per week. The computer

program was designed by a visual awareness coach and is commercially available. It was

specifically designed for improving eye-hand coordination, reaction time and visual

awareness.

85
Group 3 received no visual training and these players continued training in their normal

training environment.

Group 4 trained in the same environment as Group 3, with the exception that these players

had received specific visual awareness training at the National side (the same as Group 2).

The training was not done continuously, but extended in total over a period of four months.

Visual awareness training on the field was done twice a week at ten to twenty minute

intervals. These players were also doing the computer based visual training for a minimum

of two hours per week. The difference between Group 2 and 4 lay in their regional training

environments.

The Verusco TryMaker Pro system© was used to analyze the visual skills of players over a

period of three years after the necessary permission had been obtained. This system is an

elite rugby product developed by Verusco and includes analysis application and Verusco’s

coding services. Verusco© has eight to twelve coders coding the same game at a time. In

this manner they are able to go into great detail identifying 4500 – 5000 individual tasks in

each game. Each coder takes four to five hours to go through their 10 minutes of the game.

Over 45 working hours go into analyzing each TryMaker Pro© coded game, with another

five hours and more of checking and control. The system analyzes each subject’s position

specific performance, and also trend and tactical analysis. It has dozens of analyzing

functions which give useful information about players and teams, but it does not provide

any index of performance.

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Video clips of each player in every game he played throughout the three seasons were

randomly selected from the Verusco© data bases. A total of forty five clips for each player

were selected over the three seasons, i.e. fifteen clips per season. Three top class

international raters were selected for evaluating individual players. Each player had to be

evaluated individually for each season on the four elements of performance: skill

execution, visual concentration, decision making and response time. The ratings were

classified into poor, average and excellent. The explanation for only choosing three

categories for the ratings, were to simplify the judging for the raters. Choosing more than 3

categories would be too technical in the evaluation of the four elements of performance.

The findings were then statistically analyzed. A copy of one of these video clips over the

three seasons had been attached (See CD).

2.1.2 PART 2

In this part of the study an objective evaluation performance model was initiated by using

data that were produced by the Verusco© system. It was necessary to develop such an

evaluation model since no model for evaluating performance objectively during the

competitive phase existed. All four elements of performance, skill execution, decision-

making, visual concentration and response time had to be evaluated objectively. However,

the Verusco© system only evaluates skill execution. Decision-making, visual

concentration and response time had to be calculated separately. Therefore an index was

created for each of these elements because many individual skills play a role in each of the

individual elements.

87
After careful consideration, agreement was reached by the raters and the designers of the

Verusco© system about the individuals skills to be selected for each element. Consistency

was assured by incorporating as many as possible of various individual skills into each

element, which resulted in an index. Each index was then processed into one entity and its

relative percentage determined. This was necessary in order to compare the raters’ results

with those of the Verusco TryMaker Pro© statistics.

Skill execution was calculated by the Verusco TryMaker Pro© system. Decision-making

consisted of turnovers won, turnovers lost, off-loads, good off-loads, bad off-loads, cleans

made, win possession, lost possession, breakdown efficiency, in-tackle pass, total amount

of ball carries, positive ball carries, negative ball carries, total attack, total defense, assist

tackle, putting-on-pressure, pick-and-go and the number of dummy passes thrown.

Concentration was determined by calculating the number of handling errors each player

made, divided by the time he played in total. Response time consisted of the following

individual skills: line breaks, tackle breaks, tackles per minute, tackles made, tackles

missed, turnovers forced, defender beaten, work rate, kick pressure and breakdown

turnover won.

The definition for each of the individual skills is listed below:

88
2.1.2.1 SKILL EXECUTION:

Leonard and Reyman (1988) defined skill as the ability to achieve a result with optimal

confidence and the minimal use of time and energy. Skill execution was calculated by the

Verusco Trymaker Pro© system for each player. An average was calculated by simply

adding all the individual averages and dividing the total by the total of games played.

2.1.2.2 DECISION MAKING:

Decision-making is the ability to assess a large number of situational cues and select the

most accurate response (Hodge & McKenzie, 1999). The ability to process visual

information quickly and accurately and facilitate performance during competitions

improves as expertise improves (Erickson, 2007). Decision-making was calculated by

adding all the individual skills which play a role in decision-making, both positive and

negative values and divide the total by the total number of games played by each player.

Each of the individual skills that form part of decision-making is discussed below:

Turnovers won (+)

This shows a player winning possession of the ball. It must be won during contact and in

contested situations, but it does not include the set pieces (e.g. lineout catches). It measures

the quality of the possession won with effort as well as turnover tackles, and will include

players who regain possession after a kick restart by his team.

89
Turnovers lost (-)

This shows the loss of possession by a player, except in cases where the turnover came

from conceding a penalty or free kick (these will be shown in the Penalty Lost column). It

will contain turnovers that lead to scrums for the opposition, turnover of ball to the

opposition through an ineffective action, losing the ball in the collision, being tackled into

touch and ineffective kicks (but not Effective Turnover kicks). It does not include turnovers

from starts of play (e.g. poor lineout throw, lost scrum, start half) as these are considered to

be team issues and not applicable to individual players.

Offloads (+)

They are passes of the ball whilst in tackle or off the ground immediately after a tackle.

Bad off-loads (-)

A bad off-load is a pass by a player whilst held in a tackle or being knocked off his feet by

the tackler in a tackle that has been executed poorly.

Good off-loads (+)

They are tackle passes and passing off the ground (passes whilst being tackled) which are

performed well.

Cleans made (+)

These include all occurrences where a player either removes opposition players out of the

breakdown or runs through the breakdown to clear space.

90
Possession won (+)

This includes all instances where a player gains possession of the ball from the opposition.

Possession lost (-)

These are the number of events when a player loses possession to the other team.

Breakdown efficiency (+)

The proportion of times a player arrives at a breakdown and does a PRA or PMA.

In tackle pass (+)

This is a pass while the passer is held in a tackle.

Ball Carries (+)

These show all the instances when the ball is carried by a player, including taking the ball

into a contact situation or not taking it into a contact situation (i.e. the same as the ball

carries in the players’ summary). Therefore it would need to include all coded carrying

actions and actions of taking the ball into contact (i.e. collision actions, excluding

laybacks). However, it would measure only one for each time the same player was in

possession of the ball; thus, any significant carry of the ball for more than 5m.

Total attack (+)

This shows the total of all the actions in the six attacking qualities columns.

91
Total defense (+)

This shows the total of all the actions in the five defensive qualities columns, but excludes

percentage of tackles.

Assist tackle (+)

These are tackles where the tackler is a secondary defender.

Putting-on-pressure (+)

This occurs when a player moves into the contact zone to influence the ball carrier, but

does not attempt to tackle him.

Pick-and-go (+)

This is an occurrence where player picks up ball to carry it without looking to pass.

Dummies (+)

These are the number of dummy events a player performs (ball in hand deception)

2.1.2.3 CONCENTRATION

Visual concentration is the ability to pay constant active attention to visual stimuli. It is

also a measure of how little visual information is required for an athlete to respond to a

stimulus (Buys, 2002; Ferreira, 2001). Visual concentration was calculated by determining

the number of handling errors made divided by the total amount of handling of the ball per

92
game. The percentage was determined for each game. All the percentages were added

together and divided by the total amount of games played.

2.1.2.4 RESPONSE TIME:

Visual response time is the time required to perceive and respond to visual stimulation

(Buys, 2002; Ferreira, 2001; Planer, 1994). Response time was calculated by adding all the

individual skills which play a role in response time, including both positive and negative

values. The total was divided by the total number of games played by each player. Each of

the individual skills that form part of response time is discussed below:

Line breaks (+)

The ball carrier breaks the defense line.

Tackle breaks (+)

The ball carrier breaks a tackle made by a defender.

Tackles per minute (+)

These are the total tackles per time spent on defense (ball in play).

Tackles made (+)

These are total tackles completed well.

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Tackles missed (-)

These are total tackles completed poorly (i.e. ball carrier breaks tackle).

Turnover forced (+)

These are all turnovers gained by a defending player.

Defender beaten (+)

This shows when a player beats a defender, but does not break the defense line.

Work rate (+)

This is calculated by adding the total actions column and dividing it by the total minutes

played by the player. For example 30 actions divided by 60 minutes = a work rate of 0.5.

This is to be rounded to two decimal places (e.g. a work rate of 0.47886 becomes 0.48).

Kick pressure (+)

This can be the equivalent of putting pressure, but only in situations where the opposing

team is kicking the ball (i.e. putting pressure off the ball action coded on a kick).

Breakdown turnover won (+)

These are all turnover gains at the breakdown by the player.

Data were collected for all the players over the three seasons and then statistically

analyzed. The Statcon Department at the University of Johannesburg analyzed the data

over time for both subjective and objective methods of evaluation. Differences between

94
groups were considered statistically significant at p < 0.05. The rater reliability was firstly

determined by using the interclass correlation coefficient to measure consistency between

the raters. The interclass correlation coefficient assesses the consistency of quantitative

measurements made by different observers when measuring the same quantity (Nichols,

1998). The collected data between the groups were compared by using the Mann Whitney

U-test. The Mann-Whitney U test is used in order to determine the differences between

two individual groups. The Wilcoxon signed rank test was used to measure significant

improvement from one season to the next. The Friedman Test was used to evaluate

subjects who were measured over time.

95
 CHAPTER 6

RESULTS

1. Introduction
2. Different non-parametric analysis procedures
3. A comparison between the Verusco system and the
individual raters
4. A correlation between the individual raters
5. Agreement among the individual raters
6. Discussion of the significant results of individual raters
and the Verusco system
7. A model for the objective evaluation of vision related
performance in rugby
8. The analysis of the four elements of performance using
the data from the Verusco system

96
 CHAPTER 6

RESULTS

1. INTRODUCTION

This chapter reports all results that were calculated from the collected data in this study.

The data were used to develop a model for evaluating visual related performance.

The research was conducted over a period of three years in order to minimize the effects

other variants could play on performance. Two methods of evaluating performance were

used. The first method consisted of using three independent top class raters, and the second

by using data collection. Both methods involved the Verusco© system, which makes use

of data capturers which captures data of every game played during a season. Every player

therefore had a whole history of his performance during the season.

In the first method three raters analyzed video clips of game situations. The clips were

randomly selected for each player in the study and analyzed independently by each of the

raters, based on the four major elements of performance: skill execution, visual

concentration, response time and decision-making. Only fifteen clips of each player were

selected for each of the three seasons, because of the amount of time it took to analyze each

clip.

97
The second method involved copying the raw data from the Verusco© system. Since only

statistical data for the individual skills, unit skills and skill execution were described, an

index had to be developed in order to describe the other three elements of performance.

These elements were then evaluated for each of the twenty five players over a three year

period.

It was decided that non-parametric tests would be more appropriate in view of the small

group sizes. Four techniques were used to determine results, namely Interclass correlation

coefficients, the Mann-Whitney U-test, the Wilcoxon signed ranked test and the Friedman

test.

The original research questions examined the following factors: distinguishing

performance among groups of subjects in the same training environment, performing at the

same level of competition; determining the difference in player performance among players

who have had visual training over time; ascertaining whether software visual skills are

trainable and whether visual training transfers to overall improvement in sports

performance.

98
2. DIFFERENT NON-PARAMETRIC ANALYSIS PROCEDURES

2.1 INTERCLASS CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS

Interclass correlation coefficients were used to measure agreement between the raters for

each video clip from Season 1 to Season 2. The interclass correlation coefficient assesses

the consistency of quantitative measurements made by different observers when measuring

the same quantity (Nichols, 1998). The raters were chosen as a random factor, which had a

generalizing effect. This means that the results could be generalized to other raters. It was

important to determine whether the raters’ ratings correlated with each other without

actually arriving at the exact same scores. It is also important to note that the interclass

correlation coefficient depends on the range of observed values. Furthermore the range of

the interclass correlation coefficients is dependent on the homo or heterogeneous factor

within a group: i.e. the more homogenous, the smaller the interclass correlation

coefficients within that group would be (Nichols, 1998).

2.2 MANN-WHITNEY U TEST

The Mann-Whitney U test is used in order to determine the differences between two

individual groups. It is a non-parametric test and compares the medians of the two groups.

It converts the scores to ranks and then evaluates whether the ranks for the two groups

differ significantly (Pallant, 2007). For this reason the actual distribution of scores does

not matter. The main values to consider are the observed (z) value and the significance

99
level. The probability value (p) indicates the likelihood whether a given result could have

occurred by chance alone. The probability value (p) should be equal or smaller than .05 for

the result to have significant value. If a result is statistically significant, it means that the

groups are too different for the result to have happened by chance alone; thus the

probability of getting that result by chance alone is less than 5 % (Turner & Thayer, 2001).

2.3 WILCOXON SIGNED RANK TEST

The Wilcoxon signed rank test is used to determine, when subjects are measured on two

occasions. It is a non-parametric test and converts scores to ranks and compares them at

the different times (Pallant, 2007). It can also be used in situations where subjects are

compared according to specific criteria. If the significance level is equal to or smaller than

.05, (p ≤ 0.05), a statistically significant difference is present.

The data are presented as box-and-whisker plots. Box-and-whisker plots allow people to

explore data and to draw informal conclusions when two or more variables are present. A

box-and-whisker plot is a five number summary, which consists of the median, the

quartiles, and the smallest and greatest values in the distribution. A boxplot splits the data

set into quartiles. The body of the boxplot consists of a "box", which goes from the first

quartile (Q1) to the third quartile (Q3). Within the box, a vertical line is drawn at the Q2,

the median of the data set. Two horizontal lines, called whiskers, extend from the front and

back of the box. The front whisker goes from Q1 to the smallest non-outlier in the data set,

100
and the back whisker goes from Q3 to the largest non-outlier. If the data set includes one or

more outliers, they are plotted separately as points on the chart.

The median is indicated by the vertical line that runs down Range. For interest’s sake the

spread of all the data is represented on a boxplot by the horizontal distance between the

smallest value and the largest value, including any outliers.

Box and whisker diagram

Introduction to statistics [http://www.classpad101.com]

2.4 FRIEDMAN TEST

The Friedman Test is used to evaluate subjects who are measured at three or more

situations in time (Pallant, 2007). The results of this test indicate the presence of a

significant difference in the results across three time periods. Significance is indicated by a

significance level where p ≤ .05, thus the probability value (p) should be equal or smaller

than .05.

101
3. A COMPARISON BETWEEN THE VERUSCO SYSTEM AND

THE INDIVIDUAL RATERS

The Verusco system is an objective method of evaluation while the evaluation by three

individual highly qualified raters, chosen to evaluate the performance of individual players

over a period of time, was subjective. They were asked to evaluate each player’s

performance according to the following criteria: poor, average or excellent performance.

The results were compared by using the interclass correlation coefficient method in order to

determine agreement among the raters. Although the raters were reliable, their results

indicated poor correlation, which indicates that subjectivity played a role; therefore, it

seemed useful to make use of a more objective type of evaluation. The correlation between

the three raters and the Verusco system was not statistically measured. The results below

indicate that there was no agreement between the subjective and objective methods of

evaluation.

The Verusco system indicated a statistically significant improvement in decision-making

for Group 3 and 4 over time, while Raters 2 and 3 indicated that Group 4 performed

significantly better in decision-making during Season 1. The Verusco system also found a

significant improvement in visual concentration for Group 4 over time, while Raters 1 and

3 found an improvement in skill execution over time.

102
4. A CORRELATION BETWEEN THE INDIVIDUAL RATERS

This step of research determined the agreement between the raters when evaluating each

player. Inter-rater reliability measures the homogeneity of two or more raters in order to

establish the extent of consensus among the judges. For the purpose of categorical data,

consensus is measured as a number of agreements divided by the total number of

observations. For continuous data, consensus is measured by intra-class correlation.

Internal consistency analysis is done by using Cronbach’s alpha, which is a coefficient of

reliability (Novušis, 2003). A reliability coefficient of 0.70 or higher is considered as a

relatively high internal consistency. Kappa is a function of the ratio of agreements to

disagreements in relation to expected frequencies. By convention, a Kappa > .70 is

considered as acceptable inter-rater reliability. Another rule of thumb is that K = 0.40 to

0.59 is moderate, 0.60 – 0.79 is substantial and 0.80 is outstanding inter-rater reliability

(Novušis, 2003). Intra-class correlation (ICC) is a measure of the reliability of ratings for

two or more raters.

Table 1 – Table 6 display the descriptive statistics and intra-class correlation coefficients of

the raters from season 1 to season 3. They only display the video clips where the three

raters agreed (moderate to outstanding) about the performance of the players, i.e. where

they agreed that the players performed either poorly, on average or excellently in a specific

video clip in decision making, visual concentration, response time and skill execution.

Each of the elements of performance is displayed separately for each of the three seasons in

the tables 1 - 6.

103
TABLE 1 Descriptive statistics and intra-class correlation coefficient for Decision-

Making and Concentration – Season 1

Variable N ICC Sig 95 % confidence interval

Lower bound Upper bound

Decision-Making

Video Clip 1 25 0.609 0.003 0.24 0.815

Video Clip 4 25 0.471 0.03 -0.028 0.75
Video Clip 5 25 0.609 0.003 0.24 0.815
Video Clip 9 25 0.603 0.003 0.228 0.812
Nr of video clips rated average 25 0.526 0.014 0.078 0.776
Nr of video clips rated excellent 25 0.546 0.01 0.117 0.785

Concentration

Video Clip 2 25 0.463 0.033 -0.044 0.746

Video Clip 3 25 0.452 0.038 -0.065 0.741
Video Clip 5 25 0.609 0.003 0.241 0.815
Video Clip 9 25 0.488 0.024 0.005 0.758

Table 1 lists the data that showed an average intra-class correlation coefficient value of

0.40 and higher with a significant (p) value smaller than 0.05, as well as their respective

95 % confidence interval for decision-making and concentration, as can be seen from this

table. Low internal consistency was found in the decision-making and concentration clips

during season 1.

104
TABLE 2 Descriptive statistics and intra-class correlation coefficient for Skill

Execution and Response Time – Season 1

Variable N ICC Sig 95 % confidence interval

Lower bound Upper bound

Skill Execution

Video Clip 2 25 0.452 0.038 -0.064 0.741

Video Clip 4 25 0.511 0.017 0.05 0.769
Video Clip 5 25 0.671 0.001 0.361 0.844
Video Clip 9 25 0.443 0.042 -0.082 0.737
Nr of video clips rated poor 25 0.479 0.027 -0.014 0.753

Response Time

Video Clip 4 25 0.494 0.022 0.016 0.76

Video Clip 5 25 0.479 0.027 -0.013 0.753
Nr of video clips rated average 25 0.595 0.004 0.213 0.808
Nr of video clips rated excellent 25 0.464 0.033 -0.041 0.747

Table 2 lists a low internal consistency in the skill execution and response time clips during

season 1, where all the average intra-class coefficients were below 0.70. This indicates that

the raters did not agree (ICC > 0.7) on one of the four elements of performance for Season

1. Therefore the above results illustrate subjectivity, which points to the importance of an

objective method of evaluation.

105
TABLE 3 Descriptive statistics and intra-class correlation coefficient for Decision-

Making and Concentration– Season 2

Variable N ICC Sig 95 % confidence interval

Lower bound Upper bound

Decision-Making

Nr of video clips rated poor 25 0.513 0.017 0.053 0.769

Concentration

Video Clip 6 25 0.605 0.003 0.233 0.813

Video Clip 9 25 0.553 0.01 0.118 0.792
Nr of video clips rated poor 25 0.731 0 0.478 0.873

Table 3 lists a high internal consistency in concentration for the number of video clips rated

poor during season 2, where the average intra-class coefficients were 0.731 and p = 0.00.

The other video clips for decision-making and concentration all had ICC scores below 0.7

and no internal consistency was found among them.

106
TABLE 4 Descriptive statistics and intra-class correlation coefficient for Skill

Execution and Response Time – Season 2

Variable N ICC Sig 95 % confidence interval

Lower bound Upper bound

Skill Execution

Video Clip 6 25 0.611 0.003 0.245 0.816

Nr of video clips rated poor 25 0.638 0.001 0.296 0.829

Response Time

Nr of video clips rated poor 25 0.506 0.019 0.04 0.766

Table 4 lists a low internal consistency for the skill execution and response time clips

during season 2, where all the average intra-class coefficients were below 0.70. The only

consistency was found in the number of video clips that were rated poor for visual

concentration during Season 2, which is seen in Table 3. No agreement was found among

the raters about any of the other elements of performance during Season 2.

107
TABLE 5 Descriptive statistics and intra-class correlation coefficient for Decision-

Making and Concentration – Season 3

Variable N ICC Sig 95 % confidence interval

Lower bound Upper bound

Decision-Making

Average of all clips 25 0.704 0.018 0.076 0.927

Nr of video clips rated poor 25 0.684 0.024 0.011 0.922
Nr of video clips rated excellent 25 0.679 0.025 -0.003 0.921

Concentration

Video Clip 3 25 0.895 0 0.671 0.974

Video Clip 5 25 0.743 0.01 0.197 0.937
Video Clip 12 25 0.647 0.036 -0.104 0.913
Video Clip 15 25 0.78 0.005 0.313 0.946
Average of all clips 25 0.772 0.006 0.288 0.944
Nr of video clips rated poor 25 0.737 0.011 0.178 0.935
Nr of video clips rated excellent 25 0.729 0.013 0.154 0.934

Table 5 lists a high internal consistency for the total average scores of all the video clips for

decision-making during season 3. A high consistency were also found in video clips 3, 5,

15; the average for all the video clips rated poor and excellent for concentration showed

that the average intra-class coefficients were all higher that 0.70, with a p value smaller

than 0.05.

108
TABLE 6 Descriptive statistics and intra-class correlation coefficient for Skill

Execution and Response Time – Season 3

95 % confidence interval
Variable N ICC Sig
Lower bound Upper bound

Skill Execution

Video Clip 1 25 0.771 0.006 0.286 0.944

Video Clip 3 25 0.913 0 0.728 0.979
Video Clip 12 25 0.75 0.009 0.219 0.939
Average of all clips 25 0.877 0 0.615 0.97
Nr of video clips rated poor 25 0.883 0 0.635 0.971
Nr of video clips rated excellent 25 0.795 0.003 0.36 0.95

Response Time

Video Clip 11 25 0.617 0.049 -0.198 0.906

Video Clip 13 25 0.667 0.029 -0.042 0.918
Video Clip 15 25 0.735 0.011 0.171 0.935
Average of all clips 25 0.824 0.002 0.449 0.957
Nr of video clips rated poor 25 0.735 0.011 0.172 0.935
Nr of video clips rated good 25 0.698 0.02 0.057 0.926
Nr of video clips rated excellent 25 0.826 0.002 0.456 0.957

Table 6 lists a high internal consistency for video clips 1, 3, 12 - the average of all the

video clips and the number of video clips rated, poor and excellent for skill execution

during season 3. A high consistency was also found in video clips 11, 15 - the average for

all video clips and the number of video clips rated poor and excellent for response time,

where the average intra-class coefficients were all higher that 0.70 with a p value smaller

than 0.05.

109
Table 1 – 6 displayed the agreement among the three raters about each video clip that had

been assessed. The video clips where the intra-class correlation coefficients were higher

than 0.70, and where there was a significant value of p ≤ 0.05 were then analyzed to

determine if there was any significant improvement in the four elements of performance

over time. The Wilcoxon signed rank test was used for the analyses over time. This test is

used in situations where subjects are matched according to specific criteria. If a

significance level is equal or smaller than 0.05 it can be concluded that the difference

between the two scores is statistically significant. According to the Wilcoxon signed rank

test the only consistency among the three raters was found in skill execution between

season 1 and season 2 in the number of video clips per player rated poor in group 1, and for

response time in season 1 and 3 for the number of video clips per player rated average in

group 4.

Tables 7 – 8 display the significant improvement in skill execution and response time over

time as described by the Wilcoxon signed rank test. The number of poor clips reduced

significantly which indicates an improvement in the above skills.

110
TABLE 7 Descriptive Statistics for the number of video clips rated poor per

player, for Skill Execution from Season 1 to Season 2 for all the groups

Percentiles
Group N 25th 50th (Median) 75th

Skill Execution Poor S1 7 2.0000 3.3333 5.0000

1 Skill Execution Poor S2 7 0.6667 1.3333 3.0000
Skill Execution Poor S1 3 3.3333 3.3333 4.3333
2 Skill Execution Poor S2 3 3.3333 3.3333 3.6667
Skill Execution Poor S1 9 2.3333 3.0000 3.6667
3 Skill Execution Poor S2 9 2.3333 2.3333 3.3333
Skill Execution Poor S1 6 2.0000 2.6667 5.2500
4 Skill Execution Poor S2 6 1.4167 3.1667 4.7500

A significant correlation was found in skill execution in the number of poor performances

by players in group 1. There was a significant improvement in skill execution from season

1 to season 2, z = -2.371, p = .018. The median score decreased from season 1 (Md = 3.33)

to season 2 (Md = 1.333); thus the number of poor performances decreased from season 1

to season 2. The decrease in poor performance is therefore an indication that the players in

group 1 improved in skill execution over time.

111
TABLE 8 Descriptive Statistics per player for the number of average video clips,

for Response Time from Season 1 to Season 3 for groups 2 and 4

Percentiles
Group N 25th 50th (Median) 75th

Response Time Average S1 3 2.0000 2.1667 2.5000

2 Response Time Average S3 3 2.1111 2.4444 2.5556
Response Time Average S1 6 2.1250 2.2500 2.5417
4 Response Time Average S3 6 2.5556 2.5556 2.8333

A significant correlation was found in response time for the number of average

performances by players in group 4. There was a significant improvement in response

time from season 1 to season 3, z = -2.201, p = .028. The median score increased from

season 1 (Md = 2.25) to season 3 (Md = 2.56). Thus the average for all the video clips for

response time increased significantly from season 1 to season 3.

Tables 1 – 8 display the inconsistency and subjectivity of the raters. No significant

similarities were found among the three raters. For this reason it was decided to study the

video clips when two of the three raters agreed and the agreement was significant.

112
5. AGREEMENT AMONG THE INDIVIDUAL RATERS

Areas where agreement was found among at least two of the three raters will be discussed

in the following paragraphs.

The Mann-Whitney U-test indicated significant agreement between raters 2 and 3 about

decision-making during season 1. The Mann-Whitney U-test measures the differences

among groups.

Rater 2

Group 4 (Md = 2.73, n = 6) performed significantly better than Group 3 (Md = 2.55,

n = 9) with regard to Decision-Making during Season 1, U = 9.50, z = -2.064, p = .039.

Rater 3

Group 4 (Md = 2.33, n = 6) performed significantly better than Group 3 (Md = 2.18,

n = 9) with regard to Decision Making during Season 1, U = 7.5, z = -2.304, p = .021.

Groups 3 and 4 were in the same training environment. Group 4 was exposed to visual

training, but only from the end of season 1 through to season 3.

113
Significant agreement between raters 1 and 3 was also found for skill execution for group 1

from season 1 to season 2 through the Wilcoxon signed rank test. The Wilcoxon signed

rank test measures improvement over time.

Rater 1

Group 1 showed a significant improvement in Skill Execution from Season 1 to Season 2,

z = -2.366, p = .018. The median score improved from season 1 (Md = 2.29) to season 2

(Md = 2.63), with maximum values that increased from 2.75 (season 1) to 2.93 (season 2).

Rater 3

Group 1 showed a significant improvement in Skill Execution from Season 1 to Season 2,

z = -2.032, p = .042. The median score improved from season 1 (Md = 1.93) to season 2

(Md = 2.25), with maximum values that increased from 2.36 (season 1) to 2.64 (season 2)

114
6. THE SIGNIFICANT RESULTS OF INDIVIDUAL RATERS AND

THAT OF THE VERUSCO SYSTEM

6.1 RATER 1

The Mann-Whitney U-test, which is used to determination between two individual groups

on a continuous measure (Pallant, 2007), indicated no significant differences among groups

1 – 4 in any of the four elements of performance.

The Wilcoxon signed ranked test, which is used to determine repeated measures (Pallant,

2007), revealed that rater 1 found significant differences within group 1 in skill execution,

decision- making, concentration and response time over time. Rater 1 found no other

significant differences within the other groups.

The tables and graphs below indicate the significant improvement of skill execution,

decision-making, visual concentration and response time for group 1 over time, for rater 1.

Rater 1 found no significant improvement for groups 2, 3 and 4 over time.

115
6.1.1 SKILL EXECUTION WITHIN GROUP 1

TABLE 9 Descriptive Statistics for Rater 1 for Skill Execution from Season 1 to

Season 2 within all groups

25th 75th
Group Season Minimum Percentile 50th (Median) Percentile Maximum
1 1 1.80 1.9231 2.2857 2.6000 2.75
n=7 2 1.87 2.1429 2.6250 2.8333 2.93
2 1 1.80 1.8000 2.0000 2.2857 2.29
n=3 2 2.27 2.2667 2.2667 2.4000 2.40
3 1 2.00 2.0667 2.1429 2.5077 2.73
n=9 2 1.93 2.2071 2.2857 2.5420 2.62
4 1 1.73 1.8333 2.1333 2.4464 2.79
n=6 2 1.87 1.9167 2.1333 2.6833 2.73

Table 9 gives descriptive information about the graph below (graph 1) and should be read

in correlation with graph 1. Table 9 displays the minimum, maximum and median values

for all four groups for skill execution by rater 1. The information is displayed below in

graph 1 through a box and whisker plot

116
GRAPH 1 Box and Whisker plot for Skill Execution from Season 1 to Season 2 for

all four groups by Rater 1

Skill Execution Rater 1

3.0 Season 1
Skill Execution Rater 1
Season 2

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

1 2 3 4

Group

According to rater 1 only group 1 showed a significant improvement in skill execution

from season 1 to season 2, z = -2.366, p = .018. The median score improved from season

1 (Md = 2.29) to season 2 (Md = 2.63), with maximum values increasing from 2.75

(Season 1) to 2.93 (Season 2). Rater 1 found no other significant differences in skill

execution within the other groups.

117
6.1.2 DECISION-MAKING WITHIN GROUP 1

TABLE 10 Descriptive Statistics for Decision-Making from Season 1 to Season 2

within all groups by Rater 1

25th 75th
Group Season Minimum Percentile 50th (Median) Percentile Maximum
1 1 1.80 2.0000 2.5000 2.6000 2.67
n=7 2 2.00 2.2143 2.5333 2.8333 2.86
2 1 2.07 2.0667 2.2667 2.5714 2.57
n=3 2 2.07 2.0667 2.2667 2.6000 2.60
3 1 2.11 2.2667 2.5833 2.6259 2.64
n=9 2 2.27 2.4093 2.5714 2.6648 2.91
4 1 2.20 2.2500 2.4000 2.5786 2.71
n=6 2 2.13 2.1833 2.2000 2.6500 2.80

Table 10 gives descriptive information about the graph below (graph 2) and should be read

in correlation with graph 2. Table 10 display the minimum, maximum and median values

for all four groups for decision-making by rater 1. The information is displayed below in

graph 2 by means of a box and whisker plot.

118
Graph 2 below shows a significant improvement in decision-making within group 1 from

season 1 to season 2, z = -2.028, p = .043. The median score improved from season 1 (Md

= 2.5) to season 2 (Md = 2.53), with maximum values that increased from 2.67 (Season 1)

to 2.86 (Season 2).

GRAPH 2 Box and Whisker plot for Decision-Making from Season 1 to Season 2

for all four groups by Rater 1

Decision Making Rater 1

3.0 Season 1
13 Decision Making Rater 1
Season 2

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

1 2 3 4

Group

119
6.1.3 VISUAL CONCENTRATION WITHIN GROUP 1

TABLE 11 Descriptive Statistics for Visual Concentration from Season 1 to Season

2 for all groups by Rater 1

25th 75th
Group Season Minimum Percentile 50th (Median) Percentile Maximum
1 1 1.87 2.1333 2.4000 2.7333 2.92
n=7 2 2.00 2.2857 2.5385 2.7857 2.92
2 1 2.20 2.2000 2.2667 2.2857 2.29
n=3 2 2.07 2.0667 2.4000 2.4667 2.47
3 1 2.11 2.2405 2.3333 2.7244 3.00
n=9 2 2.21 2.4452 2.6000 2.7305 3.00
4 1 1.93 1.9333 2.2667 2.5964 2.79
n=6 2 2.13 2.1833 2.2333 2.5833 2.93

Table 11 gives descriptive information about the graph below (graph 3) and should be read

in correlation with graph 3. Table 11 displays the minimum, maximum and median values

for visual concentration within all four groups by rater 1. The information below in graph

3 is displayed by means of a box and whisker plot.

Graph 3 below showed a significant improvement in visual concentration within group 1,

from season 1 to season 2, z = -2.201, p = .028. The median score improved from season 1

(Md = 2.4) to season 2 (Md = 2.54), with maximum values that stayed the same from

season 1 to season 2 (Max = 2.92).

120
GRAPH 3 Box and Whisker plot for Visual Concentration from Season 1 to

Season 2 within all four groups by Rater 1

18 Visual Concentration Rater 1

3.0 Season 1
21
Visual Concentration Rater 1
13 Season 2

2.5
15

16

2.0

1.5

1.0

1 2 3 4

Group

By looking at the graph one would assume a significant improvement in groups 2 and 3

from season 1 to season 2, but according to the Wilcoxon rank test the improvement was

not significant.

121
6.1.4 RESPONSE TIME WITHIN GROUP 1

TABLE 12 Descriptive Statistics for Response Time from Season 1 to Season 2

within all groups for Rater 1

25th 75th
Group Season Minimum Percentile 50th (Median) Percentile Maximum
1 1 1.67 1.9333 2.4000 2.8000 3.00
n=7 2 2.13 2.2143 2.6000 2.8571 3.00
2 1 2.20 2.2000 2.2000 2.4286 2.43
n=3 2 2.07 2.0667 2.2667 2.8000 2.80
3 1 1.89 2.0643 2.3333 2.6077 3.00
n=9 2 2.00 2.1429 2.4286 2.7168 3.00
4 1 2.13 2.1833 2.3000 2.6286 2.80
n=6 2 2.20 2.2000 2.4000 2.6500 2.80

Table 12 gives descriptive information about the graph below (graph 4) and should be read

in correlation with graph 4. Table 12 display the minimum, maximum and median values

within all four groups for response time by rater 1. The information below in graph 4 is

displayed by means of a box and whisker plot.

122
Graph 4 shows a significant improvement in response time within group 1 from season 1

to season 2, z = -2.201, p = .028. The median score improved from season 1 (Md = 2.4) to

season 2 (Md = 2.6), with maximum values that stayed the same from season 1 to season 2

(Max = 3.0).

GRAPH 4 Box and Whisker plot for Response Time from Season 1 to Season 2

within all four groups by Rater 1

Response Time Rater 1

3.0 Season 1
Response Time Rater 1
Season 2

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

1 2 3 4

Group

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6.2 RATER 2

The following results are the individual results for rater 2 for the improvement of all four

groups in the four elements of performance over time. The Mann-Whitney U-test which is

used for differentiating between two individual groups on a continuous measure (Pallant,

2007), indicated a significant difference between groups 3 and 4 during season 1 and

between groups 1 and 3 during season 2.

Group 4 (Md = 2.73, n = 6) performed significantly better than Group 3 (Md = 2.55,

n = 9) with regard to Decision-Making during Season 1, U = 9.50, z = -2.064, p = .039.

Group 3 (Md = 2.67, n = 9) performed significantly better than Group 1 (Md = 2.47,

n = 7) with regard to Response Time during Season 2, U = 12.5, z = -2.014, p = .044.

The Wilcoxon rank sum test revealed significant differences within groups 3 and 4 by rater

2 with regard to skill execution and response time. No other significant differences were

found. The descriptive statistics and box and whisker plot for skill execution and response

time are displayed below.

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6.2.1 SKILL EXECUTION WITHIN GROUP 4

TABLE 13 Descriptive Statistics for Skill Execution from Season 1 to Season 2

within all groups by Rater 2

25th 75th
Group Season Minimum Percentile 50th (Median) Percentile Maximum
1 1 2.00 2.1429 2.2667 2.4000 2.50
n=7 2 2.13 2.1333 2.3333 2.4286 2.53
2 1 1.93 1.9333 2.2857 2.8000 2.80
n=3 2 2.07 2.0667 2.2000 2.2667 2.27
3 1 1.73 2.0357 2.2222 2.3205 2.43
n=9 2 2.07 2.1381 2.2727 2.4451 2.60
4 1 1.80 2.0000 2.2000 2.5083 2.53
n=6 2 2.20 2.2000 2.3667 2.7167 2.87

Table 13 gives descriptive information about the graph below (graph 5) and should be read

in correlation with graph 5. Table 13 displays the minimum, maximum and median values

for all four groups in skill execution by rater 2. The information is displayed by means of a

box and whisker plot in graph 5 below.

125
Group 4 showed a significant improvement in skill execution from season 1 to season 2,

z = -2.003, p = .045. The median score improved from season 1 (Md = 2.2) to season 2

(Md = 2.37), with maximum values that increased from 2.53 (Season 1) to 2.87 (Season 2).

GRAPH 5 Box and Whisker plot for Skill Execution from Season 1 to Season 2

within all four groups by Rater 2

Skill Execution Rater 2

3.0 Season 1
Skill Execution Rater 2
Season 2

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

1 2 3 4

Group

126
6.2.2 RESPONSE TIME WITHIN GROUPS 3 & 4

TABLE 14 Descriptive Statistics for Response Time from Season 1 to Season 2

within all groups by Rater 2

25th 75th
Group Season Minimum Percentile 50th (Median) Percentile Maximum
1 1 2.27 2.2857 2.4667 2.7333 2.73
n=7 2 2.13 2.2857 2.4667 2.5833 2.80
2 1 2.53 2.5333 2.6429 3.0000 3.00
n=3 2 2.40 2.4000 2.4667 2.8000 2.80
3 1 2.27 2.4000 2.5714 2.6333 2.71
n=9 2 2.43 2.5577 2.6667 2.7929 2.82
4 1 2.13 2.4333 2.7000 2.7643 2.86
n=6 2 2.60 2.7000 2.8333 2.9500 3.00

Table 14 gives descriptive information about the graph below (graph 6) and should be read

in correlation with graph 6. Table 14 displays the minimum, maximum and median values

in response time within all four groups by rater 2. The information is displayed by means

of a box and whisker plot in graph 6 below.

Graph 6 shows a significant improvement in response time within groups 3 and 4 from

season 1 to season 2. The median score for group 3 improved from season 1 (Md = 2.57)

to season 2 (Md = 2.67), z = -2.310, p = .021; and for group 4 from season 1 (Md = 2.7) to

season 2 (Md = 2.83), z = -2.201, p = .028. The maximum and minimum values also

increased.

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GRAPH 6 Box and Whisker plot for Response Time from Season 1 to Season 2

within all four groups by Rater 2

Response Time Rater 2

3.0 Season 1
Response Time Rater 2
Season 2

2.5

24

2.0

1.5

1.0

1 2 3 4

Group

The four elements of performance were measured within groups 2 and 4 over three seasons.

The Friedman Test was used for statistical analyses, evaluating subjects in three or more

situations over time. Rater 2 found the only significant difference in response time within

group 4. According to the Wilcoxon signed rank test a significant difference was found

between season 1 and season 2.

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TABLE 15 Descriptive Statistics for Response Time from Season 1 to Season 3

within groups 2 and 4 by Rater 2

25th 75th
Group Season Minimum Percentile 50th (Median) Percentile Maximum
2 1 2.53 2.5333 2.6429 3.0000 3.00
n=3 2 2.40 2.4000 2.4667 2.8000 2.80
3 2.33 2.3333 2.6667 2.8000 2.80
4 1 2.13 2.4333 2.7000 2.7643 2.86
n=6 2 2.60 2.7000 2.8333 2.9500 3.00
3 2.33 2.5833 2.7333 2.8167 2.87

Table 15 gives descriptive information about the graph below (graph 7) and should be read

in correlation with graph 7. Table 15 displays the minimum, maximum and median values

for all four groups in response time by rater 2. The information is displayed by means of a

box and whisker plot in graph 7 below.

The Friedman test showed that group 4 improved significantly in response time over time,

χ² (2, n= 6) = 6.870, p = .032. The median score improved from season 1 (Md = 2.7) to

season 2 (Md = 2.83), and decreased again in season 3 (Md = 2.73) with maximum values

that increased from 2.86 (season 1) to 3.0 (season 2) with a slight decrease (2.87) in season

3.

129
GRAPH 7 Box and Whisker plot for Response Time from Season 1 to Season 3

within groups 2 and 4 by Rater 2

Response Time Rater 2

3.0 Average Season 1
Response Time Rater 2
Average Season 2
Response Time Rater 2
Average Season 3

2.5
20

24

2.0

1.5

1.0

2 4
Group

The Wilcoxon signed rank test was performed to determine the position of the statistical

difference. It was found that the statistical difference occurred between seasons 1 and

seasons 2, z = -2.201, p = .028.

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6.3 RATER 3

Below are the individual results of the improvement in the four elements of performance

within all four groups over time by Rater 3. The Mann-Whitney U-test, which is used to

determine the difference between two individual groups on a continuum, indicated a

significant difference in decision-making between groups 3 and 4 during season 1, and in

visual concentration between groups 2 and 4 during season 3.

Group 4 (Md = 2.33, n = 6) performed significantly better than Group 3 (Md = 2.18,

n = 9) with regard to Decision-Making during Season 1, U = 7.5, z = -2.304, p = .021.

Group 4 (Md = 2.57, n = 6) performed significantly better than Group 2 (Md = 2.07,

n = 3) with regard to Visual Concentration during Season 3, U = .000, z = -2.343,

p = .019.

The Wilcoxon signed rank test indicated a significant improvement in skill execution from

season 1 to season 2 within group 1.

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TABLE 16 Descriptive Statistics for Skill Execution from Season 1 to Season 2

within all four groups by Rater 3

25th 75th
Group Season Minimum Percentile 50th (Median) Percentile Maximum
1 1 1.54 1.9167 1.9333 2.2000 2.36
n=7 2 1.86 2.0769 2.2500 2.4000 2.64
2 1 2.00 2.0000 2.0667 2.0667 2.07
n=3 2 1.93 1.9333 2.1333 2.4000 2.40
3 1 1.92 1.9643 2.0714 2.2667 2.38
n=9 2 1.87 1.9615 2.1333 2.3571 2.55
4 1 1.87 2.1167 2.2738 2.5000 2.60
n=6 2 1.73 2.0333 2.3333 2.4333 2.53

Table 16 gives descriptive information about the graph below (graph 8) and should be read

in correlation with graph 8. Table 16 displays the minimum, maximum and median values

within all four groups for skill execution for rater 3. The information is displayed by

means of a box and whisker plot in graph 8 below.

132
GRAPH 8 Box and Whisker plot for Skill Execution from Season 1 to Season 2

within all four groups by Rater 3

Skill Execution Rater 3

3.0 Season 1
Skill Execution Rater 3
Season 2

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

1 2 3 4

Group

Group 1 showed a significant improvement in skill execution from season 1 to season 2,

z = -2.032, p = .042. The median score improved from season 1 (Md = 1.93) to season 2

(Md = 2.25), with maximum values that increased from 2.36 (season 1) to 2.64 (season 2).

133
The inconsistency among the raters was the reason why we were compelled to determine a

more objective method of evaluation. Since the four elements of performance do not

consist out of a single entity an index had to be created.

7. A MODEL FOR THE OBJECTIVE EVALUATION OF VISION-

RELATED PERFORMANCE IN RUGBY

An index was created for each of the four elements of performance in individual and unit

skills: skill execution, concentration, decision-making, and response time. Each index was

then processed into one entity, which resulted in a model for assessing performance

objectively. After careful consideration, the individual raters as well as the designers of the

Verusco© system were in full agreement about the individual skills which would represent

each element. As many as possible of the relevant individual skills were incorporated for

more consistent results. Each of these indices was then processed into one entity and the

percentage of each was determined. This was necessary in order to compare individual

players when evaluating performance.

Skill execution was the only element of performance that was processed to reflect a

percentage by means of the Verusco© system. Concentration was determined by

calculating the number of handling errors by each player, divided by the time they played

in total. Response time consisted of the following individual skills: line breaks, tackle

breaks, tackles per minute, tackles made, tackles missed, turnovers forced, defender beaten,

work rate, kick pressure and breakdown turnover won. Decision-making consisted of

134
turnovers won, turnovers lost, off-loads, good off-loads, bad off-loads, cleans made,

possession won, possession lost, breakdown efficiency, in-tackle passes, total number of

ball carries, positive ball carries, negative ball carries, total attack, total defense, assist

tackle, putting-on-pressure, pick-and-go and the number of dummies thrown.

The percentage for skill execution was determined by the Verusco© system and therefore

no formula was calculated.

The formula for Visual Concentration:

Total of handling errors

X=
Total handling

The formula for Response Time:

a+b+c+d+(-e)+f+g+h+i+j
X=
10

135
Where

a = total line breaks (+) f = total turnovers forced (+)

b = total tackle breaks (+) g = total defenders beaten (+)

c = total tackles per minute (+) h = total work rate (+)

d = total tackles made (+) i = total kick pressure (+)

e = total tackles missed (-) j = total breakdown turnovers won (+)

The formula for Decision Making:

a+(-b)+c+d+(-e)+f+g+(-h)+i+j+k+l+(-m)+n+o+p+q+r+s
X=
19

Where

a = total turnovers won (+) h = total of possession lost (-)

b = total turnovers lost (-) i = total breakdown efficiency (+)

c = total off-loads (+) j = total in tackle passes (+)

d = total good off-loads (+) k = total amount of ball carries (+)

e = total bad off-loads (-) l = total positive ball carries (+)

f = total cleans made (+) m = total negative ball carries (-)

g = total of possession won (+) n = total attack for all games (+)

136
o = total defense for all games (+) r = total pick-and-go’s (+)

p = total of assisting tackles (+) s = total amount of dummies thrown (+)

q = total putting pressure (+)

8. THE ANALYSIS OF THE FOUR ELEMENTS OF

PERFORMANCE USING THE DATA FROM THE VERUSCO

SYSTEM

Table 17 and 18 shows the descriptive statistics for all four groups for the Verusco©

analyses for decision-making and visual concentration. Graphs 9 and 10 reflect the

descriptive data in a box and whisker plot fashion.

The Mann-Whitney U-test was used to measure differences between groups, but no

significant differences between the groups were indicated. The Wilcoxon signed rank test

measures changes over time and indicated a significant improvement in decision-making

within group 3 and group 4 from season 1 to season 2. There was also a significant

improvement in concentration within group 4 from season 2 to season 3. No significant

differences were found for skill execution and response time.

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8.1 DECISION-MAKING

TABLE 17 Descriptive Statistics for Decision-Making from Season 1 to Season 2

within all four groups using the Verusco analysis

25th 50th 75th

Group Season Minimum Percentile (Median) Percentile Maximum

1 1 1.44 4.8666 6.7295 8.6918 10.08

n=7 2 3.97 5.0663 7.0484 8.4895 10.84

2 1 6.81 6.9561 7.0984 7.1137 7.13

n=3 2 7.27 7.2700 7.5137 7.7574 7.76

3 1 4.16 4.8468 5.4484 6.5695 6.78

n=9 2 3.47 6.5524 7.9208 8.4134 8.85

4 1 5.64 5.7963 5.9903 7.8747 8.43

n=6 2 6.11 6.1679 6.6226 9.1353 9.8

Table 17 gives descriptive information about the graph below (graph 9) and should be read

in correlation with graph 9. Table 17 displays the minimum, maximum and median values

for all four groups for decision-making using the Verusco© analyses. The information is

displayed by means of a box and whisker plot below in graph 9.

138
Group 3 showed a significant improvement in decision-making from season 1 to season 2,

z = -2.240, p = .025. The median score improved from season 1 (Md = 5.45) to season 2

(Md = 7.92), with maximum values that increased from 6.78 (Season 1) to 8.85 (Season 2).

Group 4 showed a significant improvement in decision-making from season 1 to season 2,

z = -1.992, p = .046. The median score improved from season 1 (Md = 5.99) to season 2

(Md = 6.62), with maximum values that increased from 8.43 (Season 1) to 9.80 (Season 2).

GRAPH 9 Box and Whisker plot for Decision-Making from Season 1 to Season 2

within all four groups using the Verusco Analysis

139
8.2 VISUAL CONCENTRATION

TABLE 18 Descriptive Statistics for Visual Concentration from Season 1 to Season

3 within all four groups using the Verusco analysis

25th 50th 75th

Group Season Minimum Percentile (Median) Percentile Maximum

2 2 98.44 98.8200 99.2000 99.2750 99.35

n=3 3 98.38 98.4200 98.4600 98.9050 99.35

4 2 95.66 98.3100 98.5850 99.0900 99.19

n=6 3 98.56 98.7900 98.9300 99.3400 99.54

Table 18 gives descriptive information about the graph below (graph 10) and should be

read in correlation with graph 10. Table 18 displays the minimum, maximum and median

values for all four groups in visual concentration using the Verusco analyses. The

information is displayed by means of a box and whisker plot in graph 10 below.

Graph 10 below shows a significant improvement in concentration within group 4 from

season 2 to season 3, z = -2.207, p = .027. The median score improved from season 2 (Md

= 98.59) to season 3 (Md = 98.93) with maximum values that increased from 99.19 (season

2) to 99.54 (season 3).

140
GRAPH 10 Box and Whisker plot for Visual Concentration from Season 1 to

Season 3 within groups 2 and 4 using the Verusco Analysis

The objective method of evaluation of performance indicated an improvement within group

4 in decision-making and visual concentration from season 1 to season 3, and within group

3 in decision-making from season 1 to season 2.

When the intra-class correlation coefficient and the low consistency between the raters are

considered, the model for the four elements of performance, using the Verusco© system,

seems to be the more accurate method to evaluate performance.

141
 CHAPTER 7

DISCUSSION AND
CONCLUSION

1. Introduction
2. The four elements of performance
3. Conclusion
4. Recommendations

142
 CHAPTER 7

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 THE AIM

The aim of the study was to investigate whether

• there is a difference in the performance levels of groups of rugby participants in the

same training environment, performing at the same level of competition;

• groups of rugby participants in the same training environment who have been

exposed to visual training show a difference in performance levels over time when

performing at the same level of competition;

• the training of specific visual skills transfers to the overall improvement of rugby
performance.

143
1.2 BACKGROUND

Abernethy (1991) defined decision-making as the process in which perceptual information

is used to determine an accurate response. Decision-making correlates directly with overall

performance. The better the decision-making, the better the performance (Szymanski,

1997; Vickers, 2003). Decision training leads to superior performance (Szymanski, 1997;

Vickers, 2003). Other authors have also indicated that some visual skills are trainable

(Calder, 1999; Loran & MacEwen, 1995; Trachman & Kluka, 1993; Ludeke & Ferreira,

2003; Ferreira, 2003; Bressan, 2003). The decisive results obtained by using an index in

this study confirm the findings in literature that visual motor improvement is possible

through training. Furthermore, making use of an index to analyze performance excludes

subjectivity demonstrated in the results of the performance evaluation by individual raters.

Rugby is an open skill sport and, open skills are performed in a changing environment

where time pressure plays a role (Abernethy, 1991; Schmidt & Wrisberg, 2004;

Honeybourne, 2006; Wisemantel, 2002). Performance is affected by a number of factors:

environment, nutrition, physical and psychological factors, which are discussed below.

Extreme environmental factors affect the physiological, emotional, cognitive and social

processing resources of individuals (Paulus et al., 2009). A study done with Navy Seals

and Army Rangers, who were exposed to extreme environments during military training,

showed significant cognitive decline which was relative to baseline performance

(Lieberman et al., 2005). Impairment was noted in simple reaction time, visual perception,

vigilance, learning, memory and reasoning. Therefore, as individuals are exposed to

144
extreme environments, cognitive performance deteriorates (Maruff, 2006). The degree of

deterioration depends on the type of task, its duration, the level of training and the severity

of the extreme environment (Paulus et al., 2009).

According to Paulus et al., (2009) optimal performers have developed an internal body

state with an appropriate level to act. Sub-optimal performers have a mismatch between

the experienced body state and the necessary action to maintain homeostasis.

Thus, extreme conditions, like rain, heat, cold and altitude most definitely play a role in

performance.

Proper nutrition correlates directly with better physical performance (Lukaski, 2004). The

choice of food influence biochemical responses during exercise training, recovery from

exercise training and performance (Maughan, 2002). Carbohydrates are a primary source

of energy for the human body and if carbohydrate or muscle glycogen stores are depleted,

exercise intensity decreases and exhaustion sets in (Coggan & Coyle, 1991). High

carbohydrate diets in trained individuals have been shown to improve endurance exercise

performance (Coggan & Coyle, 1991; Sherman et al., 1991; Wright et al., 1991; Sherman

et al., 1989). Vitamins and minerals are the key regulators of health and performance

(Lukaski, 2004) and mineral deficiencies, such as iron, magnesium and zinc, may impair

performance.

The nourishment needs of an athlete are dependent on many factors: the type, duration and

frequency of sport activity, the body mass and composition of the individual as well as

145
environmental factors (American College of Sports Medicine, 2000). Athletes require

sufficient energy intakes to maintain body weight and body composition. Insufficient

energy intake may lead to loss of lean muscle mass (Pendergast et al., 1996), increased risk

of fatigue, injury and illness (Grandjean & Ruud, 1994; Grandjean, 1983) and diminished

performance (Ziegler et al., 2002).

According to Taylor et al., (1997) the characteristics of individuals who complete SEAL

training, known to be one of the most challenging military training programs, are mental

toughness, achievement motivation, physical strength, physical endurance, emotional

stability and team orientation.

Sports performance consists out of the following physical components: aerobic endurance,

anaerobic fitness, strength, muscle endurance, speed, agility, power, flexibility, body

composition, diet and nutrition and rest and relaxation (Dowson, 1999).

Aerobic endurance is the ability to withstand prolonged hard work and relies on the body’s

ability to produce energy through oxygen that is distributed to the muscles. Anaerobic

fitness is the ability to withstand high intensity distance training such as sprinting. This

system relies on the phosphocreatine and lactic acid energy systems to produce quick bursts

of energy (Dowson, 1999).

The maximum amount of force produced in one movement can be defined as strength,

which forms the basis of muscle endurance and power. Muscle endurance is measured by

the length of time or number of times a muscle can work against resistance without

146
fatiguing. Power, is a combination of strength and speed, is the ability of a muscle to

generate force in a short period of time. Speed is the maximum velocity an athlete is able

to produce and maintain, whereas agility is the ability to change direction quickly

(Dowson, 1999). Flexibility, the range of movement within a joint, minimizes injury and

allows athletes to achieve good technique in their chosen discipline. Body composition is

an athlete’s physical make up, for example mass and height.

Rest and recovery are critical parts of sport performance. Fatigue after training could lead

to low recovery rate, poor coordination and diminished speed and muscle contractions

power. Recovery should be a daily concern to prevent acute exhaustion and overtraining

(Bompa, 1999).

Another consideration in physical development is genetics. Genes are responsible for some

of the variations in human athletic performance (Brutsaert & Parra, 2006). Studies provide

strong support for the hypothesis that genetic factors determine both proximate measures of

human performance and, ultimately, athletic ability in various sporting disciplines.

Although elite athletes may be born with a favorable genetic constitution, athletic potential

requires years of focused training (Brutsaert & Parra, 2006). The effects of training on

variations in performance could be dramatic. The world record in the women’s marathon

has decreased by one hour since the 1960’s, and this is definitely due to improved training

techniques (Brutsaert & Parra, 2006). Thus, both genetics and early life environmental

experience contribute to adult athletic performance.

147
According to Hodge (2004) the key difference between winning and losing or between

good performance and poor performance may be the psychological rather than the physical

skill level. The elite athlete’s psychological profile should consist of the following skills:

mental preparation, concentration, confidence, high motivation and commitment, ability to

control anxiety and the ability to cope with pressure (Hardy et al., 1996; Mahoney et al.,

1987; Orlick & Partington, 1988; Thomas et al., 1999; Williams & Krane, 2001).

Motivation energizes, selects and directs performance. Motivation consists of two

components, intrinsic (from within) and extrinsic (external factors) motivation (Martens,

1987). Motivation must come from within in order to be effective and meaningful, while

extrinsic motivation is unlikely to have a lasting effect. Motivation is both wanting to and

having to do something and is a fundamental skill for developing mental toughness

(Hodge, 2004).

All athletes must learn to cope with stress and pressure in order to maintain their

composure. Coping with pressure means to control stress, anxiety and adversity in order to

achieve peak performance (Anshel et al., 1997; Cresswell & Hodge, 2004; Gould et al.,

1993).

Another key ingredient for successful performance in sport is self-confidence, which

greatly influences an athlete’s performance in situations where he is physically able to

perform a task but is uncertain about his capabilities (Hodge, 2004). The mentally tough

player has a strong level of self-confidence without being over-confident. Furthermore,

148
self-confidence is one of the fundamental building blocks of mental toughness (Bandura,

1977; Bandura, 1986; Hardy et al., 1996; Horsley, 1991).

The current study was conducted over a period of three years or three seasons.

Although the variants which have been mentioned above could impact on

performance on a given day, it is unlikely that it would impact on a selection of

performances over three seasons. It was because of these factors that the decision was

made to perform this study over three years. The only downside was that it impacted

on the number of participants

Receptor Decision Effector

mechanism mechanism mechanism
(Senses) (CNS) (Muscles)

Figure 1.1 A modified information processing model of skilled performance (Erickson,

2007)

The perceptual mechanism receives information from the sensory receptors. The

information is then filtered and only necessary information is processed. The processed

information is then delivered to the decision-making mechanism which determines the

appropriate motor response. The effector mechanism initiates and controls the motor

response and is measured according to an athlete’s performance. The four elements of

performance, decision-making, response time, concentration and skill execution forms part

of the translator mechanism, which determines the outcome of performance.

149
Both objective and subjective evaluation methods were used in the current study. The

subjective method of evaluation showed inconsistency and therefore a model of objective

evaluation was established. An index was created for each of the four main elements of

performance, skill execution, concentration, decision making and response time in order to

determine the effectiveness of visual training on performance.

The subjective method included a selection of video clips which was evaluated by three

independent raters. Video clips for each player were randomly selected from the Verusco©

data basis over a period of three seasons. Each video consisted of fifteen clips per player

for each of the three seasons. We were constricted to fifteen clips per player per season

due to the time needed for the evaluation process. The study was conducted over a period

of three years, which minimized the role played by variants. Four groups, three

experimental and one a control, consisted of regional and national regional rugby players,

who took part in the study. Two of the experimental groups had specific visual training at

the National side, the third experimental group had off-season visual training, and the

control group had no visual training at all. The purpose of the control group was to

evaluate whether changes in performance could be visually related.

Twenty-five players participated in the study. The small sample group was due to the

challenge of players moving to different regions or not participating because of injuries. It

was important that the study group had the same coaching staff over the three seasons and

therefore participated in the same region during that time, to minimize the variability

factors.

150
There was a low consistency between the raters, which pointed to subjectivity among them.

No correlation was found between the subjective (raters) and the objective method of

evaluation, which used the Verusco© data basis. Previous Studies (Venter, 2008; Van

Velden, 2011) also indicated subjectivity among raters, and for this reason, a more

objective method of evaluation was essential. An increase in the amount of video clips per

player might have an effect on the consistency between the raters, but unfortunately time is

a factor and it would take too much time to assess more clips. A model for performance

evaluation based on indices was developed, since no objective evaluation methods were

available. Evaluation based on a performance index is therefore a much more consistent

method for assessing performance.

Literature highlighted the following areas which enhance visual performance: treating

vision insufficiencies, enhancing visual skills, improving visual information processing

skills, developing visuo-motor competence and enhancing cognitive functions (Coffey and

Reichow, 1995; Erickson, 2007 & Vickers, 2007). Therefore, as mentioned before, the

following four major elements for improving performance in rugby specifically were

identified accordingly: skill execution enhancement, visual concentration, response time

and decision-making.

Verusco TryMaker Pro© coding services identify and capture between 4500 and 5000

individual tasks in each game for each player during a season. This system analyzes player

and position performance specifically and also does trend and tactical analysis. Although

most of the information needed for evaluating players is available on this system, only skill

execution is rated on the Verusco system. Visual concentration, response time and

151
decision-making are not rated as entities, but as separate individual skills. For this reason

indices were developed for each of the three other elements of performance to establish

whether improvement in performance had occurred.

As mentioned in the methodology chapter, the visual concentration index was determined

by calculating the number of handling errors each player committed, divided by the time

they played in total. The reaction time index consisted of the following individual skills:

line breaks, tackle breaks, tackles per minute, tackles made, tackles missed, turnovers

forced, defender beaten, work rate, kick pressure and breakdown turnover won. The

decision-making index consisted of turnovers won, turnovers lost, off-loads, good off-

loads, bad off-loads, cleans made, possession won, possession lost, breakdown efficiency,

in-tackle pass, total number of ball carries, positive ball carries, negative ball carries, total

attack, total defense, assist tackle, putting-on-pressure, pick-and-go and the number of

dummies thrown. The raters and the designers of the Verusco© system considered the

individual skills selected for each element and reached full agreement about them. For

more consistent results as many as possible of the individual skills were incorporated.

Each of these indexes was then processed into one entity and the percentage of each was

determined. This was necessary in order to compare players when evaluating their

performances.

The significance of using the Verusco Try Maker Pro© system is that players’ performance

could be assessed while they were participating in competitions. The clips that were made

for each individual player were also derived from the Verusco© system. Thus, both the

raters and the Verusco© system assessed the players during competitions.

152
Each of the four elements of performance will be discussed individually.

2. THE FOUR ELEMENTS OF PERFORMANCE

2.1 SKILL EXECUTION INDEX

Is skill execution trainable? Research done by Newell and Simon (1972) showed that

outstanding performance is a result of an increase in knowledge and skill due to extended

effects of experience. This theory was confirmed by recent studies (Ericsson & Charness,

1994), which showed that extended training alters experts’ cognitive and physiological

processes. McLeod and Jenkins (1991) stated that expert sportsmen are not dramatically

better at performing their tasks than non-experts. According to them everyone has the

ability to produce fine timing, but that the difference lies in constant practice (McLeod &

Jenkins, 1991). Continuous practice enables the nervous system to form perceptual

schemata, resulting in improved understanding and anticipation of specific game situations

(McLeod & Jenkins, 1991). Skill execution can therefore be improved through specific

training. For this reason the current study evaluated the effect of time on skill execution

and, therefore, the study was conducted over a period of three years.

Did skill execution improve over the three seasons?

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According to the Verusco TryMaker Pro© system:

The Mann-Whitney U-test and the Wilcoxon signed rank test indicated no significant

improvement in the Verusco analysis. There was no significant improvement in skill

execution over time for any of the groups, and no significant differences between the

groups according to the Verusco TryMaker Pro© system.

According to the raters:

Two of the three raters (rater 1 & 3) indicated a significant improvement in skill execution

for group 1 (regional players) from season 1 to season 2. Group 4 (National regional

players) also showed a significant improvement in skill execution from season 1 to season

2 according to rater 2.

The objective method of evaluation indicated no improvement of skill execution within the

groups or over time. One could argue that in cases where two of the three raters agreed,

those results might be significant. Group 1 (regional players that had off-season visual

training) improved significantly over time. Group 1 had informal visual training for

fifteen minutes per day and four days per week during the off-season. Group 2 (National

regional players), from the same provincial side were exposed to specific visual training

during a four month period at the National side, and off-season visual training at their

regional side. One would expect a significant improvement in the latter players, but no

significant improvement was noted. The small sample group of only three players could

account for this. And also the fact that skill execution in mature players needs much more

training as mentioned by Davis, Kimmet and Auty (1986). It takes 500 hours of practice to

change an existing skill and to be able to use that skill during competitions.

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 2.2 VISUAL CONCENTRATION INDEX

Is visual concentration trainable? As previously mentioned, visual concentration is the

ability to pay constant active attention to visual stimuli. It is also a measure of how little

visual information is required for the athlete to respond to a stimulus (Ferreira, 2001; Buys,

2002). Since visual concentration represents the driving force of the visual perceptual

system, insufficient visual concentration will result in an overall poor motor response

(Downing & Pinker, 1985). Improvement in visual concentration will therefore contribute

to improved motor response. The visual concentration index was determined by

calculating the number of handling errors each player committed, divided by the time they

played in total.

Did visual concentration improve over the three seasons?

According to the Verusco TryMaker Pro system:

The Verusco analysis indicated a significant improvement in visual concentration for group

4 (National regional players) that were exposed to specific visual training during a four

month period at the National side from season 2 to season 3.

According to the raters:

Rater 1 found a significant improvement in visual concentration for group 1 (regional

players) that had off-season visual training from season 1 to season 2 and rater 3 within

group 4 (National regional players), that were exposed to specific visual training during a

four month period at the National side. They performed significantly better than group 2

155
(National regional players), who were exposed to specific visual training during a four

month period at the National side and off-season visual training at the regional side during

season three. Although the raters found significant improvement in some of the groups,

they did not agree about the specific groups.

As can be seen from the above results the only significant results were obtained by the

Verusco© system, an objective method of evaluation. It is important to note that the

improvement occurred in the groups who were exposed to visual training, either in the

National side or during the off-season.

2.3 RESPONSE TIME INDEX

Is response time trainable? Kluka (1991) defined visual response time as the time required

for information being processed until the first motor response, i.e. the speed with which the

brain interprets information and the action follows. Improving visual response time can

result in faster visual information processing and reduction in the time required for the

neuromuscular system to send information to the muscles (Erickson, 2007). The reaction

time index consists of the following individual skills: line breaks, tackle breaks, tackles per

minute, tackles made, tackles missed, turnovers forced, defender beaten, work rate, kick

pressure and breakdown turnover won.

Did response time improve over the three seasons?

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According to the Verusco TryMaker Pro© system:

The Mann-Whitney U-test and the Wilcoxon signed rank test indicated no significant

improvement in response time. There were no significant improvement in skill execution

over time for any of the groups, and no significant differences among the groups, according

to the Verusco TryMaker Pro© system.

According to the raters:

There was also no consensus among the raters about significant improvement in response

time. Rater 1 found a significant improvement in response time for group 1 (regional

players who had off-season visual training) from season 1 to season 2. Rater 2 indicated

that group 3 (regional players who had no visual training exposure) performed significantly

better in response time than group 1 (regional players who had off-season visual training)

during season 2. He also found a significant improvement in response time within group 3

(regional players who had no visual training exposure) and group 4 (National regional

players who had specific visual training at the National side) from season 1 to season 2.

There was no consensus among the raters about significant improvement in response time

between the groups. The Verusco TryMaker Pro© system also showed no significant

improvement. For this reason one could argue that response time did not improve

significantly over the three seasons. There were no control over the visual training and the

time spent on visual training was restricted. One could also argue that response time would

have improved if more time would have been spent on game related visual training. It also

raises the question about the usefulness of computer based training programmes.

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2.4 DECISION MAKING INDEX

Is decision making trainable? Decision making is the process by which an appropriate

movement response is selected. It is the ability to assess a large number of situational cues

and to select the most accurate response (Hodge & McKenzie, 1999). The ability to

process visual information quickly and accurately and facilitate performance during

competitions improves as expertise improves (Erickson, 2007). Vickers (2007) proposed

the decision training model for training and improving decision making. According to her,

decision training is not just a relationship between perception and motor performance but it

establishes an automatic connection between stimuli and response. The decision making

index consists of turnovers won, turnovers lost, off-loads, good off-loads, bad off-loads,

cleans made, possession won, possession lost, breakdown efficiency, in-tackle passes, total

number of ball carries, positive ball carries, negative ball carries, total attack, total defence,

assist tackle, putting-on-pressure, pick-and-go and the number of dummies thrown.

Did decision-making improve over the three seasons?

According to the Verusco TryMaker Pro system:

The Verusco analysis indicated a significant improvement in decision making for group 3

(regional players that had no visual training exposure) and group 4 (National regional

players that had specific visual training at the National side) from season 1 to season 2.

158
According to the raters:

Rater 2 & 3 agreed that group 4 (National regional players that had specific visual training

at the National side) performed significantly better than group 3 (Regional players that had

no visual training exposure) in decision making during season 1. Rater 1 also found a

significant improvement in decision making in group 1 (Regional players who had off-

season visual training) from season 1 to season 2.

Group 3 had no visual training, while group 4 had specific visual training during the four

months at the National side. A significant difference was found in both groups who were

in the same training environment over time, although only group 4 was exposed to specific

visual training. Improvement in decision making could therefore not only be due to visual

training exposure, since the improvement could also be due to experience.

According to the literature (Ripoll, 1991), the distinction between experts and novices in

reaching high levels of performance is found in high level skill demands and the

coordination of sensor motor and semantic visual functions. Although both groups of

players play for professional sides in regional teams (groups 3 & 4), the players in group 4

were also playing for the National side. Neither group 3 nor group 4 had any visual

training at the start of the study, yet the players in group 4 performed significantly better in

decision making. These players could be seen as more skilled due to the fact that they

made better decisions than the other players and that might be a reason for the selection to

the National side.

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No significant differences were found in decision making between groups 1 and 2 during

season 1. Group 1 consisted out of regional players and group 2 out of National regional

players. The small sample group in group 2 could well account for this. It is possible that

their might have been a significant difference if the sample group had been bigger.

The above results show a significant improvement in skills over time. Groups 1, 2 and 4

had visual training exposure, but group 3 did not. Although group 3 did not receive any

visual training, their decision making still improved significantly. Factors which could also

have been played a role in improving skills over time could be experience and improved

physical and mental abilities.

The specific visual training for groups 2 and 4 was only for ten minutes twice a week over

a four month period. They did receive generic computer training for improving these

visual skills and there was a minimum requirement about how much time they had to spend

on computer training. It could have a much greater effect on visual performance if these

players had had longer and more frequent exposure to the specific on-field visual training.

According to McLeod and Jenkins (1991) expert sportsmen are not dramatically better at

performing tasks than non-experts. They maintain that everybody has the ability to

produce fine timing and that the difference lies in constant practice. Continuous practice

enables the nervous system to form perceptual schemata, which improve understanding and

anticipation in specific game situations (McLeod & Jenkins, 1991). Constant practice leads

to accurate performance (Ericsson et al., 1993; Helsen et al., 2003). The ability to process

160
visual information quickly and accurately and facilitate performance during competitions

improves as expertise improves (Erickson, 2007).

Could it be that experts are able to process information to the motor cortex faster, which

gives them the edge over novices? Have elite athletes mastered using the shorter

retinotectal pathway through the Superior Colliculus for information processing, rather than

the long retinogeniculate pathway through the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus? As mentioned

before, elite athletes have special perceptual schemata which are formed by constant

practice, resulting in quicker processing of information to the motor cortex. Visual training

could therefore definitely complement physical training in establishing the perceptual

schemata. Constant practice will automatically lead to the four elements of performance

being improved over time. The current study does not indicate improvement in visual

motor performance as a result of visual training. This could be because these players were

in a developmental phase, or not enough time was spent on specific on-field visual

enhancement training.

3. CONCLUSION

In the current study a model was designed to establish an objective method of evaluating

performance. The evaluation model consists of the four elements of performance: skill

execution, visual concentration, response time and decision making. An index was

designed for each of the four essential elements of performance for analyzing visual

161
performance objectively. This is the only method which evaluates true visual performance

in rugby since it measures performance during competitive play objectively.

The aim of the study was to determine whether players in the same training environment

performed differently and whether visual training exposure had an impact on performance.

We wanted to establish whether visual skills are trainable and whether improvement in

these skills could transfer to overall sports performance.

The results did indicate that players in the same regional team performed differently.

Group 4, who were selected for the National side, performed better in decision-making than

group 3 in Season 1. No visual training was done during season 1. There were no

differences between groups 1 and 2. This could be because group 2 was such a small

sample. More accurate decision making separated group 4 from group 3, which was

probably the reason for their selection to the National side.

The only group who was not exposed to visual training was group 3. Rater 2 found a

significant improvement in group 3 for response time from season 1 to season 2. He also

found that group 3 performed significantly better than group 1 in season 2. Decision

making improved significantly over time for group 3, as was indicated by the Verusco

TryMaker Pro© system. Improvement did take place without any visual training.

Therefore visual training cannot be isolated as the only element leading to improved sports

performance. One could argue that groups 1, 2 & 4, who had visual enhancement training,

did not spend enough time on specific game related visual enhancement training. Previous

research demonstrated the importance of specific visual training and introduced the SAFID

162
approach, which was specifically adapted to imposed demands (Ferreira, 2002). The

training and competition environment should be closely simulated since the improvement

and transition of skills are more effective in such an environment (Ferreira, 2002).

However, the question remains whether the difference would not have been significant if

the players had spent more time on specific visual training.

The study did indicate that players improved in decision making, concentration and skill

execution over time. This is a confirmation of previous studies that visual skills are

trainable. Venter (2008) indicated that specific visual training improved visual skills, which

also correlated with previous studies (Calder, 1999; Loran & MacEwen, 1995; Trachman &

Kluka, 1993; Ludeke & Ferreira, 2003; Ferreira, 2003; Bressan, 2003). An assumption can

be made for rugby specifically that improvement in these four visual skills, skill execution,

visual concentration, response time and decision making, would lead to improved overall

sports performance.

The results indicated that all regional players improved over time, not only the players

exposed to visual training. As discussed previously, many factors play a role in overall

sport performance. Elite players have a superior ability to utilize advanced information in

order to activate the motor system (Muller & Abernethy, 2006; Muller et al., 2009;

McLeod, 1987). Lifelong experience, from early intra-uterine exposures to advanced

training techniques by professionals, all contribute to human athletic ability (Brutsaert &

Parra, 2005).

163
It is therefore important to take all influencing factors, including visual training, into

consideration when conditioning players.

Conclusion: Although visual training could not be isolated in all the elements of

performance in the current study, previous studies have indicated a relationship between

visual training and improvement in visual skills. The researcher therefore suggests that

more focused attention should be directed towards younger players where a bigger margin

in improvement is possible, and that sport specific training, also known as the SAFID

approach, should be used as the method of training visual skills. Visual training should

take place more frequently, and the objective model for performance evaluation should be

developed further.

Although fifty high performance players were recruited for the study, once they were

divided into four groups, the study ended up with small sample groups. The fact that the

players that participated in the study moved to different provinces or got injured made it

difficult to establish a big sample group. For this reason we ended up with only twenty five

players.

There was no control over the specific visual training. The players that were chosen for the

National side participated in a specific visual training program with a sports vision

enhancement specialist. The specialist used visual enhancing techniques to improve the

elements of performance. The researcher had no influence on these training techniques and

could only elaborate on the time spent on these techniques. It is important that the players

follow a specific visual training programme and that there is control over the parameters,

164
like the type and time spent on visual training. This is therefore a severe limitation to this

study and it is therefore suggested to rather make use of high school teams for a future pilot

study since better control can be implemented.

Large quantities of training need to be arranged for minor improvements in elite

performers. Furthermore there are several possible movement sequences for every motor

response (Kibele, 2006). Through extensive experience and anticipation, the number of

possible movement sequences could be limited, resulting in proper motor reactions

(Tendenbaum, 2003). Motor reaction only takes place once a critical threshold level has

been reached and the perceived movement features correspond with the motor codes of the

motor response (Prinz, 1997; Wickens et al.,1994;). Thus, only particular stimuli will

initiate a motor reaction (Kibele, 2006). Providing perceptual skill training by developing

motor responses in order to produce appropriate action codes, would establish accurate

perception-action responses (Farrow & Abernethy, 2002; Kibele, 2006).

It was difficult to isolate visual training as the only factor on performance, because of the

many factors that are important in performance, such as physical and mental abilities and

experience. The results indicated that other factors definitely played a role in performance,

for instance the fact that group 3 was not exposed to visual training, yet also showed

improvement in decision making and response time over 2 seasons. It is clear that much

more attention should be given to the nature and duration of visual exercises.

There were no objective methods of evaluation of performance for three of the four main

elements of performance: visual concentration, response time and decision making. An

165
index for each of these elements had to be developed to establish an objective evaluation

model. The individual skills that were incorporated into the four elements of performance

were chosen very carefully, but not all the individual skills were incorporated because of

the different positions that are played in rugby. Kicking, for instance, is usually only

executed by the fly half, scrum half and full back and was therefore excluded from

decision-making. Lineouts only involve the forward players and the lineout jumpers

specifically and were also excluded from response time and decision making. Each of the

individual skills was chosen after careful consideration in order to establish a reliable

objective model of evaluation. It may be wise to consider positions played in rugby and

therefore design a model that is more position specific.

4. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE INVESTIGATION

Recommendations are as follows:

• The Verusco TryMaker Pro© system should incorporate the performance index or a

similar index into its system for the easier assessment of player performance over

time.

• The use of raters in evaluating players should be abandoned because of the

subjectivity of this method. It has been found that the individual’s opinion around

the technical part of the game of rugby differs too much.

166
• Caution should be exercised when selecting video clips and more video clips of

each of the four performance elements specifically should be captured. An

increased amount of video clips in each of the four elements would contribute to a

more accurate result.

• Larger experimental groups should be used where possible, as they would give

results more credibility. A performance model such as the TryMaker Pro© system

should be included in the system. A performance model would contribute to the

easier assessment of performance enhancement.

• More frequent and more task related visual enhancement training sessions should be

provided. As previously mentioned it takes 500 hours of practice to change an

existing skill (Davis, Kimmet and Auty, 1986). It is therefore necessary to increase

the amount of visual enhancement training sessions in order to improve visual

performance.

• The model of performance should be developed further and made more position

specific. This would contribute towards more specific and accurate results.

167
CHAPTER 8

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168
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210
CHAPTER 9

APPENDIX

211
 CHAPTER 9

APPENDIX 1

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 APPENDIX 2

Data collection tables for individual skills, for each of the players over the
three seasons

Table 1 consists out of data collected from the Verusco© system for all the different skills

that forms part of the four elements of performance. The amount scored for each skill for

all the games played during a season were recorded for each player. Table 2 consists out of

the determined averages for the above data.

214
TABLE 1
SEASON 1
Reaction time
Line Tackle Tacle per Tackles Tackles Turnover Defender kick
PLAYERS GROUP Min Breaks Breaks min missed made forced beaten work rate pressure

A 1 80 3\6 0\3 0.5/0.7 1\27 9\182 0\17 0\3 0.35\0.48 0\10

80 1\7 0\2 0.8/0.6 5\32 8\119 1\7 0\2 0.28\0.44 0\13
48 0\6 1\10 1.0/0.7 4\33 6\129 2\12 1\10 0.54\0.54 2\22
80 2\11 1\8 0.2/0.6 0\24 4\139 0\14 1\8 0.23\0.47 1\6
TOTAAL 288 6\31 2\23 2.5\2.6 10\116 27\569 3\50 2\23 1.4\1.93 3\51
% 288 19.35 8.7 96.15 8.62 4.75 6 8.7 72.54 5.88

B 1 80 0\6 0\3 1.3/0.7 6\27 20\182 1\17 0\3 0.74\0.48 0\10

80 0\7 0\2 0.9/0.6 3/32 13\119 1\7 0\2 0.63\0.44 1\13
80 2\6 2\10 1.4/0.7 1/33 21\129 1\12 2\10 0.89\0.54 2\22
73 0\6 1\9 1.1/0.6 2\22 15\139 0\13 1\9 0.74\0.55 0\8
54 1\10 1\13 0.8/0.5 2\26 5\87 1\14 1\13 0.83\0.7 1\16
22 0\6 0\10 0.8/0.6 0\33 4\181 1\14 0\10 0.87\0.57 1\22
80 1\6 0\5 1.4/0.7 2\44 28\174 2\13 0\5 0.9\0.56 0\9
73 0\10 0\4 0.8/0.6 3\29 12\162 1\12 0\4 0.62\0.49 1\18
80 0\6 0\4 1.2/0.8 4\52 22\207 2\11 0\4 0.75\0.52 1\20
80 0\9 0\6 0.9/0.6 1\23 16\155 0\20 0\6 0.6\0.55 2\19
80 1\11 0\8 1.3/0.6 3\24 21\139 2\14 0\8 0.68\0.47 0\6
TOTAAL 782 5\83 4\74 11.9\7 27\345 177\1674 12\147 4\74 8.25\5.87 9\163
% 782 6.02 5.41 170 7.83 10.57 8.16 5.41 140.55 5.52

C 1 67 0\6 0\3 0.7/0.7 2\27 10\182 1\17 0\3 0.6\0.48 0\10

80 0\7 0\2 0.4/0.6 2\32 5\119 0\7 0\2 0.34\0.44 0\13
80 0\6 0\10 0.7/0.7 3\33 8\129 0\12 0\10 0.42\0.54 1\22
33 0\6 0\9 0.1/0.6 0\22 1\139 0\13 0\9 0.18\0.55 0\8
29 0\6 0\5 0.7/0.7 2\44 3\174 0\13 0\5 0.44\0.56 0\9
55 0\10 0\4 0.5/0.6 2\29 5\162 0\12 0\4 0.46\0.49 0\18
48 0\6 0\4 0.8/0.8 3\52 7\207 0\11 0\4 0.38\0.52 0\20
20 0\9 0\6 0.9/0.6 1\23 4\155 0\20 0\6 0.59\0.55 0\19
26 0\11 0\8 0.6/0.6 0\24 3\139 1\14 0\8 0.41\0.47 0\6
TOTAAL 438 0 0 5.4\5.9 15\286 46\1406 2\119 0\51 3.82\4.55 1\115
% 438 0 0 91.53 5.24 3.27 1.68 0 83.96 0.87

215
D 1 15 0\6 0\3 0.2/0.7 1\27 0\182 1\17 0\3 0.26\0.48 0\10
26 0\6 0\9 0.8/0.6 1\22 4\139 0\13 0\9 0.66\0.55 1\8
20 0\10 0\13 0/0.5 0\26 0\87 0\14 0\13 0.68\0.7 0\16
TOTAAL 61 0 0 1\2.8 2\75 4\408 1\44 0\25 1.6\1.73 1\24
% 61 0 0 35.71 2.67 0.98 2.22 0 92.49 4.17

E 1 80 0\10 0\4 0.9/0.6 0\29 17\162 1\12 0\4 0.51\0.49 1\18

60 1\6 0\4 0.8/0.8 2\52 11\207 2\11 0\4 0.54\0.52 2\20
80 0\9 0\6 0.9/0.6 1\23 13\155 0\20 0\6 0.53\0.55 2\19
TOTAAL 220 1\25 0 2.6\2 3\104 41\524 3\43 0\14 1.58\1.56 5\57
% 220 4 0 130 2.88 7.82 6.98 0 101.28 8.77

F 1 80 1\6 0\3 0.9/0.7 3\27 15\182 1\17 0\3 0.56\0.48 2\10

80 0\7 0\2 1.0/0.6 6\32 11\119 0\7 0\2 0.41\0.44 0\13
80 0\6 0\10 0.7/0.7 1\33 11\129 0\12 0\10 0.57\0.54 1\22
50 0\6 0\9 0.9/0.6 3\22 6\139 0\13 0\9 0.52\0.55 0\8
80 1\10 0\13 0.9/0.5 4\26 8\87 1\14 0\13 0.74\0.7 0\16
64 0\6 0\10 1.0/0.6 4\33 14\181 0\14 0\10 0.54\0.57 1\22
52 0\6 0\5 1.0/0.7 3\44 11\174 1\13 0\5 0.72\0.56 0\9
50 0\10 0\4 0.8/0.6 2\29 8\162 1\12 0\4 0.54\0.49 2\18
80 0\6 0\4 0.8/0.8 3\52 14\207 0\11 0\4 0.51\0.52 2\20
80 0\9 0\6 0.7/0.6 1\23 13\155 1\20 0\6 0.51\0.55 0\19
80 1\11 1\8 0.6/0.6 2\24 9\139 0\14 1\8 0.5\0.47 0\6
TOTAAL 776 3\83 1\74 9.3\7 32\345 120\1674 5\147 1\74 6.12\5.87 8\163
% 776 3.61 1.35 132.86 9.28 7.17 3.4 1.35 104.26 4.91

G 1 77 0\6 0\3 0.9/0.7 1\27 17\182 1\17 0\3 0.69\0.48 1\10

80 1\7 1\2 0.8/0.6 1\32 12\119 1\7 1\2 0.51\0.44 0\13
80 1\6 1\10 0.9/0.7 3\33 11\129 1\12 1\10 0.66\0.54 3\22
80 0\6 3\9 0.7/0.6 1\22 10\139 0\13 3\9 0.61\0.55 0\8
80 0\10 3\13 1.0/0.5 3\26 11\87 1\14 3\13 0.85\0.7 2\16
80 0\6 3\10 0.6/0.6 0\33 14\181 2\14 3\10 0.74\0.57 1\22
49 0\6 1\5 0.9/0.7 1\44 11\174 1\13 1\5 0.61\0.56 0\9
80 1\10 2\4 0.9/0.6 0\29 17\162 1\12 2\4 0.69\0.49 2\18
80 0\6 1\4 1.3/0.8 3\52 25\207 1\11 1\4 0.81\0.52 0\20
80 0\9 1\6 0.6/0.6 0\23 11\155 1\20 1\6 0.61\0.55 0\19
80 0\11 0\8 0.8/0.6 2\24 13\139 3\14 0\8 0.56\0.47 0\6
TOTAAL 846 3\83 16\74 1.4\7 15\345 152\1674 13\147 16\74 7.34\5.87 9\163
% 846 3.61 21.62 200 4.35 9.08 8.84 21.62 125.04 5.52

216
H 2 80 1\6 0\3 0.6/0.7 3\27 10\182 1\17 0\3 0.41\0.48 2\10
80 0\7 0\2 0.5/0.6 4\32 4\119 1\7 0\2 0.4\0.44 4\13
80 0\6 1\10 0.5/0.7 1\33 7\129 1\12 1\10 0.68\0.54 2\22
54 0\6 0\9 0.8/0.6 1\22 7\139 1\13 0\9 0.86\0.55 0\8
80 0\10 1\13 0.4/0.5 0\26 6\87 1\14 1\13 0.82\0.7 2\16
80 1\6 1\10 0.6/0.6 2\33 12\181 1\14 1\10 0.69\0.57 1\22
80 0\6 1\5 0.8/0.7 4\44 12\174 0\13 1\5 0.8\0.56 0\9
80 1\10 0\4 0.2/0.6 0\29 3\162 1\12 0\4 0.38\0.49 0\18
80 2\6 0\4 0.5/0.8 3\52 9\207 0\11 0\4 0.45\0.52 1\20
80 0\9 0\6 0.5/0.6 4\23 5\155 1\20 0\6 0.39\0.55 0\19
80 2\11 0\8 0.8/0.6 1\24 13\139 1\14 0\8 0.59\0.47 0\6
TOTAAL 854 7\83 4\74 6.2\7 23\345 88\1674 9\147 4\74 6.47\5.87 12\163
% 854 8.43 5.41 88.57 6.67 5.26 6.12 5.41 110.22 7.36

I 2 65 0\6 1\3 0.5/0.7 0\27 8\182 0\17 1\3 0.33\0.48 0\10

80 1\7 0\2 0.1/0.6 0\32 1\119 1\7 0\2 0.29\0.44 0\13
67 0\6 0\10 0.1/0.7 2\33 0\129 0\12 0\10 0.25\0.54 1\22
80 2\6 0\9 0.1/0.6 0\22 2\139 0\13 0\9 0.31\0.55 1\8
60 0\10 2\13 0.4/0.5 0\26 4\87 2\14 2\13 0.57\0.7 0\16
68 1\6 1\10 0.5/0.6 0\33 10\181 2\14 1\10 0.53\0.57 0\22
80 2\6 0\5 0.5/0.7 5\23 8\174 2\13 0\5 0.46\0.56 0\9
80 1\10 0\4 0.5/0.6 4\29 7\162 0\12 0\4 0.3\0.49 0\18
80 0\6 1\4 0.5/0.8 4\52 7\207 2\11 1\4 0.33\0.52 2\20
21 1\9 1\6 0.8/0.6 1\23 3\155 1\20 1\6 0.77\0.55 0\19
TOTAAL 681 8\72 6\66 4\6.4 16\321 50\1535 10\133 6\66 4.14\5.4 4\157
% 681 11.11 9.09 62.5 4.98 3.26 7.52 9.09 76.67 2.55

J 2 80 0\6 0\3 0.3/0.7 0\27 7\182 2\17 0\3 0.23\0.48 0\10

80 0\6 1\10 0.4/0.7 1\33 6\129 0\12 1\10 0.24\0.54 2\22
80 2\6 2\9 0.5/0.6 3\22 5\139 0\13 2\9 0.47\0.55 0\8
80 2\10 1\13 0.3/0.5 0\26 4\87 2\14 1\13 0.64\0.7 0\16
80 1\6 3\10 0.7/0.6 3\33 12\181 0\14 3\10 0.55\0.57 2\22
80 1\6 1\5 0.9/0.7 1\44 18\174 1\13 1\5 0.54\0.56 2\9
30 0\10 1\4 0.9/0.6 4\29 3\162 0\12 1\4 0.41\0.49 0\18
80 1\6 0\4 0.6/0.8 2\52 11\207 1\11 0\4 0.3\0.52 0\20
74 0\9 0\6 0.3/0.6 0\23 6\155 0\20 0\6 0.31\0.55 1\19
80 0\11 1\8 0.6/0.6 3\24 9\139 0\14 1\8 0.34\0.47 1\6
TOTAAL 744 7\76 10\72 3.3\6.4 17\313 8\1555 6\140 10\72 4.03\5.43 8\150
% 744 9.21 13.89 51.56 5.43 0.51 4.29 13.89 74.22 5.33

217
K 3 80 1\8 0\10 0.8/0.5 1\17 11\88 0\12 0\10 0.54\0.56 1\15
66 0\8 0\6 1.2/0.5 5\37 11\113 0\8 0\6 0.59\0.53 0\18
55 1\6 0\12 0.8/0.5 1\36 10\143 0\9 0\12 0.66\0.56 1\32
43 0\5 0\6 1.0/0.8 2\60 10\262 0\17 0\6 0.63\0.61 2\12
TOTAAL 244 2\27 0 3.8\2.3 9\150 42\606 0 0\32 2.42\2.26 4\77
% 244 7.41 0 165.22 6 6.93 0 0 107.08 5.19

L 3 60 1\8 0\10 0.4/0.5 0\17 4\88 0\12 0\10 0.55\0.56 1\15

62 0\8 0\6 0.6/0.6 1\37 7\113 0\8 0\6 0.45\0.53 1\18
35 0\6 0\12 0.4/0.5 1\36 4\143 1\9 0\12 0.43\0.56 0\32
58 1\5 0\6 0.7/0.8 2\60 11\262 1\17 0\6 0.69\0.61 0\12
50 0\1 0\4 0.7/0.6 2\36 8\157 0\14 0\4 0.48\0.52 3\31
40 0\6 0\7 0.2/0.5 0\20 1\91 0\12 0\7 0.72\0.53 1\16
51 0\9 0\9 1.0/0.7 2\54 10\158 0\17 0\9 0.41\0.53 0\16
51 0\5 0\8 0.5/0.6 2\21 3\125 0\9 0\8 0.38\0.48 0\20
59 0\7 0\9 0.8/0.7 2\35 8\131 0\18 0\9 0.56\0.49 0\13
34 0\8 0\7 0.9/0.6 0\27 7\145 1\13 0\7 0.83\0.55 0\13
53 2\13 0\7 0.6/0.6 0\29 6\128 1\16 0\7 0.58\0.47 1\13
TOTAAL 553 4\76 0 6.8\6.7 12\372 69\1541 4\145 0\85 6.08\5.83 7\199
% 553 5.26 0 101.49 3.23 4.48 2.76 0 104.29 3.52

M 3 11 0\8 0\6 0.4/0.6 0\37 1\113 0\8 0\6 0.28\0.53 1\18

14 0\1 0\4 0.4/0.6 0\36 1\157 1\14 0\4 1.78\0.52 0\31
21 1\13 1\7 0.6/0.6 1\29 2\128 0\16 1\7 0.75\0.47 1\13
TOTAAL 46 1\22 1\17 1.4\1.8 1\102 4\3985 1\38 1\17 2.81\1.52 2\62
% 46 4.55 5.88 77.78 0.98 1.01 2.63 5.88 184.87 3.23

N 3 80 2\8 3\10 0.2/0.5 0\17 3\88 3\12 3\10 0.35\0.56 0\15

80 1\8 3\6 0.5/0.6 2\37 6\113 1\8 3\6 0.47\0.53 0\18
80 1\6 2\12 0.3/0.5 3\36 3\143 1\9 2\12 0.38\0.56 0\32
80 0\5 0\6 0.4/0.8 2\60 8\262 1\17 0\6 0.25\0.61 0\12
80 0\1 1\4 0.3/0.6 1\36 6\157 1\14 1\4 0.31\0.52 1\31
80 0\6 1\7 0.2/0.5 1\20 2\91 1\12 1\7 0.34\0.53 0\16
80 2\9 2\9 0.5/0.7 4\54 5\158 0\17 2\9 0.49\0.53 1\16
80 1\5 1\8 0.2/0.6 1\21 3\125 1\9 1\8 0.38\0.48 1\20
73 0\7 2\9 0.4/0.7 0\35 6\131 2\18 2\9 0.38\0.49 0\13
80 1\8 3\7 0.2/0.6 1\27 2\145 0\13 3\7 0.31\0.55 1\13
80 0\13 1\7 0.2/0.6 0\29 4\128 2\16 1\7 0.3\0.47 4\13
TOTAAL 873 8\76 19\85 3.4\6.7 15\372 48\1541 13\145 19\85 3.96\5.83 8\199
% 873 10.53 22.35 50.75 4.03 3.11 8.97 22.35 67.92 4.02

218
O 3 80 0\8 0\10 0.4/0.5 3\17 2\88 0\12 0\10 0.20\0.56 0\15
33 1\8 0\6 0.7/0.6 2\37 3\113 0\8 0\6 0.42\0.53 1\18
80 0\6 0\7 0.7/0.5 3\20 6\91 1\12 0\7 0.39\0.53 3\16
80 1\9 0\9 0.7/0.7 4\54 9\158 2\17 0\9 0.39\0.53 1\16
80 1\5 0\8 0.4/0.6 0\21 7\125 0\9 0\8 0.17\0.48 1\20
80 1\7 0\9 0.3/0.7 2\35 3\131 1\18 0\9 0.19\0.49 0\13
80 0\8 0\7 0.6/0.6 7\27 4\145 0\13 0\7 0.28\0.55 3\13
65 1\13 2\7 0.3/0.6 1\29 3\128 2\16 2\7 0.29\0.47 0\13
TOTAAL 578 5\64 2\63 4.1\4.8 22\240 37\979 6\105 2\63 2.33\4.14 9\124
% 578 7.81 3.17 85.42 9.17 3.78 5.71 3.17 56.28 7.26

P 3 80 0\6 1\7 0.8/0.5 3\20 8\91 0\12 1\7 0.45\0.53 1\16

74 0\9 0\9 1.5/0.7 9\54 17\158 0\17 0\9 0.58\0.53 2\16
80 0\5 0\8 1.0/0.6 2\21 14\125 0\9 0\8 0.49\0.48 3\20
80 0\7 0\9 1.1/0.7 6\35 11\131 1\18 0\9 0.5\0.49 5\13
80 0\8 0\7 1.1/0.6 3\27 17\145 0\13 0\7 0.54\0.55 1\13
80 2\13 1\7 1.1/0.6 5\29 13\128 1\16 1\7 0.53\0.47 1\13
TOTAAL 474 2\48 2\47 6.6\3.7 28\186 80\778 2\85 2\47 3.09\3.05 13\91
% 474 4.17 4.26 178.38 15.05 10.28 2.35 4.26 101.31 14.29

Q 3 43 0\8 1\10 0.8/0.5 2\17 5\88 0\12 1\10 0.49\0.56 0\15

48 0\8 0\6 0.8/0.6 3\37 5\113 1\8 0\6 0.63\0.53 2\18
21 0\6 0\12 1.2/0.5 0\36 8\143 0\9 0\12 0.87\0.56 1\32
66 0\6 1\7 1.1/0.5 2\20 9\91 2\12 1\7 0.91\0.53 2\16
68 0\9 0\9 0.9/0.7 4\54 11\158 0\17 0\9 0.69\0.53 2\16
58 0\5 0\8 1.3/0.6 2\21 13\125 0\9 0\8 0.75\0.48 1\20
68 1\7 1\9 1.0/0.7 5\35 10\131 2\18 1\9 0.55\0.49 1\13
71 0\8 1\7 0.8/0.6 0\27 13\145 1\13 1\7 0.82\0.55 2\13
80 1\13 0\7 0.7/0.6 2\29 9\128 0\16 0\7 0.46\0.47 2\13
TOTAAL 523 2\70 4\75 8.6\5.3 20\276 83\1122 6\114 4\75 6.17\4.7 13\156
% 523 2.86 5.33 162.26 7.25 7.4 5.26 5.33 131.28 8.33

R 3 66 1\6 1\12 0.2/0.5 0\36 3\143 1\9 1\12 0.3\0.56 1\32

% 66 16.67 8.33 40 0 2.1 11.11 8.33 53.57 3.13

S 3 14 1\6 0\12 0.2/0.6 0\36 1\143 0\9 0\12 0.35\0.56 0\32

20 0\1 0\4 0.4/0.6 0\36 2\157 1\14 0\4 0.55\0.52 0\31
38 0\13 1\7 0.5/0.6 0\29 3\128 0\16 1\7 0.21\0.47 0\13
TOTAAL 72 1\20 1\23 1.1\1.8 0 6\428 1\39 1\23 1.11\1.55 0\76
% 72 5 4.35 61.11 0 1.4 2.56 4.35 71.61 0

219
T 4 33 0\8 0\10 0.2/0.5 1\17 0\88 0\12 0\10 0.12\0.56 1\15
80 1\6 0\12 0.4/0.5 2\36 6\143 0\9 0\12 0.35\0.56 2\32
80 1\5 0\6 0.4/0.8 0\60 9\262 0\17 0\6 0.28\0.61 1\12
80 1\1 0\4 0.4/0.6 1\36 8\157 0\14 0\4 0.2\0.52 1\31
54 0\6 0\7 0.2/0.5 0\20 2\91 0\2 0\7 0.37\0.53 3\16
80 0\9 0\9 0.5/0.7 5\54 5\158 1\17 0\9 0.24\0.53 2\16
80 0\5 0\8 0.6/0.6 3\21 7\125 2\9 0\8 0.23\0.48 0\20
80 0\7 2\9 0.3/0.7 1\35 3\131 0\18 2\9 0.23\0.49 1\13
80 1\8 0\7 0.5/0.6 3\27 5\145 1\13 0\7 0.23\0.55 0\13
42 2\13 0\7 0.5/0.6 3\29 1\128 0\16 0\7 0.24\0.47 1\13
TOTAAL 689 6\68 2\79 4\6.1 19\335 46\1428 4\127 2\79 2.49\5.3 12\181
% 689 8.82 2.53 65.57 5.67 3.22 3.15 2.53 46.98 6.63

U 4 80 0\8 0\10 0.5/0.5 1\17 6\88 2\12 0\10 0.75\0.56 0\15

26 0\8 0\6 0.5/0.6 1\37 1\113 0\8 0\6 0.61\0.53 1\18
45 0\6 0\12 0\0.5 0\36 0\143 0\9 0\12 0.73\0.56 1\32
34 0\1 0\4 0.4/0.6 0\36 3\157 0\14 0\4 0.76\0.52 0\31
54 0\6 0\7 0.5/0.5 0\20 4\91 1\12 0\7 0.61\0.53 0\16
49 0\9 0\9 0.5/0.7 1\54 5\158 4\17 0\9 0.57\0.53 0\16
51 0\5 0\8 0.4/0.6 0\21 4\125 1\9 0\8 0.46\0.48 1\20
59 0\7 0\9 1.0/0.7 4\35 8\131 0\18 0\9 0.48\0.49 0\13
34 0\8 0\7 0.8/0.6 1\27 5\145 0\13 0\7 0.63\0.55 1\13
49 0\13 0\7 0.4/0.6 0\29 4\128 0\16 0\7 0.47\0.47 0\13
TOTAAL 481 0 0 5\5.9 8\312 40\1279 8\128 0\79 6.07\5.22 4\187
% 481 0 0 84.75 2.56 3.13 6.25 0 116.28 2.14

V 4 80 1\8 1\10 0.2/0.5 2\17 1\88 2\12 1\10 0.16\0.56 1\15

80 1\8 1\6 0.4/0.6 1\37 6\113 2\8 1\6 0.29\0.53 0\18
80 0\6 3\12 0.4/0.5 4\36 4\143 0\9 3\12 0.31\0.56 1\32
71 1\5 1\6 0.7/0.8 4\60 12\262 1\17 1\6 0.39\0.61 3\12
80 0\1 1\4 1.1/0.6 8\36 15\157 2\14 1\4 0.46\0.52 3\31
80 1\6 0\7 0.2/0.5 1\20 2\91 0\12 0\7 0.14\0.53 0\16
76 2\9 1\9 0.8/0.7 3\54 11\158 1\17 1\9 0.34\0.53 0\16
80 0\5 0\8 0.4/0.6 0\21 6\125 1\9 0\8 0.26\0.48 2\20
80 1\7 0\9 0.4/0.7 1\35 5\131 3\18 0\9 0.26\0.49 0\13
80 0\8 0\7 0.1/0.6 0\27 2\145 1\13 0\7 0.26\0.55 1\13
80 1\13 0\7 0.4/0.6 1\29 5\128 2\16 0\7 0.19\0.47 0\13
TOTAAL 867 8\76 8\85 5.1\6.7 25\372 69\1541 15\145 8\85 3.06\5.83 11\199
% 867 10.53 9.41 76.12 6.72 4.48 10.34 9.41 52.49 5.53

220
W 4 41 1\8 0\10 0.3/0.5 1\17 1\88 1\12 0\10 0.76\0.56 1\15
54 0\8 0\8 0.6/0.6 2\37 5\113 0\8 0\6 0.33\0.53 1\18
35 0\6 0\12 0.5/0.5 4\36 2\143 0\9 0\12 0.43\0.56 3\32
58 0\5 0\6 1.0/0.8 4\60 13\262 0\17 0\6 0.58\0.61 0\12
46 0\1 0\4 0.5/0.6 3\36 4\157 0\14 0\4 0.31\0.52 1\31
26 0\6 0\7 0.7/0.5 0\20 4\91 0\12 0\7 0.55\0.53 0\16
31 0\9 0\9 1.2/0.7 1\54 8\158 0\17 0\9 0.55\0.53 0\16
29 0\5 0\8 0.5/0.6 1\21 2\125 0\9 0\8 0.51\0.48 0\20
21 0\7 0\9 0.3/0.7 0\35 1\131 0\18 0\9 0.33\0.49 0\13
46 2\8 0\7 0.9/0.6 2\27 7\145 0\13 0\7 0.65\0.55 0\13
31 0\13 0\7 0.9/0.6 1\29 5\128 1\16 0\7 0.52\0.47 1\13
TOTAAL 418 3\76 0 7.4\6.7 19\372 52\1541 2\145 0\85 5.52\5.83 7\199
% 418 3.95 0 110.45 511 3.37 1.38 0 94.68 3.52

X 4 80 1\8 1\10 0.1/0.5 0\17 2\88 0\12 1\10 1.13\0.56 2\15

80 2\8 0\8 0.5/0.6 0\37 8\113 0\8 0\6 1.09\0.53 1\18
80 0\6 5\12 0.6/0.5 2\36 11\143 0\9 5\12 1.02\0.56 4\32
80 0\5 1\6 0.5/0.8 3\60 10\262 3\17 1\6 0.82\0.61 0\12
66 0\1 1\4 0.4/0.6 1\36 6\157 0\14 1\4 0.9\0.52 0\31
80 2\6 1\7 0.4/0.5 1\20 4\91 2\12 1\7 1.1\0.53 0\16
76 1\9 0\9 0.4/0.7 3\54 5\158 1\17 0\9 1.00\0.53 1\16
80 0\5 0\8 0.6/0.6 2\21 7\125 1\9 0\8 0.9\0.48 3\20
80 0\7 0\9 0.7/0.7 1\35 10\131 2\18 0\9 0.9\0.49 1\13
80 2\8 1\7 0.7/0.6 2\27 10\145 1\13 1\7 0.97\0.55 0\13
59 0\13 0\7 0.8/0.6 2\29 8\128 1\16 0\7 0.88\0.47 2\13
TOTAAL 841 8\76 10\87 5.7\6.7 17\372 81\1541 11\145 10\85 10.71\5.83 14\199
% 841 10.53 11.49 85.07 4.57 5.26 7.59 11.76 183.7 7.04

Y 4 80 1\8 0\10 0.4/0.5 0\17 5\88 0\12 0\10 0.70\0.56 1\15

80 1\6 0\12 0.7/0.5 4\36 13\143 2\9 0\12 0.68\0.56 2\32
80 0\5 1\6 1.1/0.8 5\60 23\262 2\17 1\6 0.79\0.61 2\12
80 0\1 0\4 0.7/0.6 2\36 13\157 2\14 0\4 0.56\0.52 2\31
80 0\6 0\7 0.9/0.5 0\20 12\91 1\12 0\7 0.68\0.53 0\16
80 1\9 1\9 0.5/0.7 2\54 8\158 1\17 1\9 0.56\0.53 0\16
80 0\5 0\8 0.5/0.6 0\21 8\125 1\9 0\8 0.54\0.48 0\20
80 0\7 0\9 1.1/0.7 3\35 14\131 2\18 0\9 0.5\0.49 0\13
80 0\8 0\7 0.9/0.6 2\27 14\145 3\13 0\7 0.63\0.55 1\13
80 0\13 0\7 0.7/0.6 3\29 8\128 2\16 0\7 0.47\0.47 0\13
TOTAAL 800 3\68 2\79 7.5\6.1 21\335 118\1428 16\137 2\79 6.11\5.3 8\181
% 800 4.41 2.53 122.95 6.27 8.26 11.68 2.53 115.28 4.42

221
SEASON 1
Decision Making
turnover turnover Good off Bad off Win Lost Breakdown In tackle Ball Pos Neg total total
won lost Off Loads loads loads cleans possession possession efficiency pass carries carries Carries attack defence

0\18 1\17 0\7 0\6 0\1 8\145 0\28 1\10 60 0\5 3\58 3\54 0\4 18\321 10\261
1\6 2\22 0\11 0\8 0\3 5\154 0\25 0\15 85.7 0\9 3\69 3\67 0\2 12\363 10\162
2\8 2\26 0\17 0\14 0\3 4\172 0\23 1\20 83.3 0\16 4\78 3\74 1\4 15\463 11\184
0\10 3\19 0\23 0\18 0\5 1\130 0\18 3\18 33.3 0\20 6\80 5\73 1\7 13\373 5\185
3\42 8\84 0 0 0\12 18\601 0 5\63 262.3\4 0 16\285 14\268 2\17 58\1520 36\792
7.14 9.52 0 0 0 3 0 7.94 65.58 0 5.61 5.22 11.76 3.82 4.55

3\18 0\17 2\7 2\6 0\1 10\145 0\28 0\10 71.4 1\5 8\58 8\54 0\4 22\321 37\261
1\6 0\22 0\11 0\8 0\3 22\154 1\25 0\15 80 0\9 5\69 4\67 1\2 30\363 20\162
1\8 1\26 3\17 3\14 0\3 21\172 0\23 1\20 100 3\16 9\78 8\74 1\4 42\463 29\184
0\11 2\18 1\13 0\10 1\3 19\195 4\24 2\14 88.5 1\10 3\88 3\81 0\7 33\456 21\202
1\10 2\23 3\32 3\26 0\6 19\270 0\24 1\13 82.6 3\28 7\139 7\128 0\11 37\705 8\138
1\11 1\30 0\16 0\8 0\8 8\169 1\35 1\26 86.7 0\15 1\82 1\73 0\9 10\435 9\255
2\13 1\23 2\17 2\11 0\6 14\169 4\23 1\18 80.6 2\13 8\83 8\75 0\8 30\439 42\234
1\9 1\19 0\14 0\10 0\4 11\132 1\29 1\17 80.6 0\12 4\63 4\57 0\6 21\352 24\233
2\13 1\20 1\11 0\9 1\2 7\121 2\20 1\19 79.3 1\10 9\56 8\48 1\8 22\323 38\295
0\16 0\26 0\15 0\7 0\8 13\179 0\29 0\16 89.7 1\12 8\81 8\71 0\10 23\432 25\229
3\10 0\19 0\23 0\18 0\5 15\130 0\18 0\18 72.4 0\20 2\80 2\73 0\7 27\373 27\185
14\125 9\446 12\176 10\127 2\49 159\1836 13\278 8\186 911.8\11 12\150 64\877 61\801 3\56 297\4662 280\2378
11.2 2.02 6.82 7.87 4.08 8.66 4.68 4.3 82.89 8 7.3 7.62 5.36 6.37 11.77

1\18 0\17 0\7 0\6 0\1 22\145 1\28 0\10 82.1 0\5 3\58 3\54 0\4 25\321 15\261
0\6 0\22 0\11 0\8 0\3 20\154 0\25 0\15 84 0\9 2\69 0\67 0\2 22\363 5\162
0\8 0\26 0\17 0\14 0\3 20\172 0\23 0\20 82.1 0\16 1\78 1\74 0\4 23\463 11\184
0\11 0\18 0\13 0\10 0\3 5\195 0\24 0\14 50 0\10 0\88 0\81 0\7 5\456 1\202
0\13 0\23 0\17 0\11 0\6 8\169 1\23 0\18 75 0\13 2\83 2\75 0\8 10\439 3\234
1\9 0\19 0\14 0\10 0\4 17\132 0\29 0\17 77.8 0\12 2\63 2\57 0\6 19\352 6\233
0\13 0\20 0\11 0\9 0\2 8\121 1\20 0\19 64.7 0\10 1\56 1\48 0\8 10\323 8\295
0\16 0\26 0\15 0\7 0\8 8\179 0\29 0\16 50 0\12 0\81 0\71 0\10 8\432 4\229
1\10 0\19 0\23 0\18 0\5 5\130 1\18 0\18 75 0\20 1\80 1\73 0\7 6\373 4\185
3\104 0\190 0 0 0\35 113\1397 4\219 0\147 640.7\9 0 12\656 10\600 0\56 128\3522 57\1985
2.88 0 0 0 0 8.09 1.83 0 71.19 0 1.83 1.67 0 3.63 2.87

222
 0\18 1\17 1\7 1\6 0\1 0\145 1\28 0\10 0 1\5 1\58 1\54 0\4 4\321 0\261
0\11 0\18 0\13 0\10 0\3 0\195 1\24 0\14 0 0\10 1\88 0\81 1\7 12\456 5\202
0\10 0\23 2\32 2\26 0\6 0\270 2\24 0\13 0 1\28 5\139 4\128 1\11 14\705 0\138
0\39 1\58 3\52 3\42 0\10 0\610 4\76 0\37 0 2\43 7\285 5\263 2\22 28\1482 5\901
0 1.72 5.77 7.14 0 0 5.26 0 0 4.65 2.46 1.9 9.09 1.89 0.55

1\9 0\19 0\14 0\10 0\4 15\132 0\29 0\17 55.9 0\12 3\63 3\57 0\6 20\352 21\233
1\13 0\20 0\11 0\9 0\2 8\121 2\20 0\19 100 0\10 4\56 3\48 1\8 15\323 17\295
1\16 3\26 0\15 0\7 0\8 19\179 0\29 2\16 63.6 0\12 2\81 2\71 0\10 24\432 18\229
3\38 3\65 0 0 0\14 42\432 2\78 2\52 219.5\3 0 9\524 8\176 1\24 59\1107 56\757
7.89 4.62 0 0 0 9.72 2.56 3.85 73.17 0 1.72 4.55 4.17 5.33 7.4

1\18 1\17 0\7 0\6 0\1 15\145 1\28 1\10 76 0\5 4\58 4\54 0\4 23\321 22\261
0\6 1\22 3\11 3\8 0\3 10\154 0\25 1\15 88.9 3\9 3\69 3\67 0\2 19\363 14\162
0\8 0\26 2\17 1\14 1\3 19\172 0\23 0\20 91.3 2\16 4\78 4\74 0\4 31\463 15\184
0\11 0\18 1\13 0\10 1\3 11\195 0\24 0\14 84.6 1\10 5\88 5\81 0\7 20\456 6\202
1\10 1\23 3\32 2\26 1\6 30\270 0\24 1\13 86.5 2\28 6\139 6\128 0\11 50\705 9\138
0\11 0\30 1\16 1\8 0\8 7\169 0\35 0\26 69.2 1\15 5\82 3\73 2\9 18\435 17\255
1\13 0\23 3\17 3\11 0\6 7\169 1\23 0\18 77.8 3\13 5\83 5\75 0\8 22\439 15\234
0\9 1\19 1\14 1\10 0\4 6\132 2\29 1\17 100 1\12 4\63 4\57 0\6 15\352 12\233
1\13 1\20 0\11 0\9 0\2 17\121 0\20 1\19 86.2 0\10 1\56 1\48 0\8 20\323 21\295
1\16 0\26 1\15 0\7 1\8 11\179 1\29 0\16 89.5 1\12 4\81 3\71 1\10 21\432 20\229
1\10 2\19 0\23 0\18 0\5 12\130 0\18 2\18 81 0\20 3\80 3\73 0\7 27\373 13\185
6\120 7\243 15\176 11\127 4\49 145\1836 5\278 7\186 931\11 14\150 41\877 41\801 3\67 266\4662 164\2378
5 2.88 8.52 8.66 8.16 7.9 1.8 3.76 84.64 9.33 4.68 5.12 4.48 5.71 6.9

1\18 0\17 2\7 2\6 0\1 8\145 1\28 0\10 82.6 2\5 14\58 14\54 0\4 26\321 27\261
1\6 3\22 0\11 0\8 0\3 7\154 4\25 3\15 73.3 0\9 12\69 12\67 0\2 25\363 16\162
0\8 3\26 5\17 4\14 1\3 12\172 2\23 3\20 90 5\16 14\78 13\74 1\4 36\463 17\184
0\11 2\18 2\13 2\10 0\3 8\195 1\24 2\14 94.4 2\10 12\88 11\81 1\7 33\456 16\202
2\10 1\23 6\32 6\26 0\6 18\270 2\24 1\13 83.9 6\28 18\139 18\128 0\11 49\705 19\138
3\11 3\30 0\16 0\8 0\8 12\169 5\35 3\26 85.2 0\15 10\82 10\73 0\9 31\435 28\255
2\13 0\23 0\17 0\11 0\6 7\169 0\23 0\18 81.3 0\13 6\83 5\75 1\8 14\439 16\234
2\9 0\19 0\14 0\10 0\4 10\132 1\29 0\17 68 0\12 6\63 5\57 1\6 28\352 27\233
1\13 1\20 2\11 2\9 0\2 11\121 3\20 0\19 82.8 2\10 9\56 7\48 2\8 27\323 38\295
1\16 1\26 2\15 2\7 0\8 17\179 0\29 1\16 78.6 2\12 8\81 6\71 2\10 31\432 18\229
1\10 0\19 6\23 4\18 2\5 3\130 2\18 0\18 72.7 6\20 15\80 13\73 2\7 28\373 17\185
14\120 14\243 25\176 22\127 3\49 113\1836 21\278 13\186 892.8/11 25\150 124\877 114\801 10\67 328\4662 239\2378
11.67 5.76 14.2 17.32 6.12 6.15 7.55 6.99 81.16 16.67 14.14 14.23 14.93 7.04 10.05

223
 1\18 2\17 0\7 0\6 0\1 1\145 3\28 0\10 100 0\5 1\58 1\54 0\4 20\321 13\261
1\6 4\22 0\11 0\8 0\3 3\154 3\25 1\15 75 0\9 1\69 1\67 0\2 23\363 9\162
1\8 4\26 0\17 0\14 0\3 1\172 3\23 1\20 50 0\16 1\78 1\74 0\4 44\463 10\184
0\11 5\18 1\13 0\10 1\3 5\195 3\24 2\14 100 0\10 7\88 6\81 1\7 35\456 12\202
1\10 3\23 0\32 0\26 0\6 2\270 2\24 0\13 66.7 0\28 6\139 6\128 0\11 55\705 11\138
1\11 2\30 1\16 1\8 0\8 6\169 9\35 0\26 75 1\15 3\82 3\73 0\9 41\435 14\255
0\13 5\23 0\17 0\11 0\6 4\169 2\23 2\18 100 0\13 5\83 4\75 1\8 46\439 18\234
1\9 2\19 2\14 1\10 1\4 2\132 5\29 1\17 66.7 1\12 5\63 4\57 1\6 26\352 4\233
0\13 2\20 0\11 0\9 0\2 0\121 3\20 2\19 66.7 0\10 1\56 1\48 0\8 23\323 13\295
1\16 3\26 0\15 0\7 0\8 6\179 5\29 1\16 70 0\12 2\81 2\71 0\10 25\432 6\229
1\10 5\19 1\23 1\18 0\5 2\130 1\18 2\18 75 1\20 2\80 1\73 1\7 32\373 15\185
8\120 37\243 5\176 3\127 2\49 32\1836 39\278 12\186 845.1\11 3\150 34\877 30\801 4\76 370\4662 125\2378
6.67 15.23 2.84 2.36 4.08 1.74 14.03 6.45 76.83 2 3.88 3.75 5.26 7.94 5.26

0\18 2\17 0\7 0\6 0\1 4\145 2\28 0\10 80 0\5 4\58 4\58 0\4 13\321 8\261
1\6 4\22 2\11 1\8 1\3 2\154 5\25 1\15 83.3 1\9 5\69 4\67 1\2 21\363 2\162
0\8 2\26 0\17 0\14 0\3 2\172 5\23 1\20 75 0\16 4\78 4\74 0\4 16\463 1\184
1\11 2\18 0\13 0\10 0\3 8\195 3\24 2\14 90.9 0\10 4\88 4\81 0\7 21\456 4\202
2\10 1\23 1\32 1\26 0\6 5\270 5\24 0\13 85.7 1\28 7\139 6\128 1\11 28\705 6\138
1\11 4\30 1\16 0\8 1\8 3\169 5\35 3\26 83.3 1\15 5\82 5\73 0\9 24\435 12\255
2\13 4\23 3\17 1\11 2\6 5\169 5\23 3\18 80 2\13 8\83 7\75 1\8 27\439 10\234
0\9 0\19 1\14 0\10 0\4 5\132 3\29 0\17 100 1\12 3\63 3\57 0\6 15\352 9\233
2\13 1\20 1\11 1\9 0\2 4\121 3\20 0\19 83.3 1\10 4\56 4\48 0\8 13\323 13\295
1\16 2\26 2\15 0\7 2\8 2\179 3\29 1\16 100 2\12 2\81 2\71 0\10 12\432 4\229
10\115 22\224 11\153 4\109 6\44 40\1706 39\260 11\168 861.5\10 9\130 46\797 43\732 3\69 190\4289 69\2193
8.7 9.82 7.19 3.67 13.64 2.34 15 6.55 86.15 6.92 5.77 5.87 4.35 4.43 3.15

1\18 2\17 1\7 0\6 1\1 5\145 3\28 2\10 55.6 0\5 4\58 3\54 1\4 10\321 8\261
0\8 0\26 1\17 1\14 0\3 4\172 2\23 0\20 71.4 1\16 3\78 3\74 0\4 11\463 8\184
1\11 0\18 1\13 1\10 0\3 16\195 0\24 0\14 95.2 1\10 8\88 8\81 0\7 31\456 7\202
1\10 3\23 2\32 2\26 0\6 18\270 2\24 1\13 82.6 2\28 11\139 11\128 0\11 45\705 6\138
0\11 1\30 3\16 1\8 2\8 7\169 0\35 1\26 84.6 3\15 7\82 7\73 0\9 28\435 16\255
1\13 0\23 1\17 1\11 0\6 11\169 0\23 0\18 83.3 1\13 4\83 3\75 1\8 22\439 21\234
0\9 1\19 1\14 0\10 1\4 3\132 0\29 1\17 100 1\12 2\63 2\57 0\6 9\352 3\233
1\13 2\20 0\11 0\9 0\2 4\121 1\20 2\19 71.4 0\10 3\56 3\48 0\8 12\323 12\295
0\16 1\26 1\15 0\7 1\8 8\179 1\29 1\16 80 1\12 5\81 4\71 1\10 16\432 7\229
0\10 0\19 3\23 3\18 0\5 2\130 1\18 0\18 83.3 3\20 8\80 8\73 0\7 15\373 12\185
5\119 10\221 14\165 9\119 5\46 78\1682 10\253 8\171 807.4\10 13\141 55\808 52\734 3\74 199\4299 100\2216
4.2 4.52 8.48 7.56 10.87 4.64 3.95 4.68 80.74 9.22 6.81 7.08 4.05 4.63 4.51

224
 0\11 7\23 1\8 0\6 1\2 4\250 2\27 3\17 87.5 1\7 6\116 4\96 2\20 31\527 12\141
0\7 1\22 0\8 0\7 0\1 4\214 2\28 1\20 100 0\6 3\87 3\83 0\4 27\471 12\168
0\5 5\34 1\11 1\9 0\2 2\214 0\32 0\29 66.7 1\11 2\79 2\68 0\11 25\452 11\215
0\13 3\22 0\11 0\10 0\1 0\205 2\26 2\14 100 0\10 1\79 1\66 0\13 14\408 13\324
0\36 16\101 2\38 1\32 1\6 10\883 6\113 6\80 354.2\4 2\34 12\361 10\313 2\48 97\1858 46\848
0 15.84 5.26 3.13 16.67 1.13 5.31 7.5 88.55 5.88 3.32 3.19 4.17 5.22 5.42

0\11 1\23 0\8 0\6 0\2 21\250 0\27 1\17 68.6 0\7 5\116 3\96 2\20 26\527 7\141
0\7 1\22 0\8 0\7 0\1 15\214 0\28 5\20 81 0\6 4\87 4\83 0\4 19\471 9\168
1\5 1\34 0\11 0\9 0\2 6\214 0\32 4\29 80 0\11 0\79 0\68 0\11 8\452 7\215
1\13 0\22 1\11 1\10 0\1 22\205 1\26 2\14 63.6 0\10 3\79 3\66 0\13 28\408 12\324
0\12 0\20 0\6 0\6 0\0 7\175 0\25 5\21 78.6 0\6 1\74 1\67 0\7 9\388 15\231
0\6 0\19 0\14 0\12 0\2 16\242 0\27 0\15 75 0\13 5\103 4\93 1\10 27\503 2\136
0\14 0\18 0\12 0\11 0\1 9\160 0\30 6\17 59.1 0\11 1\88 1\77 0\11 11\400 10\232
0\8 0\26 0\10 0\8 0\2 11\164 0\26 2\25 59.1 0\9 2\68 2\64 0\4 15\389 4\184
0\13 0\20 0\14 0\12 0\2 18\189 0\29 1\14 66.7 0\11 4\76 4\70 0\6 23\406 10\181
1\11 0\16 0\5 0\5 0\0 14\212 0\21 1\16 78.9 0\2 1\74 1\68 0\6 17\442 11\213
1\10 0\13 0\13 0\11 0\2 11\158 0\22 0\15 73.7 0\11 7\77 7\74 0\3 21\360 10\200
4\110 3\233 1\112 1\97 0\15 150\2183 1\293 27\203 784.3\11 0 33\921 30\826 3\95 204\4746 97\2225
3.64 1.29 0.89 1.03 0 6.87 0.34 13.3 71.3 0 3.58 3.63 3.16 4.3 4.36

0\7 0\22 0\8 0\7 0\1 0\214 1\28 0\20 0 0\6 0\87 0\83 0\4 1\471 2\168
1\12 1\20 1\6 1\6 0\0 0\175 0\25 0\21 100 1\6 2\74 2\67 0\7 23\388 2\231
0\10 1\13 0\13 0\11 0\2 0\158 1\22 1\15 50 0\11 3\77 3\74 0\3 12\360 4\200
1\29 2\52 1\27 1\24 0\3 0\547 2\75 1\56 150\3 1\23 5\238 5\224 0\14 36\1219 8\599
3.45 3.85 3.7 4.17 0 0 2.67 1.79 50 4.35 2.1 2.23 0 2.95 1.34

1\11 2\23 0\8 0\6 0\2 5\250 8\27 2\17 75 0\7 9\116 8\96 1\20 24\527 4\141
0\7 5\22 0\8 0\7 0\1 6\214 10\28 3\20 100 0\6 9\87 8\83 1\4 30\471 8\168
0\5 6\34 1\11 1\9 0\2 5\214 9\32 5\29 80 1\11 10\79 8\68 2\11 27\452 3\215
0\13 1\22 1\11 1\10 0\1 5\205 4\26 0\14 85.7 1\10 3\79 3\66 0\13 12\408 8\324
1\12 2\20 0\6 0\6 0\0 5\175 5\25 1\21 85.7 0\6 6\74 5\67 1\7 17\388 8\231
0\6 2\19 3\14 2\12 1\2 5\242 7\27 1\15 87.5 3\13 10\103 7\93 3\10 23\503 4\136
0\14 0\18 1\12 1\11 0\1 8\160 4\30 0\17 81.8 1\11 11\88 10\77 1\11 32\400 7\232
0\8 5\26 0\10 0\8 0\2 6\164 5\26 2\25 70 0\9 7\68 7\64 0\4 25\389 5\184
0\13 5\20 1\14 1\12 0\2 6\189 8\29 3\14 80 1\11 5\76 4\70 1\6 21\406 7\181
0\11 2\16 0\5 0\5 0\0 3\212 5\21 1\16 57.1 0\2 7\74 7\68 0\6 22\442 3\213
0\10 0\13 0\13 0\11 0\2 6\158 3\22 0\15 88.9 0\11 4\77 4\74 0\3 16\360 8\200
2\110 30\233 7\112 6\97 1\15 60\2183 68\293 18\203 891.7\11 7\97 81\921 71\826 10\75 249\4746 65\2225
1.82 12.88 6.25 6.19 6.67 2.75 23.21 8.87 81.06 7.22 8.79 8.6 10.53 5.25 2.92

225
0\11 2\23 0\8 0\6 0\2 7\250 0\27 2\17 64.3 0\7 3\116 3\96 0\20 13\527 3\141
0\7 1\22 2\8 1\7 1\1 1\214 0\28 1\20 66.7 1\6 5\87 4\83 1\4 9\471 5\168
2\6 0\19 0\14 0\12 0\2 13\242 1\27 0\15 100 0\13 3\103 3\93 0\10 18\503 13\136
2\14 0\18 0\12 0\11 0\1 5\160 1\30 0\17 92.3 0\11 2\88 2\77 0\11 13\400 18\232
0\8 0\26 0\10 0\8 0\2 2\164 0\26 0\25 75 0\9 1\68 1\64 0\4 5\389 9\184
1\13 0\20 1\14 1\12 0\2 3\189 1\29 0\14 66.7 0\11 4\76 3\70 1\6 11\406 4\181
0\11 1\16 1\5 1\5 0\0 4\212 0\21 1\16 66.7 0\2 4\74 4\68 0\6 14\442 8\213
2\10 0\13 1\13 1\11 0\2 3\158 2\22 0\15 100 1\11 3\77 3\74 0\3 13\360 6\200
7\80 4\157 5\84 4\72 1\12 38\1589 5\210 4\139 631.7\8 2\70 25\689 23\625 2\64 96\3498 66\1455
8.75 2.55 5.95 5.56 8.33 2.39 2.38 2.88 78.96 2.86 3.63 3.68 3.13 2.74 4.54

0\6 3\19 1\14 1\12 0\2 3\242 0\27 2\15 100 0\13 3\103 3\93 0\10 27\503 9\136
0\14 0\18 1\12 1\11 0\1 3\160 0\30 0\17 80 1\11 2\88 2\77 0\11 23\400 20\232
0\8 3\26 0\10 0\8 0\2 1\164 1\26 2\25 66.7 0\9 1\68 1\64 0\4 22\389 17\184
1\13 0\20 0\14 0\12 0\2 1\189 2\29 0\14 50 0\11 3\76 2\70 1\6 23\406 17\181
0\11 2\16 0\5 0\5 0\0 3\212 2\21 1\16 66.7 0\2 2\74 2\68 0\6 24\442 19\213
0\10 1\13 2\13 2\11 0\2 5\158 1\22 1\15 60 1\11 3\77 2\74 1\3 28\360 14\200
1\62 9\112 4\68 4\59 0\9 16\1125 6\155 6\102 423.4/6 2\57 14\486 12\446 2\40 147\2500 96\1146
1.61 8.04 5.88 6.78 0 1.42 3.87 5.88 70.57 3.51 2.88 2.69 5 5.88 8.38

0\11 0\23 0\8 0\6 0\2 5\250 1\27 0\17 71.4 0\7 6\116 6\96 0\20 13\527 8\141
1\7 3\22 0\8 0\6 0\1 13\214 2\28 3\20 90 0\6 4\87 4\83 0\4 18\471 12\168
0\5 0\34 0\11 0\9 0\2 7\214 0\32 0\29 66.7 0\11 0\79 0\68 0\11 7\452 11\215
1\6 0\19 0\14 0\12 0\2 30\242 2\27 1\15 92.9 0\13 9\103 9\93 0\10 41\503 19\136
0\14 2\18 1\12 1\11 0\1 16\160 1\30 2\17 83.3 1\11 10\88 9\77 1\11 28\400 19\232
0\8 1\26 1\10 0\8 1\2 15\164 1\26 2\25 91.7 1\9 5\68 5\64 0\4 22\389 21\184
0\13 0\20 1\14 1\12 0\2 11\189 2\29 0\14 71.4 1\11 5\76 5\70 0\6 21\406 17\181
1\11 1\16 0\13 0\5 0\0 25\212 0\21 2\16 84.2 0\2 6\74 5\68 1\6 33\442 25\213
0\10 1\13 0\13 0\11 0\2 14\158 0\22 2\15 78.6 0\11 3\77 3\74 0\3 19\360 18\200
3\85 8\191 3\103 2\80 1\14 136\1803 9\242 12\168 730.2\9 3\81 48\768 46\693 2\75 202\3950 150\1670
3.53 4.19 2.91 2.5 7.14 7.54 3.72 7.14 81.13 3.7 6.25 6.64 2.67 5.11 8.98

1\5 0\34 2\11 1\9 1\2 3\214 3\32 0\29 50 2\11 4\79 3\68 1\11 14\452 6\215
20 0 18.18 11.11 50 1.4 9.38 0 50 18.18 5.06 4.41 9.09 3.1 2.79

0\5 0\34 0\11 0\9 0\2 1\214 0\32 1\29 100 0\11 1\79 1\68 0\11 3\452 2\215
1\12 0\20 0\6 0\6 0\0 3\175 0\25 0\21 60 0\6 1\74 1\67 0\7 8\388 3\231
0\10 1\13 0\13 0\11 0\2 1\158 1\22 1\15 50 0\11 1\77 1\74 0\3 5\360 3\200
1\27 1\67 0 0 0\4 5\547 1\79 2\65 210\3 0 3\230 3\209 0\21 16\1200 8\646
3.7 1.49 0 0 0 0.91 1.27 3.08 70 0 1.3 1.44 0 1.33 1.24

226
 0\11 0\23 0\8 0\6 0\2 2\250 0\27 0\17 76.9 0\7 1\116 0\96 1\20 3\527 1\141
0\5 2\34 2\11 1\9 1\2 7\214 5\32 2\29 71.4 2\11 2\79 2\68 0\11 18\452 10\215
0\13 3\22 1\11 1\10 0\1 2\205 1\26 2\14 50 1\10 4\79 2\66 2\13 12\408 10\324
0\12 1\20 0\6 0\6 0\0 4\175 0\26 0\21 83.3 0\6 2\74 2\67 0\7 7\388 9\231
0\6 0\19 1\14 1\12 0\2 5\242 1\27 0\15 55.6 1\13 8\103 7\93 1\10 15\503 5\136
0\14 2\18 1\12 1\11 0\1 3\160 4\30 1\17 62.5 1\11 4\88 4\77 0\11 10\400 9\232
1\8 0\26 1\10 1\8 0\2 2\164 2\26 0\25 80 1\9 3\68 2\64 1\4 9\389 9\184
1\13 0\20 1\14 1\12 0\2 2\189 1\29 0\14 50 1\11 5\76 4\70 1\6 13\406 5\181
1\11 0\16 3\5 3\5 0\0 1\212 2\21 0\16 66.7 2\2 5\74 4\68 1\6 12\442 6\213
0\10 0\13 0\13 0\11 0\2 2\158 0\22 0\15 40 0\11 4\77 3\74 1\3 8\360 2\200
3\103 8\211 10\104 9\90 1\14 30\1969 16\266 5\183 636.4\10 9\91 38\834 30\743 8\91 107\4275 66\2057
2.91 3.79 9.62 10 7.14 1.52 6.02 2.73 63.64 9.89 4.56 4.04 8.79 2.5 3.21

4\11 0\23 0\8 0\6 0\2 39\250 2\27 0\17 67.9 0\7 2\116 1\96 1\20 44\527 16\141
0\7 0\22 0\8 0\7 0\1 11\214 0\28 0\20 82.4 0\6 1\87 1\83 0\4 12\471 4\168
0\5 1\34 1\11 1\9 0\2 27\214 0\32 1\29 71.1 1\11 1\79 1\68 0\11 30\452 3\215
0\12 1\20 0\6 0\6 0\0 18\175 0\25 1\21 88 0\6 2\74 2\67 0\7 21\388 5\231
0\6 1\19 0\14 0\12 0\2 22\242 1\27 1\15 74.2 0\13 4\103 4\93 0\10 28\503 5\136
2\14 0\18 0\12 0\11 0\1 10\160 3\30 0\17 81.8 0\11 0\88 0\77 0\11 14\400 14\232
0\8 0\26 0\10 0\8 0\2 13\164 1\26 1\25 66.7 0\9 0\68 0\64 0\4 16\389 7\184
0\13 0\20 0\14 0\12 0\2 18\189 0\29 0\14 71.9 0\11 0\76 0\70 0\6 18\406 10\181
0\11 1\16 0\5 0\5 0\0 8\212 1\21 2\16 73.3 0\2 2\74 2\68 0\6 11\442 10\213
0\10 0\13 0\13 0\11 0\2 16\158 1\22 1\15 75 0\11 3\77 3\74 0\3 19\360 4\200
6\97 4\211 1\101 1\87 0\14 182\1978 9\267 7\189 752.3\10 1\87 15\842 14\760 1\82 213\4338 78\1901
6.19 1.9 0.99 1.15 0 9.2 3.37 3.7 75.23 1.15 1.78 1.84 1.22 4.91 4.1

0\11 0\23 0\8 0\6 0\2 1\250 5\27 0\17 50 0\7 4\116 4\96 0\20 11\527 2\141
1\7 2\22 0\8 0\7 0\1 6\214 1\28 0\20 77.8 0\6 4\87 4\83 0\4 15\471 8\168
0\5 2\34 0\11 0\9 0\2 6\214 1\32 2\29 88.9 0\11 5\79 5\68 0\11 19\452 6\215
1\13 0\22 2\11 1\10 1\1 1\205 2\26 0\14 66.7 2\10 3\79 3\66 0\13 9\408 19\324
2\12 3\20 0\6 0\6 0\0 4\175 3\25 2\21 85.7 0\6 6\74 6\67 0\7 15\388 22\231
0\6 1\19 0\14 0\12 0\2 3\242 1\27 1\15 100 0\13 4\103 4\93 0\10 9\503 2\136
1\14 2\18 0\12 0\11 0\1 2\160 6\30 2\17 100 0\11 3\88 3\77 0\11 13\400 13\232
1\8 6\26 1\10 1\8 0\2 4\164 3\26 5\25 100 1\9 1\68 1\64 0\4 12\389 9\184
2\13 1\20 0\14 0\12 0\2 5\189 7\29 0\14 57.1 0\11 2\76 2\70 0\6 14\406 7\181
2\11 2\16 0\5 0\5 0\0 2\212 3\21 1\16 83.3 0\2 6\74 6\68 0\6 14\442 7\213
1\10 1\13 0\13 0\11 0\2 1\158 3\22 0\15 71.4 0\11 3\77 3\74 0\3 6\360 9\200
11\110 20\233 3\112 2\97 1\15 35\2183 35\293 13\203 880.9\11 3\97 41\921 41\826 0\95 137\4746 104\2225
10 8.58 2.68 2.02 6.67 1.6 11.95 6.4 80.08 3.09 4.45 4.96 0 2.89 4.67

227
 0\11 2\23 2\8 2\6 0\2 7\250 1\27 2\17 76.9 2\7 16\116 15\96 1\20 29\527 2\141
0\7 0\22 0\8 0\7 0\1 7\214 0\28 1\20 70 0\6 2\87 2\83 0\4 12\471 6\168
0\5 0\34 0\11 0\9 0\2 5\214 0\32 0\29 70 0\11 2\79 2\68 0\11 8\452 7\215
0\13 1\22 0\11 0\10 0\1 13\205 1\26 1\14 70 0\10 7\79 6\66 1\13 20\408 14\324
0\12 0\20 0\6 0\6 0\0 3\175 0\25 0\21 50 0\6 4\74 4\67 0\7 7\388 7\231
0\6 0\16 0\14 0\12 0\2 8\242 0\27 0\15 100 0\13 1\103 1\93 0\10 10\503 4\136
0\14 1\18 0\12 0\11 0\1 5\160 1\30 1\17 70 0\11 4\88 4\77 0\11 9\400 8\232
0\8 0\26 0\10 0\8 0\2 9\164 0\26 1\25 83.3 0\9 3\68 3\64 0\4 12\389 3\184
0\13 0\20 0\14 0\12 0\2 3\189 1\29 0\14 50 0\11 3\76 3\70 0\6 6\406 1\181
0\11 0\16 0\5 0\5 0\0 18\212 0\21 0\16 80 0\2 2\74 2\68 0\6 23\442 7\213
1\10 2\13 1\13 1\11 0\2 5\158 1\22 2\15 87.5 1\11 2\77 2\74 0\3 8\360 8\200
1\110 6\233 3\112 3\97 0\15 83\2183 5\293 8\203 807.7/11 3\97 46\921 44\826 2\95 144\4746 67\2225
0.91 2.58 2.68 3.09 0 3.8 1.71 3.94 73.43 3.09 4.99 5.33 2.11 3.03 3.01

2\11 5\23 1\8 1\6 0\2 0\250 4\27 3\17 50 1\7 7\116 5\96 2\20 83\527 7\141
0\7 3\22 1\8 1\7 0\1 0\214 4\28 1\20 60 0\6 3\87 3\83 0\4 76\471 11\168
0\5 5\34 0\11 0\9 0\2 0\214 5\32 2\29 66.7 0\11 8\79 7\68 1\11 64\452 18\215
2\13 5\22 2\11 2\10 0\1 0\205 1\26 1\14 66.7 2\10 6\79 5\66 1\13 54\408 12\324
1\12 1\20 2\6 2\6 0\0 0\175 3\25 0\21 50 2\6 4\74 4\67 0\7 52\388 7\231
1\6 2\19 2\14 2\12 0\2 1\242 2\27 1\15 100 2\13 4\103 3\93 1\10 83\503 5\136
1\14 6\18 4\12 4\11 0\1 0\160 3\30 2\17 100 4\11 8\88 7\77 1\11 67\400 9\232
1\8 4\26 2\10 2\8 0\2 0\164 8\26 3\25 0 2\9 4\68 4\64 0\4 61\389 11\184
2\13 7\20 2\14 0\12 2\2 1\189 1\29 3\14 60 1\11 2\76 2\70 0\6 59\406 13\181
1\11 1\16 0\5 0\5 0\0 1\212 4\21 1\16 50 0\2 3\74 2\68 1\6 66\442 12\213
1\10 1\13 1\13 1\11 0\2 2\158 1\22 1\15 50 1\11 3\77 2\74 1\3 41\360 11\200
10\110 40\233 17\112 15\97 2\15 5\2183 36\293 18\203 653.4\11 15\97 52\921 44\826 8\95 706\4746 116\2225
9.09 17.17 15.18 15.46 1.33 2.29 12.29 8.87 59.4 15.46 5.65 5.33 8.42 14.88 5.21

0\11 0\23 0\8 0\6 0\2 31\250 0\27 0\17 75.6 0\7 11\116 8\96 3\20 50\527 6\141
0\5 2\34 0\11 0\9 0\2 20\214 2\32 2\29 71.9 0\11 6\79 6\68 0\11 38\452 16\215
1\13 0\22 0\11 0\10 0\1 26\205 3\26 0\14 82.4 0\10 5\79 4\66 1\13 35\408 28\324
1\12 1\20 1\6 1\6 0\0 16\175 2\25 2\21 75 1\6 5\74 4\67 1\7 28\388 17\231
0\6 0\19 1\14 1\12 0\2 29\242 3\27 0\15 84.2 1\13 5\103 3\93 2\10 41\503 13\136
0\14 1\18 0\12 0\11 0\1 27\160 3\30 0\17 86.1 0\11 6\88 5\77 1\11 37\400 8\232
3\8 0\26 0\10 0\8 0\2 17\164 3\26 0\25 90.5 0\9 8\68 8\64 0\4 32\389 11\184
1\13 1\20 0\14 0\12 0\2 16\189 2\29 1\14 76 0\11 2\76 2\70 0\6 23\406 17\181
1\11 0\16 0\5 0\5 0\0 20\212 4\21 0\16 76.7 0\2 5\74 5\68 0\6 33\442 17\213
0\10 1\13 0\13 0\11 0\2 19\158 5\22 1\15 92 0\11 5\77 5\74 0\3 28\360 10\200
4\103 6\211 2\107 2\90 0\14 221\1969 27\265 6\183 810.4\10 2\91 58\834 50\743 7\97 310\4275 143\2057
3.88 2.84 1.87 2.22 0 11.22 10.19 3.28 81.04 2.2 6.95 6.73 7.22 7.25 6.95

228
SEASON 2
Reaction Time
Line Tackle Tacle per Tacles Tackles Turnover Defender kick
PLAYERS GROUP Min Breaks Breaks min missed made forced beaten work rate pressure

A 1 54 0\7 0\4 0.2/0.5 0\12 2\90 0\9 0\4 0.09\0.38 0\20

80 0\2 0\2 0.2/0.6 0\27 4\133 0\13 0\2 0.23\0.47 1\25
80 0\3 1\5 0.3/0.7 0\32 6\171 1\14 1\5 0.3\0.54 0\20
TOTAAL 214 0 1\11 0.7\1.8 0 12\394 1\36 1\11 0.62\1.39 1\65
% 214 0 9.09 38.89 0 3.05 2.78 9.09 44.6 1.54

B 1 80 2\7 0\4 0.9/0.5 1\12 13\90 1\9 0\4 0.57\0.38 2\20

80 0\5 1\8 1.2/0.7 4\24 12\111 4\15 1\8 0.7\0.46 1\12
19 0\7 0\3 1.2/0.6 1\28 3\98 2\13 0\3 0.84\0.49 0\14
80 1\8 1\5 1/0.7 2\45 18\176 0\20 1\5 0.81\0.56 2\12
80 1\2 0\2 1.2/0.6 2\27 17\133 2\13 0\2 0.61\0.47 3\25
80 0\3 0\5 1/0.7 1\32 19\171 0\14 0\5 0.81\0.54 3\20
50 0\10 0\7 1.2/0.5 3\23 11\117 0\10 0\7 0.88\0.7 4\34
51 0\6 1\2 1.3/0.6 4\25 9\105 0\14 1\2 0.67\0.47 2\18
80 0\11 0\2 1.2/0.5 3\23 17\108 3\21 0\2 0.76\0.5 2\18
80 0\16 2\11 0.9/0.6 0\20 12\113 4\15 2\11 0.69\0.52 2\10
80 0\12 0\6 1.3/0.6 2\33 19\121 2\16 0\6 0.64\0.41 2\14
65 0\5 0\4 1.1/0.4 1\14 14\96 0\7 0\4 0.61\0.43 1\29
TOTAAL 825 4\92 5\59 11.5\7 24\306 164\1439 18\167 5\59 8.59\5.93 24\226
% 825 4.35 8.47 164.29 7.84 11.4 10.78 8.47 144.86 10.62

C 1 48 0\7 0\4 0.6/0.5 1\12 5\90 0\9 0\4 0.35\0.38 2\20

47 0\2 0\2 0.9/0.6 2\27 8\133 1\13 0\2 0.55\0.47 0\25
71 0\10 0\7 0.4/0.5 1\23 5\117 0\10 0\7 0.69\0.7 0\34
80 0\6 0\2 0.4/0.6 1\25 6\105 1\14 0\2 0.44\0.47 1\18
52 0\11 0\8 0.6/0.6 1\31 5\127 2\16 0\8 0.4\0.5 0\26
20 0\11 0\2 0.2/0.5 0\23 1\108 0\21 0\2 0.25\0.5 0\18
TOTAAL 318 0 0 3.1\3.3 6\141 30\680 4\83 0\25 2.68\3.02 3\141
% 318 0 0 93.94 4.26 4.41 4.82 0 88.74 2.13

D 1 80 0\7 0\4 0.5/0.5 2\12 5\90 0\9 0\4 0.31\0.38 2\20

80 0\5 0\8 0.5/0.7 2\24 5\111 1\15 0\8 0.49\0.46 1\12
69 0\8 0\5 0.6/0.7 2\45 9\176 1\20 0\5 0.52\0.56 1\12

229
 33 0\3 0\5 0.6/0.7 1\32 4\171 0\14 0\5 0.28\0.54 0\20
TOTAAL 262 0 0 2.2\2.6 7\113 23\548 2\58 0\22 1.6\1.94 4\64
% 262 0 0 84.62 6.19 4.2 3.45 0 82.47 6.25

E 1 48 0\7 0\4 0.4/0.5 2\12 2\90 0\9 0\4 0.23\0.38 0\20

80 0\5 0\8 0.9/0.7 1\24 11\111 0\15 0\8 0.47\0.46 0\12
48 0\7 0\3 0.3/0.6 0\28 3\98 0\13 0\3 0.48\0.49 1\14
47 0\8 0\5 0.7/0.7 1\45 8\176 1\20 0\5 0.49\0.56 0\12
37 0\2 0\2 0.6/0.6 0\27 5\133 2\13 0\2 0.46\0.47 1\25
64 0\11 0\2 0.7/0.5 1\23 8\108 0\21 0\2 0.41\0.5 0\18
80 1\16 0\11 1.3/0.6 2\20 16\113 2\15 0\11 0.65\0.52 1\10
80 0\12 0\6 1.0/0.6 3\33 13\121 0\16 0\6 0.53\0.41 2\14
80 1\5 0\4 0.6/0.4 2\14 8\96 0\7 0\4 0.46\0.43 1\29
TOTAAL 564 2\73 0 6.5\5.2 12\226 74\1046 5\129 0\45 4.18\4.22 6\154
% 564 2.74 0 125 5.31 7.07 3.88 0 99.05 3.9

F 1 80 1\7 2\4 0.7/0.5 1\12 10\90 0\9 2\4 0.45\0.38 3\20

80 0\7 0\3 0.7/0.6 1\24 8\98 0\13 0\3 0.33\0.49 1\14
20 0\2 0\2 1.2/0.6 2\27 3\133 1\13 0\2 0.4\0.47 0\25
80 0\10 0\7 0.5/0.5 0\23 9\117 0\14 0\7 0.55\0.7 3\34
80 0\6 0\2 0.6/0.6 1\25 9\105 1\14 0\2 0.31\0.47 1\18
80 0\11 0\8 0.6/0.6 1\31 10\127 2\16 0\8 0.41\0.5 0\26
53 0\12 3\6 1.0/0.6 2\33 7\121 1\16 3\6 0.49\0.41 0\14
80 1\5 0\4 0.5/0.4 0\14 9\96 0\7 0\4 0.39\0.43 3\29
TOTAAL 553 2\60 5\36 5.8\4.4 8\189 65\887 5\102 5\36 3.33\3.85 11\180
% 553 3.33 13.89 131.82 4.23 7.33 4.9 13.89 86.49 6.11

G 1 80 1\7 0\4 0.8/0.5 2\12 10\90 0\9 0\4 0.47\0.38 2\20

80 1\7 0\3 0.7/0.6 0\24 11\98 1\13 0\3 0.64\0.49 0\14
80 0\8 1\5 1.4/0.7 7\45 22\176 4\20 1\5 0.79\0.56 1\12
80 0\2 1\2 1.0\0.6 3\27 13\133 2\13 1\2 0.57\0.47 1\25
80 0\3 0\5 0.9/0.7 2\32 17\171 3\14 0\5 0.79\0.54 3\20
80 2\10 3\7 0.7/0.5 2\23 11\117 1\10 3\7 0.91\0.7 4\34
80 1\6 0\2 0.9/0.6 2\25 12\105 2\14 0\2 0.75\0.47 3\18
80 0\11 2\8 1.0/0.6 4\31 14\127 3\16 2\8 0.6\0.5 2\26
TOTAAL 640 5\54 7\36 7.4\4.8 22\219 110\1017 16\109 7\36 5.52\4.11 16\169
% 640 9.26 19.44 154.17 10.05 10.82 14.68 19.44 134.31 9.47

230
H 2 80 0\6 0\2 0.4/0.6 2\25 4\105 2\14 0\2 0.54\0.47 3\18
80 0\11 0\8 0.5/0.6 3\31 6\127 0\16 0\8 0.59\0.5 4\26
80 1\11 0\2 0.8/0.5 1\23 13\108 0\21 0\2 0.72\0.5 1\18
80 0\16 0\11 0.6/0.6 4\20 4\113 0\15 0\11 0.59\0.52 2\10
80 1\12 0\6 0.8/0.6 3\33 10\121 1\16 0\6 0.57\0.41 2\14
80 0\5 0\4 0.4/0.4 2\14 5\96 1\7 0\4 0.46\0.43 1\29
TOTAAL 480 2\61 0 3.5\3.3 15\146 42\670 4\89 0\33 3.47\2.83 13\115
% 480 3.28 0 106.06 10.27 6.27 4.49 0 122.61 11.3

I 2 47 0\3 0\5 0.1/0.7 0\32 1\171 1\14 0\5 0.32\0.54 0\20

80 0\10 1\7 0.1/0.5 0\23 1\117 0\10 1\7 0.38\0.7 1\34
80 2\6 0\2 0.1/0.6 0\25 2\105 2\14 0\2 0.36\0.47 0\18
80 2\11 1\8 0.2/0.6 0\31 3\127 1\16 1\8 0.39\0.5 1\26
80 0\11 0\2 0.2/0.5 1\23 3\108 4\21 0\2 0.26\0.5 1\18
80 1\16 1\11 0.3/0.6 1\20 3\113 1\15 1\11 0.36\0.52 0\10
80 0\12 1\6 0.5/0.6 2\33 6\121 0\16 1\6 0.29\0.41 1\14
80 0\5 0\4 0.3/0.4 0\14 5\96 0\7 0\4 0.41\0.43 1\29
TOTAAL 607 5\74 4\45 1.8\4.5 4\201 24\958 9\113 4\45 2.77\4.07 5\169
% 607 6.76 8.89 40 1.99 2.51 7.96 8.89 68.06 2.96

J 2 80 1\7 2\4 0.3/0.5 0\12 5\90 1\9 2\4 0.29\0.38 1\20

80 0\7 0\3 0.5/0.6 4\28 4\98 1\13 0\3 0.31\0.49 1\14
80 3\8 0\5 0.5/0.7 3\45 8\176 0\20 0\5 0.45\0.56 0\12
80 0\2 0\2 0.4/0.6 2\27 5\133 0\13 0\2 0.29\0.47 2\25
80 1\3 2\5 0.5/0.7 1\32 9\171 1\14 2\5 0.36\0.54 1\20
80 3\10 1\7 0.3/0.5 0\23 6\117 0\10 1\7 0.5\0.7 0\34
80 0\6 0\2 0.6/0.6 2\25 7\105 2\14 0\2 0.34\0.47 1\18
80 2\11 3\8 0.3/0.6 1\31 4\127 1\16 3\8 0.4\0.5 2\26
80 0\11 0\2 0.4/0.5 1\23 6\108 1\21 0\2 0.36\0.5 1\18
80 4\16 2\11 0.1/0.6 0\20 2\113 0\15 2\11 0.38\0.52 1\10
78 3\12 0\6 0.3/0.6 2\33 3\121 0\16 0\6 0.27\0.41 1\14
80 0\5 0\4 0.4/0.4 1\14 5\96 1\7 0\4 0.33\0.43 4\29
TOTAAL 958 17\98 10\59 4.6\6.9 17\313 64\1455 8\168 10\59 4.28\5.97 15\240
% 958 17.35 16.95 66.67 5.43 4.4 4.76 16.95 71.69 6.25

K 3 80 0\8 0\2 0.7/0.4 2\13 10\78 1\14 0\2 0.51\0.4 2\26

80 0\6 0\4 0.8/0.5 0\24 10\94 1\11 1\4 0.55\0.45 1\14
77 0\6 1\5 0.4/0.6 1\24 5\103 0\9 1\5 0.53\0.53 3\15
80 0\2 0\1 0.8/0.6 2\22 12\148 0\9 0\1 0.4\0.41 1\14

231
 66 0\2 0\2 0.6/0.6 0\23 10\143 0\11 0\2 0.56\0.5 0\13
80 0\9 0\9 0.7/0.7 2\26 10\156 1\11 0\9 0.51\0.48 1\26
54 0\1 0\5 0.7/0.7 0\40 10\135 2\11 0\5 0.62\0.47 2\28
TOTAAL 517 0 1\28 4.7\4.1 7\172 67\857 5\76 2\28 3.68\3.24 10\136
% 517 0 3.57 114.63 4.07 7.82 6.58 7.14 113.58 7.35

L 3 60 0\2 0\1 0.4/0.6 0\22 4\148 1\9 0\1 0.4\0.41 0\14

60 0\2 0\2 0.7/0.6 0\23 10\143 0\11 0\2 0.45\0.5 1\13
72 0\9 0\9 0.6/0.7 1\26 9\156 0\11 0\9 0.38\0.48 2\26
74 0\1 0\5 0.9/0.7 1\40 13\135 1\11 0\5 0.57\0.47 1\28
72 0\13 0\5 0.4/0.6 1\34 6\128 0\8 0\5 0.61\0.59 1\30
80 0\4 0\1 0.3/0.6 0\20 5\109 3\21 0\1 0.57\0.45 0\19
80 0\18 0\4 0.7/0.6 2\20 9\114 0\9 0\4 0.4\0.47 0\19
80 1\11 1\6 0.8/0.6 3\26 12\132 0\12 1\6 0.64\0.5 1\11
74 0\11 1\7 0.6/0.5 4\29 6\99 0\8 1\7 0.45\0.51 0\30
74 1\10 0\8 0.8/0.6 0\23 16\161 4\23 0\8 0.54\0.47 1\18
TOTAAL 726 2\81 2\48 6.2\6.1 12\263 90\1325 9\123 2\48 5.01\4.85 7\208
% 726 2.47 4.17 101.64 4.56 6.79 7.32 4.17 103.3 3.37

M 3 17 0\2 0\2 0.3/0.6 0\23 1\143 0\11 0\2 0.9\0.5 1\13

44 0\1 0\5 0.5/0.7 1\40 4\135 0\11 0\5 0.87\0.47 1\28
TOTAAL 61 0 0 0.8/1.3 1\63 5\278 0 0\7 1.77\0.97 2\41
% 61 0 0 61.54 1.59 1.8 0 0 182.47 4.88

N 3 80 0\8 0\2 0.1/0.4 0\13 1\78 1\14 0\2 0.25\0.4 0\26

80 0\6 0\4 0.4/0.5 1\24 5\94 3\11 0\4 0.35\0.45 0\14
77 0\6 0\5 0.4/0.6 2\24 3\103 0\9 0\5 0.32\0.53 0\15
80 0\2 0\1 0.2/0.6 0\22 3\148 1\9 0\1 0.24\0.41 1\14
80 0\2 0\2 0.3/0.6 0\23 4\143 0\11 0\2 0.33\0.5 1\13
80 1\9 0\9 0.3/0.7 0\26 5\156 1\11 0\9 0.35\0.48 1\26
80 0\1 0\5 0.7/0.7 3\40 8\135 1\11 0\5 0.31\0.47 3\28
80 0\13 1\5 0.2/0.6 1\34 3\128 2\8 1\5 0.45\0.59 4\30
60 0\4 0\1 0.1/0.6 1\20 0\109 2\21 0\1 0.25\0.45 0\19
TOTAAL 697 1\51 1\34 2.7\5.3 8\226 32\1094 11\105 1\34 2.85\4.28 10\185
% 697 1.96 2.94 50.94 3.54 2.93 10.48 2.94 66.59 5.41

O 3 80 3\8 0\2 0.3/0.4 3\13 2\78 0\14 0\2 0.29\0.4 2\26

80 0\6 0\4 0.5/0.5 5\24 3\94 0\11 0\4 0.16\0.45 0\14
80 1\6 0\5 0.7/0.6 2\24 9\103 0\9 0\5 0.33\0.53 0\15

232
 80 0\2 0\1 0.5/0.6 3\22 6\148 1\9 0\1 0.33\0.41 1\14
80 0\2 0\2 0.9/0.6 3\23 13\143 1\11 0\2 0.31\0.5 0\13
80 2\9 0\9 0.5/0.7 3\26 6\156 2\11 0\9 0.3\0.48 0\26
80 0\1 1\5 0.2/0.7 2\40 2\135 0\11 1\5 0.25\0.47 2\28
26 0\4 0\1 0.8/0.6 0\20 3\109 2\21 0\1 0.53\0.45 0\19
80 2\18 0\4 0.7/0.6 2\20 9\114 0\9 0\4 0.34\0.47 1\19
80 2\11 0\6 0.2/0.6 0\26 4\132 0\12 0\6 0.29\0.5 1\11
80 2\11 2\7 0.4/0.5 2\29 5\99 1\8 2\7 0.39\0.51 2\30
80 0\10 0\8 0.7/0.6 3\23 11\161 3\23 0\8 0.33\0.47 0\18
TOTAAL 906 12\88 3\54 6.4\7 28\290 73\1472 10\149 3\54 3.85\5.64 9\233
% 906 13.64 5.56 91.43 9.66 4.96 6.71 5.56 68.26 3.86

P 3 68 1\13 0\5 0.9/0.6 6\34 8\128 0\8 0\5 0.66\0.59 3\30

80 0\4 0\1 0.9/0.6 3\20 11\109 3\21 0\1 0.51\0.45 2\19
80 2\18 0\4 0.7/0.6 2\20 9\114 0\9 0\4 0.51\0.47 3\19
78 0\11 1\6 0.5/0.6 2\26 6\132 0\12 1\6 0.46\0.5 2\11
80 2\11 1\7 0.8/0.5 3\29 11\99 1\8 1\7 0.66\0.51 6\30
80 1\10 0\8 1.0/0.6 4\23 18\161 0\23 0\8 0.57\0.47 1\18
TOTAAL 466 6\67 2\31 4.8\3.5 20\152 63\743 4\81 2\31 3.37\2.99 17\127
% 466 8.96 6.45 137.14 13.16 8.48 4.94 6.45 112.71 13.39

Q 3 30 0\8 0\2 0.3/0.4 1\13 1\78 0\14 0\2 0.3\0.4 2\26

26 0\6 1\4 1.0/0.5 0\24 5\94 0\11 1\4 0.76\0.45 2\14
80 0\6 0\5 0.9/0.6 5\24 8\103 0\9 0\5 0.61\0.53 1\15
65 0\2 0\1 1.1/0.6 2\22 12\148 1\9 0\1 0.57\0.41 1\14
63 0\2 1\2 0.9/0.6 2\23 11\143 0\11 1\2 0.73\0.5 4\13
80 2\9 4\9 1.1/0.7 0\26 19\156 0\11 4\9 0.81\0.48 2\26
70 0\1 0\5 1.1/0.7 5\40 12\135 0\11 0\5 0.55\0.47 3\28
57 1\4 0\1 0.7/0.6 4\20 5\109 1\21 0\1 0.4\0.45 0\19
80 1\18 1\4 0.3/0.6 0\20 5\114 1\9 1\4 0.56\0.47 1\19
69 1\11 2\6 0.5/0.6 0\26 8\132 3\12 2\6 0.63\0.5 0\11
61 0\11 1\7 0.4/0.5 1\29 5\99 1\8 1\7 0.38\0.51 1\30
50 0\10 1\8 0.6/0.6 0\23 8\161 0\23 1\8 0.46\0.47 0\18
TOTAAL 731 5\88 11\54 8.9\7 20\290 99\1472 7\149 11\54 6.76\5.64 17\233
% 731 5.68 20.37 127.14 6.9 6.73 4.7 20.37 119.86 7.3

R 3 56 2\6 0\5 0.8/0.6 4\24 5\103 1\9 0\5 0.46\0.53 0\15

65 2\2 0\1 0.6/0.6 0\22 7\148 0\9 0\1 0.39\0.41 1\14
80 0\2 0\2 1.0/0.6 4\23 14\143 3\11 0\2 0.59\0.5 2\13

233
 80 0\9 0\9 0.7/0.7 2\26 11\156 2\11 0\9 0.45\0.48 4\26
23 0\4 1\1 0.4/0.6 0\20 1\109 0\21 1\1 0.79\0.45 1\19
24 1\18 0\4 0.4/0.6 0\20 2\114 1\9 0\4 0.49\0.47 0\19
22 1\11 0\6 0.8/0.6 0\26 5\132 0\12 0\6 0.64\0.5 0\11
TOTAAL 350 6\52 1\28 4.7\4.3 10\161 45\905 7\82 1\28 3.81\3.34 8\117
% 350 11.54 3.57 109.3 6.21 4.97 8.54 3.57 114.07 6.84

S 3 71 0\8 0\2 0.6/0.4 2\13 8\78 2\14 0\2 0.35\0.4 3\26

80 0\6 0\4 0.8/0.5 5\24 7\94 1\11 0\4 0.38\0.45 1\14
80 0\6 0\5 0.9/0.6 0\24 14\103 1\9 0\5 0.5\0.53 2\15
80 0\2 0\1 1.0/0.6 2\22 16\148 2\9 0\1 0.5\0.41 0\14
80 0\2 0\2 0.8/0.6 2\23 13\143 0\11 0\2 0.51\0.5 1\13
80 0\9 0\9 1.2/0.7 1\26 20\156 1\11 0\9 0.54\0.48 2\26
80 2\13 2\5 0.6/0.6 3\34 8\128 0\8 2\5 0.49\0.59 2\30
80 0\4 0\1 1.0/0.6 2\20 13\109 1\21 0\1 0.47\0.45 4\19
80 1\18 0\4 0.4/0.6 0\20 6\114 1\9 0\4 0.51\0.47 1\19
80 2\11 0\6 0.6/0.6 0\26 11\132 1\12 0\6 0.53\0.5 1\11
80 1\11 0\7 0.6/0.5 3\29 7\99 1\8 0\7 0.49\0.51 5\30
80 2\10 1\8 0.6/0.6 1\23 12\161 2\23 1\8 0.53\0.47 5\18
TOTAAL 951 8\100 3\54 9.1\6.9 21\284 135\1465 13\146 3\54 5.8\5.76 27\235
% 951 8 5.56 131.88 7.39 9.22 8.9 5.56 100.69 11.49

T 4 70 0\8 0\2 0.2/0.4 1\13 2\78 0\14 0\2 0.26\0.4 2\26

80 0\6 0\4 0.4/0.5 0\24 7\94 2\11 0\4 0.36\0.45 2\14
80 2\6 0\5 0.2/0.6 1\24 3\103 0\9 0\5 0.28\0.53 1\15
80 0\2 0\1 0.6/0.6 1\22 9\148 1\9 0\1 0.21\0.41 0\14
80 0\2 1\2 0.3/0.6 1\23 5\143 1\11 1\2 0.25\0.5 0\13
80 2\9 0\9 0.4/0.7 0\26 7\156 1\11 0\9 0.25\0.48 2\26
80 0\1 0\5 0.5/0.7 4\40 4\135 0\11 0\5 0.21\0.47 0\28
80 1\13 0\5 0.3/0.6 2\34 3\128 0\8 0\5 0.29\0.59 1\30
80 0\4 0\1 0.2/0.6 1\20 2\109 1\21 0\1 0.16\0.45 1\19
18 0\18 0\4 0.6/0.6 0\20 2\114 0\9 0\4 0.28\0.47 0\19
80 0\11 0\7 0.4/0.5 0\29 7\99 1\8 0\7 0.25\0.51 1\30
TOTAAL 808 5\80 1\45 4.1\6.4 11\275 51\1307 7\122 1\45 2.8\5.26 10\234
% 808 6.25 2.22 64.06 4 3.9 5.74 2.22 53.23 4.27

234
U 4 50 0\8 0\2 0.2/0.4 0\13 2\78 1\14 0\2 0.38\0.4 0\26
54 0\6 0\4 0.6/0.5 0\24 7\94 2\11 0\4 0.43\0.45 1\14
54 0\6 0\5 0.6/0.6 0\24 5\103 0\9 0\5 0.68\0.53 0\15
46 0\2 0\1 0.7/0.6 0\22 6\148 0\9 0\1 0.5\0.41 0\14
45 0\2 0\2 0.4/0.6 1\23 3\143 1\11 0\2 0.43\0.5 0\13
56 1\9 1\9 0.7/0.7 0\26 7\156 2\11 1\9 0.55\0.48 0\26
66 0\1 0\5 1.4/0.7 3\40 18\135 2\11 0\5 0.62\0.47 1\28
60 0\13 0\5 0.8/0.6 1\34 9\128 0\8 0\5 0.62\0.59 1\30
57 0\4 0\1 0.6/0.6 1\20 6\109 1\21 0\1 0.3\0.45 1\19
56 0\18 0\4 0.7/0.6 2\20 5\114 2\9 0\4 0.45\0.47 0\19
49 1\11 0\6 1.1/0.6 4\26 5\132 0\12 0\6 0.51\0.5 1\11
57 0\11 1\7 0.7/0.5 3\29 8\99 1\8 1\7 0.35\0.51 1\30
49 0\10 0\8 0.7/0.6 1\23 8\161 2\23 0\8 0.43\0.47 0\18
TOTAAL 699 2\101 2\60 9.2\7.6 16\324 89\1600 14\157 2\59 6.25\6.23 6\263
% 699 1.98 3.33 121.05 4.94 5.56 8.92 3.39 100.32 2.28

V 4 80 3\8 1\2 0.2/0.4 0\13 3\78 4\14 1\2 0.31\0.4 1\26

80 0\6 0\4 0.3/0.5 4\24 1\94 0\11 0\4 0.13\0.45 0\14
80 1\6 0\5 0.1/0.6 0\24 2\103 1\9 0\5 0.19\0.53 0\15
80 0\2 0\1 0.4/0.6 1\22 7\148 0\9 0\1 0.23\0.41 2\14
80 1\2 0\2 0.1/0.6 0\23 2\143 2\11 0\2 0.21\0.5 0\13
70 0\9 1\9 0.7/0.7 4\26 6\156 0\11 1\9 0.21\0.48 0\26
80 0\1 0\5 0.2/0.7 1\40 3\135 1\11 0\5 0.16\0.47 0\28
80 2\13 1\5 0.3/0.6 1\34 5\128 2\8 1\5 0.33\0.59 1\30
80 2\4 0\1 0.2/0.6 0\20 3\109 1\21 0\1 0.2\0.45 0\19
62 5\18 1\4 0.4/0.6 0\20 5\114 2\9 1\4 0.42\0.47 2\19
71 0\11 0\7 0.5/0.6 3\26 5\132 0\12 0\6 0.21\0.5 1\11
80 3\10 2\8 0.4/0.6 2\23 7\161 2\23 2\8 0.33\0.47 0\18
TOTAAL 923 17\90 6\53 3.8\7.1 16\295 49\1501 15\149 6\52 2.93\5.72 7\233
% 923 18.89 11.32 53.52 5.42 3.26 10.07 11.54 51.22 3

W 4 59 0\1 1\5 1.0/0.7 2\40 12\135 1\11 1\5 0.56\0.47 2\28

20 0\13 0\5 0.5/0.6 1\34 2\128 0\8 0\5 0.5\0.59 1\30
23 0\4 0\1 0.7/0.6 0\20 2\109 2\21 0\1 0.7\0.45 0\19
24 1\18 0\4 0.9/0.6 0\20 4\114 0\9 0\4 0.49\0.47 1\19
31 2\11 0\7 0.6/0.6 1\26 8\132 1\12 0\6 0.39\0.5 0\11
23 0\11 0\7 0/0.5 0\29 0\99 0\8 0\7 0.91\0.51 0\30
30 0\10 0\8 1.1/0.6 1\23 7\161 2\23 0\8 0.57\0.47 1\18
TOTAL 461 4\101 2\60 8.9/7.6 11\324 63\1600 6\157 2\59 6.91\6.23 11\263

235
 % 461 3.96 3.33 117.11 3.4 3.94 3.82 3.39 110.91 4.18

X 4 80 2\8 1\2 0.2/0.4 0\13 4\78 0\14 1\2 0.8\0.4 2\26

80 0\6 0\4 0.4/0.5 1\24 5\94 0\11 0\4 0.99\0.45 2\14
77 0\6 0\5 0.3/0.6 0\24 4\103 0\9 0\5 1.19\0.53 3\15
80 0\2 1\1 0.6/0.6 3\22 7\148 1\9 1\1 0.74\0.41 0\14
63 1\2 0\2 0.3/0.6 1\23 4\143 2\11 0\2 0.93\0.5 0\13
80 1\9 2\9 0.3/0.7 0\26 6\156 0\11 2\9 0.9\0.48 0\26
36 0\1 0\5 0.3/0.7 0\40 2\135 0\11 0\5 0.83\0.47 2\28
80 3\13 0\5 0.5/0.6 1\34 8\128 0\8 0\5 1.14\0.59 1\30
80 0\4 0\1 0.6/0.6 1\20 8\109 0\21 0\1 0.93\0.45 3\19
80 2\18 2\4 0.4/0.6 2\20 4\114 0\9 2\4 0.94\0.47 2\19
80 0\11 0\7 0.2/0.6 0\26 2\132 1\12 0\6 1.04\0.5 2\11
74 2\11 1\7 0.5/0.5 0\29 8\99 1\8 1\7 1.07\0.51 1\30
80 1\10 0\8 0.3/0.6 1\23 5\161 2\23 0\8 0.74\0.47 1\18
TOTAAL 970 12\101 7\60 4.9\7.6 10\324 67\1600 7\157 7\59 12.24\6.23 19\263
% 970 11.88 11.67 64.47 3.09 4.19 4.46 11.86 196.47 7.22

Y 4 80 0\2 0\1 0.8/0.6 1\22 14\148 0\9 0\1 0.53\0.41 2\14

80 0\2 0\2 0.9/0.6 1\23 16\143 1\11 0\2 0.63\0.5 0\13
80 0\9 0\9 0.7/0.7 0\26 13\156 0\11 0\9 0.54\0.48 5\26
80 0\1 0\5 0.7/0.7 3\40 9\135 0\11 0\5 0.5\0.47 2\28
80 1\13 0\5 0.7/0.6 4\34 8\128 0\8 0\5 0.64\0.59 1\30
80 0\4 0\1 0.6/0.6 1\20 8\109 1\21 0\1 0.46\0.45 2\19
62 0\18 0\4 0.4/0.6 1\20 4\114 1\9 0\4 0.47\0.47 0\19
80 0\11 0\7 0.6/0.6 2\26 9\132 3\12 0\6 0.45\0.5 1\11
80 0\11 0\7 0.7/0.5 3\29 8\99 1\8 0\7 0.53\0.51 0\30
72 0\10 0\8 0.8/0.6 2\23 12\161 1\23 0\8 0.53\0.47 2\18
TOTAAL 774 1\81 0 6.9\6.1 18\263 101\1325 8\123 0\48 5.28\4.85 15\208
% 774 1.23 0 113.11 6.84 7.62 6.5 0 108.87 7.21

236
SEASON 2
Decision Making
turnover turnover Good off Bad off Win Lost Breakdown In tackle Ball Pos Neg total total
won lost Off Loads loads loads Cleans possession possession efficiency pass carries carries Carries attack defence
%
0\6 1\20 0\8 0\5 0\3 0\135 3\27 1\15 0 0\7 0\52 0\47 0\5 3\303 2\150
0\12 1\20 0\9 0\4 0\5 4\150 1\16 0\25 83.3 0\8 3\75 3\65 0\10 13\351 5\217
0\8 1\24 0\11 0\11 0\0 7\174 2\21 1\21 76.9 0\9 2\91 2\82 0\9 14\395 10\247
0\26 3\64 0 0 0\8 11\459 6\64 2\61 160.2\3 0 5\218 5\194 0\24 30\1049 17\614
0 4.69 0 0 0 2.4 9.38 3.28 53.4 0 2.29 2.58 0 2.86 2.77

1\6 0\20 2\8 1\5 1\3 10\135 3\27 0\15 91.3 1\7 4\52 4\47 0\5 21\303 25\150
4\14 1\16 1\16 1\15 0\1 19\165 3\27 1\15 88.2 1\3 9\77 9\71 0\6 35\384 21\169
2\10 0\26 1\11 1\8 0\3 5\199 1\31 0\21 100 0\8 2\87 2\81 0\6 10\433 6\157
0\18 0\29 0\23 0\18 0\5 16\147 2\26 0\22 96 0\7 11\92 11\83 0\9 38\409 27\259
2\12 0\20 0\9 0\4 0\5 12\150 2\16 0\25 91.7 0\8 6\75 4\65 2\10 21\351 28\217
0\8 0\24 0\11 0\11 0\0 22\174 0\21 0\21 88.9 0\9 6\91 6\82 0\9 35\395 30\247
0\7 4\34 0\16 0\10 0\6 15\287 0\29 4\33 86.4 0\15 9\147 8\131 1\16 28\635 16\207
0\14 2\24 0\15 0\13 0\2 11\159 2\21 2\24 94.4 0\12 5\83 5\79 0\4 19\400 15\168
3\18 0\16 1\22 1\18 0\4 16\151 1\33 0\13 93.9 0\17 4\72 3\64 1\8 26\393 35\205
3\11 0\14 1\20 0\15 1\5 14\168 2\21 1\15 96.9 1\18 6\95 6\80 0\15 29\456 26\169
2\11 0\20 0\6 0\3 0\3 14\108 0\0 0\13 91.3 0\5 2\61 2\56 0\5 23\302 28\189
0\5 0\33 0\15 0\14 0\1 11\133 0\0 1\28 91.7 0\13 0\61 0\50 0\11 18\347 22\164
17\134 7\276 6\172 4\134 2\38165\1976 16\252 9\245 1110.7\12 3\122 64\993 60\889 4\104 303\4808 279\2301
12.69 2.54 3.49 2.99 5.26 8.35 6.35 3.67 92.56 2.46 6.45 6.75 3.85 6.3 12.13

0\6 0\20 0\8 0\5 0\3 10\135 1\27 0\15 71.4 0\7 0\52 0\47 0\5 10\303 7\150
1\12 1\20 0\9 0\4 0\5 12\150 1\16 0\25 88.2 0\8 2\75 2\65 0\10 15\351 11\217
0\7 0\34 0\16 0\10 0\6 41\287 0\29 0\33 88.5 0\15 2\147 1\131 1\16 43\635 6\207
1\14 1\24 0\15 0\13 0\2 22\159 1\21 1\24 82.9 0\12 2\83 2\79 0\4 26\400 9\168
2\12 0\27 0\20 0\14 0\6 10\145 1\26 0\29 70.6 0\19 2\73 2\68 0\5 13\385 8\211
0\18 0\16 0\22 0\18 0\4 2\151 0\33 0\13 85.7 0\17 0\72 0\64 0\8 2\393 3\205
4\69 2\141 0 0 0\26 97\1027 4\152 1\139 487.3\6 0 8\502 7\454 1\48 109\2467 44\1158
5.8 1.42 0 0 0 9.44 2.63 0.72 81.22 0 1.59 1.54 2.08 4.42 3.8

0\6 3\20 0\8 0\5 0\3 0\135 1\27 1\15 0 0\7 2\52 1\47 1\5 18\303 7\150
0\14 1\16 0\16 0\15 0\1 1\165 3\27 0\15 100 0\3 2\77 1\71 1\6 33\384 6\169
1\18 1\29 1\23 1\18 0\5 1\147 0\26 0\22 100 0\7 3\92 3\83 0\9 25\409 11\259

237
 0\8 0\24 0\11 0\11 0\0 0\174 1\21 0\21 0 0\9 1\91 0\82 1\9 5\395 4\247
1\46 5\89 1\58 1\49 0\9 2\621 5\101 1\73 200\4 0 8\312 5\283 3\29 81\1491 28\825
2.17 5.62 1.72 2.04 0 0.32 4.95 1.37 50 0 2.56 1.77 10.34 5.43 3.39

0\6 0\20 0\8 0\5 0\3 6\135 0\27 0\15 72.7 0\7 1\52 0\47 1\5 9\303 2\150
1\14 0\16 0\16 0\15 0\1 18\165 1\27 0\15 86.7 0\3 5\77 5\71 0\6 24\384 14\169
0\10 0\26 0\11 0\8 0\3 15\199 0\31 2\21 75 0\8 1\87 1\81 0\6 17\433 6\157
1\18 0\29 0\23 0\18 0\5 8\147 0\26 0\22 100 0\7 4\92 4\83 0\9 13\409 10\259
2\12 0\20 0\9 0\4 0\5 3\150 0\16 0\25 85.7 0\8 2\75 2\65 0\10 7\351 10\217
0\18 0\16 0\22 0\18 0\4 11\151 0\33 0\13 78.3 0\17 2\72 2\64 0\8 14\393 12\205
2\11 0\14 1\20 1\15 0\5 18\168 1\21 1\15 96.2 1\18 5\95 5\80 0\15 27\456 25\169
0\11 0\20 0\6 0\3 0\3 13\108 0\0 0\13 95.7 0\5 6\61 5\56 1\5 19\302 23\189
0\5 1\33 1\15 1\14 0\1 19\133 0\0 1\28 82.6 1\13 2\61 2\50 0\11 28\347 9\164
6\105 1\194 2\130 2\100 0\30111\1356 2\181 4\167 772.9\9 2\86 28\672 26\597 2\75 158\3378 111\1679
5.71 0.52 1.54 2 0 8.19 1.1 2.4 85.88 2.33 4.17 4.36 2.67 4.68 6.61

0\6 1\20 2\8 2\5 0\3 6\135 1\27 0\15 81.8 2\7 4\52 4\47 0\5 20\303 16\150
0\10 0\26 0\11 0\8 0\3 8\199 1\31 0\21 82.4 0\8 0\87 0\81 0\6 15\433 11\157
1\12 0\20 0\9 0\4 0\5 0\150 2\16 0\25 0 0\8 2\75 2\65 0\10 4\351 4\217
0\7 1\34 3\16 2\10 1\6 13\287 0\29 1\33 84 3\15 5\147 5\131 0\16 26\635 18\207
1\14 0\24 0\15 0\13 0\2 6\159 1\21 0\24 75 0\12 3\83 3\79 0\4 13\400 12\168
2\12 1\27 0\20 0\14 0\6 12\145 0\26 1\29 88.2 0\19 4\73 4\68 0\5 20\385 13\211
1\11 0\20 0\6 0\3 0\3 6\108 0\0 0\13 83.3 0\5 3\61 3\56 0\5 17\302 9\189
0\5 2\33 0\15 0\14 0\1 7\133 0\0 1\28 92.9 0\13 2\61 2\50 0\11 15\347 16\164
5\77 5\204 5\100 4\71 1\29 58\1316 5\150 3\188 587.6\8 5\87 23\639 23\577 0\62 130\3156 99\1463
6.49 2.45 5 5.63 3.45 4.41 3.33 1.6 73.45 5.75 3.6 3.99 0 4.12 6.77

0\6 3\20 1\8 0\5 0\3 11\135 0\27 3\15 77.8 1\7 8\52 7\47 1\5 22\303 16\150
2\10 2\26 1\11 1\8 0\3 14\199 1\31 1\21 87 1\8 15\87 15\81 0\6 34\433 17\157
3\18 2\29 2\23 1\18 1\5 12\147 1\26 2\22 72.4 2\17 7\92 6\83 1\9 27\409 36\259
2\12 1\20 1\9 1\4 0\5 9\150 0\16 1\25 88.5 1\8 7\75 7\65 0\10 19\351 27\217
3\8 1\24 3\11 3\11 0\0 9\174 4\21 1\21 85 3\9 15\91 14\82 1\9 32\395 31\247
2\7 5\34 2\16 1\10 1\6 19\287 2\29 5\33 91.2 2\15 16\147 15\131 1\16 51\635 22\207
4\14 1\24 3\15 1\13 2\2 12\159 3\21 2\24 86.4 3\12 13\83 13\79 0\4 35\400 25\168
2\12 2\27 0\20 0\14 0\6 13\145 2\26 2\29 85.7 0\19 4\73 4\68 0\5 21\385 27\211
18\87 17\204 13\113 8\83 4\30 99\1396 13\197 17\190 674\8 13\95 85\700 81\636 4\64 241\3311 201\1616
20.69 8.33 11.5 9.64 13.33 70.92 6.6 8.95 84.25 13.68 12.14 12.74 6.25 7.28 12.44

238
 1\14 3\24 0\15 0\13 0\2 3\159 3\21 1\24 80 0\12 1\83 1\79 0\4 35\400 8\168
0\12 3\27 0\20 0\14 0\6 4\145 0\26 1\29 100 0\19 1\73 1\68 0\5 34\385 13\211
0\18 5\16 2\22 2\18 0\4 3\151 3\33 1\13 100 2\17 3\72 3\64 0\8 42\393 16\205
0\11 0\14 1\20 1\15 0\5 4\168 0\21 0\15 83.3 1\18 1\95 1\80 0\15 41\456 6\169
0\11 4\20 1\6 1\3 0\3 0\108 0\0 0\13 100 1\5 2\61 1\56 1\5 32\302 14\189
1\5 6\33 0\15 0\14 0\1 0\133 0\0 1\28 80 0\13 1\61 1\50 0\11 26\347 11\164
2\71 21\134 4\98 4\77 0\21 14\864 6\101 4\122 543.3\6 4\84 9\445 8\397 1\48 210\2283 68\1106
2.82 15.67 4.08 5.19 0 1.62 5.94 3.28 90.55 4.76 2.02 2.02 2.08 9.2 6.15

0\8 1\24 0\11 0\11 0\0 4\174 2\21 1\21 100 0\9 3\91 1\82 2\9 12\395 3\247
0\7 1\34 0\16 0\10 0\6 11\287 6\29 0\33 100 0\15 7\147 6\131 1\16 28\635 2\207
2\14 1\24 0\15 0\13 0\2 7\159 6\21 1\24 100 0\12 5\83 5\79 0\4 25\400 4\168
0\12 3\27 0\20 0\14 0\6 6\145 3\26 3\29 100 0\19 5\73 4\68 1\5 26\385 5\211
2\18 1\16 3\22 2\18 1\4 5\151 7\33 0\13 100 2\17 3\72 2\64 1\8 15\393 6\205
0\11 2\14 2\20 1\15 1\5 3\168 8\21 2\15 75 2\18 8\95 4\80 4\15 26\456 3\169
1\11 0\20 0\6 0\3 0\3 3\108 0\0 1\13 85.7 0\5 4\61 4\56 0\5 13\302 10\189
0\5 4\33 2\15 2\14 0\1 1\133 0\0 0\28 100 2\13 12\61 10\50 2\11 25\347 8\164
5\86 13\192 7\125 5\98 2\27 40\1325 32\151 8\176 760.7\8 6\108 47\683 36\610 11\73 170\3313 41\1560
5.81 6.77 5.6 5.1 7.4 3.02 21.19 4.55 95.09 5.56 6.88 5.9 15.07 5.13 2.63

1\6 1\20 1\8 0\5 1\3 4\135 2\27 0\15 100 1\7 2\52 1\47 1\5 15\303 8\150
1\10 3\26 1\11 1\8 0\3 6\199 4\31 2\21 100 1\8 5\87 3\81 2\6 19\433 6\157
0\18 4\29 2\23 2\18 0\5 10\147 0\26 4\22 90.9 1\17 9\92 9\83 0\9 28\409 8\259
0\12 1\20 1\9 1\4 0\5 8\150 0\16 1\25 100 1\8 4\75 4\65 0\10 16\351 7\217
0\8 1\24 1\11 1\11 0\0 4\174 1\21 1\21 100 1\9 5\91 5\82 0\9 18\395 11\247
0\7 1\34 2\16 2\10 0\6 11\287 0\29 1\33 100 1\15 10\147 10\131 0\16 31\635 9\207
2\14 3\24 2\15 2\13 0\2 4\159 0\21 3\24 77.8 2\12 6\83 6\79 0\4 16\400 11\168
1\12 1\27 5\20 5\14 0\6 2\145 2\26 1\29 100 5\19 10\73 8\68 2\5 25\385 7\211
1\18 1\16 3\22 3\18 0\4 8\151 0\33 1\13 90 3\17 5\72 4\64 1\8 20\393 9\205
0\11 2\14 3\20 3\15 0\5 1\168 1\21 2\15 100 3\18 13\95 11\80 2\15 27\456 3\169
0\11 0\20 0\6 0\3 0\3 10\108 0\0 0\13 91.7 0\5 3\61 3\56 0\5 17\302 4\189
0\5 1\33 6\15 6\14 0\1 3\133 0\0 1\28 100 5\13 6\61 4\50 2\11 17\347 9\164
6\132 19\287 27\176 26\133 1\43 71\1956 10\251 17\259 1150.4\12 24\148 78\989 68\886 10\103 249\4809 92\2343
4.55 6.62 15.34 19.55. 2.33 3.63 3.98 6.56 95.87 16.22 7.89 7.67 9.71 5.18 3.93

0\8 2\22 0\7 0\4 0\3 0\163 1\41 0\17 33.3 0\7 0\50 0\42 0\8 28\346 13\130
0\6 4\21 0\6 0\1 0\5 2\192 1\40 0\14 50 0\5 5\62 5\57 0\5 33\395 11\139
0\4 1\18 0\7 0\3 0\4 3\237 0\26 0\18 80 0\6 2\76 2\70 0\6 32\476 9\157
0\10 1\20 0\5 0\5 0\0 2\127 0\20 0\24 100 0\4 2\50 2\48 0\2 18\276 14\214

239
 0\5 5\24 0\5 0\5 0\0 2\195 2\32 1\15 100 0\5 2\71 1\59 1\12 27\391 10\203
0\7 2\26 0\5 0\4 0\1 1\143 1\27 2\17 80 0\5 3\57 2\51 1\6 28\350 13\224
1\5 7\22 1\4 0\3 1\1 1\190 4\39 1\15 100 1\4 0\63 0\55 0\8 23\373 14\193
1\45 22\153 1\39 0 1\14 11\1247 9\225 41\120 543.3\7 1\36 14\429 12\382 2\47 189\2607 84\1260
2.22 14.38 2.56 0 7.14 0.88 4 3.33 77.61 2.78 3.26 3.14 4.26 7.25 6.67

1\10 2\20 1\5 1\5 0\0 9\127 0\20 6\24 70 1\4 3\50 2\48 1\2 15\276 9\214
0\5 0\24 0\5 0\5 0\0 7\195 0\32 0\15 81.8 0\5 2\71 2\59 0\12 9\391 18\203
0\7 2\26 0\5 0\4 0\1 11\143 0\27 2\17 76.5 0\5 3\57 3\51 0\6 15\350 12\224
1\5 0\22 0\4 0\3 0\1 19\190 1\39 1\15 78.1 0\4 3\63 3\55 0\8 23\373 19\193
0\6 0\34 0\8 0\4 0\4 28\220 0\33 1\19 90.2 0\6 3\102 2\90 1\12 33\495 11\211
3\14 0\22 2\9 2\6 0\3 28\168 1\26 2\23 88.2 2\7 2\71 2\68 0\3 35\364 11\170
0\7 0\24 0\12 0\11 0\1 18\177 0\28 1\20 85.7 0\11 3\68 3\64 0\4 22\405 10\165
0\6 0\16 0\9 0\5 0\4 23\189 0\27 2\12 85.7 0\7 5\75 4\71 1\4 31\415 20\190
0\2 1\30 0\8 0\7 0\1 17\195 0\40 2\21 84.6 0\7 4\86 4\76 0\10 24\458 9\157
2\10 2\34 1\10 1\6 0\4 11\112 2\43 2\21 68.4 1\7 4\62 4\59 0\3 18\327 22\242
7\72 7\252 4\75 4\56 0\19171\1716 4\315 19\187 809.2\10 4\63 32\705 29\641 3\64 225\3854 141\1969
9.72 2.78 5.33 7.14 0 9.97 1.27 10.16 80.92 6.35 4.54 4.52 4.69 5.84 7.16

0\5 0\24 0\5 0\5 0\0 0\195 0\32 0\15 0 0\5 1\71 1\59 0\12 13\391 2\203
0\5 3\22 0\4 0\3 0\1 0\190 3\39 1\15 100 0\4 2\63 1\55 1\8 31\373 7\193
0\10 3\46 0 0 0\1 0\385 3\71 1\30 100\2 0 3\134 2\114 1\20 44\764 9\396
0 6.52 0 0 0 0 4.23 3.33 50 0 2.24 1.75 5 5.76 2.27

0\8 4\22 0\7 0\4 0\3 3\163 9\41 2\17 71.4 0\7 6\50 4\42 2\8 18\346 2\130
1\6 0\21 0\6 0\1 0\5 6\192 12\40 0\14 75 0\5 5\62 3\57 2\5 21\395 7\139
0\4 2\18 1\7 1\3 0\4 4\237 5\26 0\18 88.9 1\6 5\76 4\70 1\6 22\476 3\157
1\10 1\20 0\5 0\5 0\0 6\127 5\20 1\24 70 0\4 4\50 4\48 0\2 14\276 5\214
0\5 4\24 1\5 1\5 0\0 6\195 6\32 2\15 100 0\5 3\71 3\59 0\12 20\391 6\203
1\7 4\26 0\5 0\4 0\1 6\143 5\27 0\17 80 0\5 3\57 2\51 1\6 20\350 8\224
0\5 0\22 0\4 0\3 0\1 6\190 6\39 1\15 77.8 0\4 4\63 4\55 0\8 13\373 12\193
1\6 6\34 0\8 0\4 0\4 5\220 12\33 2\19 100 0\6 5\102 5\90 0\12 28\495 8\211
0\14 2\22 1\9 1\6 0\3 1\168 8\26 1\23 100 1\7 4\71 3\68 1\3 14\364 1\170
4\65 23\209 3\56 3\35 0\21 43\1635 68\284 9\162 763.1\9 2\49 39\602 32\540 7\62 170\3466 52\1641
6.15 11 5.36 8.57 0 2.63 23.94 5.56 84.79 4.08 6.48 5.93 11.29 4.9 3.17

0\8 0\22 0\7 0\4 0\3 7\163 1\41 0\17 88.9 0\7 1\50 1\42 0\8 17\346 6\130
0\6 1\21 0\6 0\1 0\5 5\192 1\40 1\14 70 0\5 3\62 3\57 0\5 9\395 4\139
0\4 0\18 0\7 0\3 0\4 8\237 0\26 0\18 78.6 0\6 4\76 4\70 0\6 14\476 12\157

240
1\10 2\20 0\5 0\5 0\0 9\127 1\20 2\24 100 0\4 3\50 2\48 1\2 13\276 13\214
1\5 0\24 0\5 0\5 0\0 6\195 1\32 0\15 100 0\5 2\71 1\59 1\12 9\391 16\203
2\7 0\26 1\5 1\4 0\1 6\143 1\27 0\17 81.8 1\5 1\57 1\51 0\6 13\350 11\224
0\5 2\22 0\4 0\3 0\1 7\190 1\39 2\15 87.5 0\4 4\63 4\55 0\8 14\373 6\193
2\14 0\22 0\9 0\6 0\3 5\168 0\26 0\23 100 0\7 3\71 3\68 0\3 8\364 6\170
0\7 1\24 0\12 0\11 0\1 12\177 1\28 1\20 100 0\11 2\68 2\64 0\4 17\405 10\165
0\6 1\16 1\9 0\5 1\4 7\189 0\27 1\12 100 0\7 4\75 4\71 0\4 15\415 8\190
0\2 2\30 1\8 1\7 0\1 10\195 1\40 2\21 81.3 1\7 7\86 7\76 0\10 23\458 8\157
2\10 1\34 1\10 0\6 1\4 3\112 3\43 1\21 87.5 1\7 3\62 3\59 0\3 11\327 15\242
8\84 10\279 4\87 2\60 2\27 85\2088 11\389 10\217 1075.6\12 3\75 37\791 35\720 2\71 163\4576 115\2184
9.52 3.58 4.6 3.33 7.41 4.07 2..83 4.61 89.63 4 4.68 4.86 2.82 3.56 5.27

0\6 4\34 0\8 0\4 0\4 8\220 1\33 2\19 91.7 0\6 4\102 3\90 1\12 33\495 12\211
3\14 1\22 0\9 0\6 0\3 9\168 1\26 0\23 80 0\7 1\71 1\68 0\3 24\364 17\170
0\7 3\24 2\12 2\11 0\1 3\177 0\28 3\20 66.7 2\11 6\68 6\64 0\4 29\405 12\165
0\6 2\16 1\9 1\5 0\4 3\189 1\27 0\12 100 1\7 4\75 3\71 1\4 28\415 8\190
0\2 2\30 1\8 1\7 0\1 4\195 1\40 1\21 100 1\7 5\86 4\76 1\10 35\458 18\157
0\10 3\34 0\10 0\6 0\4 2\112 0\43 0\21 75 0\7 2\62 1\59 1\3 26\327 20\242
3\45 15\160 4\56 4\39 0\17 29\1061 4\197 6\116 513.4\6 4\45 22\464 18\428 4\36 175\2464 87\1135
6.67 9.38 7.14 10.26 0 2.73 2.03 5.17 85.57 8.89 4.74 4.21 11.11 7.1 7.67

0\8 0\22 0\7 0\4 0\3 5\163 0\41 0\17 75 0\7 0\50 0\42 0\8 5\346 4\130
1\6 0\21 0\6 0\1 0\5 6\192 0\40 0\14 90 0\5 4\62 3\57 1\5 11\395 9\139
0\4 0\18 1\7 1\3 0\4 27\237 0\26 0\18 97.1 1\6 5\76 5\70 0\6 34\476 15\157
1\10 0\20 0\5 0\5 0\0 12\127 1\20 0\24 93.3 0\4 8\50 8\48 0\2 22\276 15\214
1\5 2\24 0\5 0\5 0\0 18\195 0\32 2\15 100 0\5 6\71 5\59 1\12 25\391 21\203
0\7 3\26 1\5 0\4 1\1 17\143 0\27 2\17 86.7 1\5 7\57 6\51 1\6 36\350 29\224
0\5 0\22 0\4 0\3 0\1 17\190 0\39 0\15 91.3 0\4 2\63 2\55 0\8 20\373 18\193
0\14 1\22 1\9 1\6 0\3 3\168 1\26 1\23 100 1\7 6\71 6\68 0\3 16\364 7\170
1\7 3\24 2\12 2\11 0\1 13\177 4\28 3\20 95.5 2\11 10\68 8\64 2\4 34\405 11\165
3\6 1\16 2\9 1\5 1\4 11\189 3\27 0\12 71.4 1\7 12\75 11\71 1\4 30\415 14\190
0\2 4\30 0\8 0\7 0\1 7\195 2\40 4\21 72.7 0\7 6\86 5\76 1\10 16\458 7\157
0\10 1\34 0\10 0\6 0\4 3\112 2\43 1\21 90 0\7 6\62 6\59 0\3 12\327 11\242
7\84 15\279 7\87 5\60 2\27139\2088 13\389 13\217 1063\12 6\75 72\791 65\720 7\71 261\4576 161\2184
8.33 5.38 8.05 8.33 7.41 6.66 3.34 5.99 88.58 8 9.1 9.03 9.86 5.7 7.37

0\4 0\18 0\7 0\3 0\4 7\237 3\26 0\18 83.3 0\6 8\76 8\70 0\6 18\476 8\157
0\10 1\20 1\5 1\5 0\0 9\127 0\20 1\24 84.6 1\4 3\50 3\48 0\2 15\276 10\214
0\5 2\24 1\5 1\5 0\0 19\195 3\32 3\15 92.6 1\5 5\71 4\59 1\12 28\391 19\203

241
 1\7 1\26 0\5 0\4 0\1 11\143 1\27 2\17 65.2 0\5 4\57 4\51 0\6 17\350 19\224
0\14 0\22 0\9 0\6 0\3 9\168 2\26 0\23 100 0\7 5\71 4\68 1\3 16\364 2\170
1\7 0\24 0\12 0\11 0\1 4\177 1\28 0\20 100 0\11 2\68 2\64 0\4 7\405 5\165
0\6 0\16 0\9 0\5 0\4 3\189 0\27 0\12 83.3 0\7 1/75 1\71 0\4 6\415 8\190
2\53 4\150 2\52 2\39 0\13 62\1236 10\186 6\129 609\7 2\45 28\468 26\431 2\37 107\2677 71\1323
3.77 2.67 3.85 5.13 0 5.02 5.38 4.65 87 4.44 5.98 6.03 5.41 4 5.37

2\8 2\22 0\7 0\4 0\3 4\163 0\41 1\17 83.3 0\7 4\50 4\42 0\8 13\346 14\130
0\6 3\21 0\6 0\1 0\5 7\192 1\40 2\14 84.6 0\5 6\62 6\57 0\5 18\395 12\139
1\4 1\18 0\7 0\3 0\4 10\237 1\26 1\18 93.8 0\6 6\76 5\70 1\6 20\476 20\157
2\10 0\20 1\5 1\5 0\0 5\127 0\20 0\24 80 1\4 7\50 7\48 0\2 17\276 23\214
0\5 2\24 0\5 0\5 0\0 9\195 1\32 1\15 94.1 0\5 7\71 7\59 0\12 20\391 21\203
1\7 4\26 0\5 0\4 0\1 6\143 1\27 3\17 83.3 0\5 3\57 3\51 0\6 17\350 26\224
0\6 2\34 0\8 0\4 0\4 6\220 1\33 1\19 90.9 0\6 8\102 7\90 1\12 26\495 13\211
1\14 2\22 0\9 0\6 0\3 10\168 1\26 2\23 100 0\7 3\71 3\68 0\3 18\364 20\170
1\7 2\24 0\12 0\11 0\1 12\177 5\28 1\20 100 0\11 6\68 6\64 0\4 30\405 11\165
0\6 1\16 2\9 2\5 0\4 12\189 1\27 0\12 100 2\7 8\75 8\71 0\4 29\415 13\190
0\2 2\30 0\8 0\7 0\1 11\195 1\40 1\21 68.4 0\7 4\86 4\76 0\10 24\458 15\157
1\10 2\34 1\10 1\6 0\4 4\112 3\43 3\21 85.7 1\7 7\62 7\59 0\3 18\327 24\242
9\85 23\291 4\91 4\61 0\30 96\2118 16\383 16\221 1064.1\12 4\77 69\830 67\755 2\75 250\4698 212\2202
10.59 7.9 4.4 6.56 0 4.53 4.18 7.24 88.68 5.19 8.31 8.87 2.67 5.32 9.63

0\8 1\22 2\7 1\4 1\3 1\163 4\41 1\17 100 2\7 6\50 6\42 0\8 14\346 4\130
1\6 0\21 3\6 0\1 3\5 10\192 5\40 0\14 70.6 2\5 4\62 4\57 0\5 19\395 10\139
0\4 3\18 2\7 0\3 2\4 5\237 1\26 3\18 75 0\6 7\76 7\70 0\6 16\476 6\157
2\10 2\20 0\5 0\5 0\0 1\127 1\20 2\24 75 0\4 3\50 3\48 0\2 6\276 11\214
0\5 2\24 0\5 0\5 0\0 4\195 2\32 2\15 88.9 0\5 6\71 4\59 2\12 13\391 7\203
0\7 2\26 1\5 1\4 0\1 3\143 1\27 2\17 60 1\5 3\57 3\51 0\6 10\350 10\224
0\5 0\22 0\4 0\3 0\1 5\190 2\39 0\15 100 0\4 3\63 3\55 0\8 13\373 4\193
1\6 2\34 2\8 2\4 0\4 4\220 2\33 2\19 77.8 2\6 7\102 7\90 0\12 17\495 6\211
0\14 2\22 1\9 1\6 0\3 3\168 4\26 1\23 100 0\7 4\71 4\68 0\3 10\364 3\170
0\7 2\24 1\12 0\11 1\1 0\177 1\28 2\20 100 1\11 1\68 1\64 0\4 3\405 2\165
1\2 0\30 0\8 0\7 0\1 5\195 1\40 0\21 71.4 0\7 4\86 4\76 0\10 11\458 9\157
5\74 16\263 12\76 5\53 7\23 41\2007 24\352 15\203 918.7\11 8\67 48\756 46\680 2\76 132\4329 72\1963
6.76 6.08 15.79 9.43 30.43 2.04 6.82 7.39 83.52 11.94 6.35 6.76 2.63 3.05 3.67

242
 0\8 0\22 0\7 0\4 0\3 17\163 1\41 0\17 76.2 0\7 0\50 0\42 0\8 17\346 2\130
2\6 1\21 0\6 0\1 0\5 11\192 1\40 1\14 82.4 0\5 0\62 0\57 0\5 11\395 12\139
0\4 1\18 0\7 0\3 0\4 22\237 2\26 1\18 88.5 0\6 5\76 4\70 1\6 29\476 8\157
0\10 1\20 1\5 1\5 0\0 11\127 0\20 2\24 88.2 1\4 1\50 1\48 0\2 14\276 9\214
0\5 2\24 0\5 0\5 0\0 11\195 2\32 0\15 100 0\5 3\71 3\59 0\12 14\391 5\203
1\7 0\26 0\5 0\4 0\1 14\143 2\27 0\17 85.7 0\5 2\57 2\51 0\6 20\350 11\224
2\5 0\22 0\4 0\3 0\1 13\190 2\39 0\15 83.3 0\4 3\63 3\55 0\8 17\373 24\193
0\6 1\34 1\8 0\4 1\4 16\220 0\33 1\19 88.9 0\6 4\102 4\90 0\12 22\495 15\211
1\14 0\22 1\9 1\6 0\3 4\168 0\26 1\23 85.7 1\7 2\71 2\68 0\3 7\364 10\170
1\7 0\24 0\12 0\11 0\1 14\177 2\28 0\20 87 0\11 1\68 1\64 0\4 17\405 8\165
0\6 0\16 0\9 0\5 0\4 13\189 0\27 0\12 81.8 0\7 4\75 4\71 0\4 18\415 7\190
0\2 0\30 1\8 1\7 0\1 5\195 1\40 0\21 77.8 1\7 2\86 2\76 0\10 9\458 11\157
0\10 1\34 1\10 0\6 1\4 7\112 2\43 1\21 91.7 0\7 2\62 2\59 0\3 11\327 10\242
7\90 7\313 5\95 3\64 2\31158\2308 15\422 7\236 1117.2\13 3\81 29\893 28\810 1\83 206\5071 132\2395
7.78 2.24 5.26 4.69 6.45 6.85 3.55 2.97 85.94 3.7 3.25 3.46 1.2 4.06 5.51

2\8 0\22 2\7 1\4 1\3 6\163 4\41 0\17 85.7 2\7 5\50 4\42 1\8 19\346 6\130
0\6 3\21 1\6 0\1 1\5 3\192 1\40 2\14 100 1\5 1\62 1\57 0\5 8\395 2\139
1\4 2\18 0\7 0\3 0\4 3\237 2\26 1\18 83.3 0\6 4\76 4\70 0\6 12\476 3\157
0\10 1\20 0\5 0\5 0\0 4\127 1\20 1\24 83.3 0\4 1\50 1\48 0\2 8\276 10\214
2\5 1\24 0\5 0\5 0\0 4\195 4\32 0\15 100 0\5 2\71 2\59 0\12 13\391 4\203
0\7 2\26 0\5 0\4 0\1 2\143 5\27 1\17 50 0\5 2\57 2\51 0\6 9\350 6\224
0\5 2\22 0\4 0\3 0\1 3\190 6\39 1\15 100 0\4 2\63 2\55 0\8 10\373 3\193
1\6 5\34 1\8 0\4 1\4 2\220 6\33 3\19 75 1\6 8\102 7\90 1\12 19\495 7\211
1\14 2\22 0\9 0\6 0\3 2\168 0\26 1\23 66.7 0\7 1\71 1\68 0\3 12\364 4\170
2\7 2\24 1\12 1\11 0\1 1\177 0\28 0\20 100 1\11 5\68 5\64 0\4 16\405 10\165
0\6 1\16 0\9 0\5 0\4 5\189 2\27 1\12 100 0\7 1\75 1\71 0\4 9\415 6\190
0\10 5\34 0\10 0\6 0\4 0\112 4\43 4\21 33.3 0\7 5\62 5\59 0\3 18\327 8\242
9\88 26\283 5\87 2\57 3\30 35\2113 35\382 15\215 977.3\12 5\74 37\807 35\734 2\73 153\4613 69\2108
10.23 9.19 5.75 3.51 10 1.66 9.16 6.98 81.44 6.76 4.58 4.77 2.74 3.32 3.28

0\5 1\22 1\4 1\3 0\1 9\190 1\39 1\15 81.8 1\4 6\63 4\55 2\8 19\373 14\193
0\6 0\34 1\8 1\4 0\4 3\220 0\33 0\19 80 0\6 1\102 1\90 0\12 5\495 5\211
1\14 0\22 0\9 0\6 0\3 3\168 1\26 0\23 83.3 0\7 7\71 7\68 0\3 11\364 5\170
0\7 1\24 0\12 0\11 0\1 3\177 0\28 1\20 66.7 0\11 2\68 1\64 1\4 7\405 5\165
0\6 0\16 2\9 0\5 0\4 3\189 1\27 0\12 100 0\7 0\75 0\71 0\4 3\415 9\190
0\2 1\30 0\8 0\7 0\1 10\195 0\40 0\21 100 0\7 8\86 6\76 2\10 21\458 0\157
0\10 1\34 0\10 0\6 0\4 2\112 2\43 0\21 100 0\7 4\62 4\59 0\3 7\327 10\242
1\90 11\313 5\95 3\64 0\31 71\2308 10\422 8\236 1079.9\13 2\81 54\893 46\810 8\83 149\5071 86\2395

243
1.11 3.51 5.26 4.69 0 3.08 2.37 3.39 83.07 2.47 6.05 5.68 9.64 2.94 3.59

0\8 6\22 2\7 2\4 0\3 0\163 9\41 1\17 100 2\7 6\50 6\42 0\8 57\346 7\130
0\6 5\21 1\6 0\1 1\5 1\192 9\40 1\14 80 1\5 5\62 5\57 0\5 72\395 7\139
0\4 2\18 2\7 0\3 2\4 0\237 1\26 3\18 66.7 2\6 5\76 2\70 3\6 84\476 8\157
1\10 5\20 1\5 1\5 0\0 1\127 4\20 0\24 100 0\4 3\50 3\48 0\2 51\276 8\214
0\5 3\24 1\5 1\5 0\0 0\195 6\32 1\15 33.3 1\5 7\71 5\59 2\12 54\391 5\203
0\7 6\26 1\5 1\4 0\1 0\143 7\27 3\17 0 1\5 11\57 10\51 1\6 66\350 6\224
0\5 1\22 1\4 1\3 0\1 0\190 2\39 1\15 0 1\4 3\63 3\55 0\8 26\373 4\193
0\6 11\34 0\8 0\4 0\4 0\220 1\33 5\19 50 0\6 7\102 7\90 0\12 81\495 10\211
0\14 4\22 2\9 0\6 2\3 0\168 3\26 2\23 66.7 1\7 5\71 5\68 0\3 62\364 12\170
0\7 6\24 2\12 2\11 0\1 0\177 3\28 3\20 100 2\11 6\68 6\64 0\4 67\405 8\165
1\6 0\16 1\9 1\5 1\4 0\189 4\27 0\12 71.4 1\7 4\75 4\71 0\4 75\415 8\190
0\2 0\30 3\8 2\7 1\1 0\195 5\40 0\21 0 3\7 6\86 4\76 2\10 70\458 9\157
0\10 8\34 1\10 0\6 1\4 0\112 7\43 3\21 100 1\7 4\62 2\59 2\3 51\327 8\242
2\90 57\313 18\95 11\64 8\31 2\2308 61\422 23\236 768.1\13 16\81 72\893 62\810 10\83 816\5071 100\2395
2.22 18.21 18.95 17.19 2.58 0.09 14.45 9.75 59.08 19.75 8.06 7.65 12.05 16.09 4.18

0\10 2\20 0\5 0\5 0\0 16\127 2\20 2\24 95 0\4 2\50 2\48 0\2 24\276 18\214
1\5 1\24 1\5 1\5 0\0 23\195 1\32 1\15 89.3 1\5 5\71 4\59 1\12 32\391 18\203
0\7 0\26 1\5 1\4 0\1 17\143 0\27 0\17 86.4 1\5 1\57 0\51 1\6 25\350 18\224
0\5 1\22 1\4 1\3 0\1 21\190 0\39 1\15 90.9 1\4 3\63 3\55 0\8 28\373 12\193
0\6 1\34 1\8 0\4 1\4 30\220 1\33 0\19 93.8 1\6 5\102 5\90 0\12 42\495 9\211
0\14 1\22 0\9 0\6 0\3 20\168 1\26 3\23 100 0\7 3\71 3\68 0\3 27\364 10\170
0\7 1\24 1\12 1\11 0\1 19\177 2\28 2\20 95.5 0\11 3\68 3\64 0\4 25\405 4\165
0\6 0\16 1\9 1\5 0\4 15\189 8\27 0\12 93.8 1\7 5\75 5\71 0\4 26\415 10\190
0\2 0\30 1\8 1\7 0\1 18\195 4\40 0\21 83.3 1\7 5\86 4\76 1\10 34\458 8\157
1\10 1\34 2\10 2\6 0\4 13\112 3\43 2\21 70.6 1\7 5\62 5\59 0\3 23\327 15\242
2\72 8\252 9\75 8\56 1\19192\1716 22\315 11\187 898.6\10 7\63 37\705 34\641 3\64 286\3854 122\1969
2.78 3.17 12 14.29 5.26 11.19 6.98 5.88 89.86 11.11 5.25 5.3 4.69 7.42 6.2

244
SEASON 3
Reaction Time

Line Tackle Tacle per Tacles Tackles Turnover Defender kick

PLAYERS GROUP Min Breaks Breaks min missed made forced beaten work rate pressure

H 2 30 0\5 0\3 0.3/0.7 0\25 2\151 1\11 0\3 0.57\0.41 0\11

42 1\7 0\8 0.9/0.7 1\31 7\148 0\12 0\3 0.86\0.55 2\20
53 0\15 0\6 0.5/0.7 0\31 6\151 0\13 0\6 0.61\0.54 2\21
80 1\10 0\5 0.9/0.8 6\43 10\170 0\16 0\5 0.76\0.59 5\23
80 0\4 0\0 0.9/0.8 2\35 14\184 1\20 0\0 0.59\0.45 2\14
80 2\15 0\8 0.9/0.7 4\34 14\169 0\12 0\8 0.85\0.62 1\19
70 0\9 0\5 0.6/0.6 4\32 6\141 1\9 0\5 0.53\0.46 2\25
80 0\4 0\3 0.6/0.6 3\24 8\138 1\13 0\3 0.51\0.43 4\21
25 0\10 0\6 0.3/0.4 1\20 1\99 0\11 0\6 0.48\0.59 0\14
TOTAAL 540 4\79 0\44 5.9/6 21\275 68\1351 4\117 0\39 5.76\4.64 18\168
% 540 5.06 0 98.33 7.64 5.03 3.42 0 124.14 10.71

I 2 80 0\3 0\3 0.5/0.6 0\30 10\136 1\16 0\3 0.33\0.41 1\9

80 2\11 1\3 0.1/0.5 1\17 1\113 0\12 1\3 0.26\0.49 1\15
80 1\18 0\6 0.5/0.7 1\22 6\115 2\12 0\6 0.35\0.55 0\18
80 1\5 0\6 0.2/0.6 1\20 2\125 1\9 0\6 0.31\0.46 0\1
80 1\15 0\6 0.2/0.7 2\40 2\176 2\17 0\6 0.21\0.44 0\20
80 0\17 1\8 0.5/0.7 1\29 8\136 1\18 1\8 0.45\0.58 0\20
80 3\23 2\8 0.3/0.6 2\30 4\114 1\8 2\8 0.51\0.63 1\24
TOTAAL 560 8\92 4\40 2.3\4.4 8\188 33\915 8\92 4\40 2.42\3.56 3\107
% 560 8.7 10 52.27 4.26 3.61 8.7 10 67.98 2.8

J 2 72 1\7 0\1 0.4/0.5 1\16 5\96 0\8 0\1 0.35\0.45 1\28

80 0\6 1\4 0.7/0.6 1\22 11\126 2\13 1\4 0.4\0.43 0\22
80 0\5 0\1 0.8/0.7 2\22 12\146 3\18 0\1 0.45\0.46 1\7
80 2\5 1\3 0.7/0.7 3\25 10\151 0\11 1\3 0.36\0.41 0\11
80 0\7 0\8 0.4/0.7 2\31 6\148 1\12 0\3 0.39\0.55 1\20
80 0\15 0\6 0.8/0.7 5\31 10\151 0\12 0\6 0.36\0.54 1\21
80 1\10 1\5 0.9/0.8 1\43 10\170 2\16 1\5 0.51\0.59 0\23
67 0\4 0\0 0.5/0.8 1\35 7\184 0\20 0\0 0.31\0.45 1\14
80 3\15 1\8 0.5/0.7 1\34 10\169 0\12 1\8 0.5\0.62 0\19
80 2\9 1\5 0.2/0.6 0\32 3\141 1\9 1\5 0.39\0.46 1\25
80 0\4 1\3 0.6/0.6 1\24 10\138 1\13 1\3 0.35\0.43 0\21

245
 80 1\7 1\2 0.3/0.6 0\21 5\144 1\20 1\2 0.35\0.51 0\23
80 5\10 1\6 0.4/0.4 1\20 6\99 0\11 1\6 0.56\0.59 0\14
TOTAAL 1019 15\104 8\52 7.2\8.4 19\356 105\1863 11\175 8\47 5.28\6.49 6\248
% 1019 14.42 15.38 85.71 5.34 5.64 6.29 17.02 81.36 2.42

T 4 80 1\7 1\13 0.1/0.4 0\11 2\73 0\9 1\13 0.26\0.48 0\24

80 0\3 0\5 0.4/0.5 2\24 4\108 0\12 0\5 0.24\0.56 0\19
80 0\5 0\6 0.5/0.6 3\23 6\145 0\10 0\6 0.21\0.52 4\16
54 1\14 0\3 0.3/0.6 1\37 2\103 0\10 0\3 0.26\0.53 0\13
44 0\5 0\3 0.7/0.7 2\35 6\175 0\17 0\3 0.16\0.51 0\16
80 0\5 0\0 0.1/0.7 1\44 2\181 0\19 0\0 0.14\0.46 4\26
80 1\4 1\7 0.4/0.5 1\38 6\112 1\14 1\7 0.3\0.58 2\31
80 0\5 0\4 0.5/0.7 2\37 7\162 0\18 0\4 0.2\0.49 0\16
80 1\9 0\12 0.2/0.5 0\11 4\111 1\14 0\12 0.26\0.51 4\21
64 0\6 0\2 0.3/0.7 2\51 2\164 3\23 0\2 0.25\0.49 0\23
80 2\14 0\10 0.4/0.6 1\17 5\113 1\19 0\10 0.31\0.56 0\13
TOTAAL 802 6\77 2\65 3.9\6.5 15\328 46\1447 6\165 2\65 2.59\5.69 14\218
% 802 7.79 3.08 60 4.57 3.18 3.64 3.08 4.55 6.42

U 4 43 3\14 0\3 0.9/0.6 2\37 7\103 0\10 0\3 0.64\0.53 0\13

64 1\5 1\3 0.9/0.7 6\35 8\175 2\17 1\3 0.64\0.51 0\16
80 0\5 0\0 1.0/0.7 2\44 21\181 0\19 0\0 0.46\0.46 1\26
54 0\4 0\7 0.4/0.5 1\38 4\112 0\14 0\7 0.52\0.58 1\31
64 0\5 1\4 0.5/0.7 2\37 6\162 1\18 1\4 0.42\0.49 1\16
59 0\2 0\0 0.8/0.8 3\43 8\161 1\15 0\0 0.52\0.47 0\1
66 0\9 0\5 0.6/0.6 1\19 6\102 1\17 0\5 0.41\0.47 1\19
65 0\9 0\12 0.5/0.5 0\11 6\111 1\14 0\12 0.37\0.51 1\21
TOTAAL 495 4\53 2\34 5.6\5.1 17\264 66\1107 6\124 2\34 3.98\4.02 5\143
% 495 7.55 5.88 109.8 6.44 5.96 4.84 5.88 99 3.5

V 4 80 0\7 1\13 0.1/0.4 0\11 2\73 0\9 1\13 0.16\0.48 0\24

54 1\3 1\5 0.2/0.5 0\24 2\108 1\12 1\5 0.22\0.56 3\19
80 1\14 0\3 0.2/0.6 2\37 1\103 0\10 0\3 0.15\0.53 0\13
80 0\5 0\3 0.5/0.7 0\35 9\175 0\17 0\3 0.2\0.51 0\16
70 2\5 0\0 0.4/0.7 0\44 8\181 3\19 0\0 0.37\0.46 2\26
54 0\4 0\7 0.1/0.5 1\38 1\112 2\14 0\7 0.26\0.58 3\31
76 2\5 0\4 0.3/0.7 1\37 5\162 1\18 0\4 0.36\0.49 0\16
80 0\2 0\0 0.6/0.8 3\43 7\161 3\15 0\0 0.25\0.47 1\11
74 1\9 2\5 0.4/0.6 0\19 6\102 3\17 2\5 0.39\0.47 2\19

246
 59 2\9 0\12 0.2/0.5 0\11 2\111 0\14 0\12 0.36\0.51 0\21
80 1\6 0\2 0.6/0.7 3\51 9\164 3\23 0\2 0.33\0.49 1\23
69 2\14 2\10 0.3/0.6 0\17 4\113 0\19 2\10 0.43\0.56 0\13
TOTAAL 856 12\83 6\64 3.9/7.3 10\367 56\1565 16\187 6\64 3.48\6.11 12\232
% 856 14.46 9.38 53.42 2.72 3.58 8.56 9.38 56.96 5.17

W 4 67 0\7 1\13 0.3/0.4 1\11 3\73 0\9 1\13 0.31\0.48 2\24

66 0\3 0\5 0.8/0.5 3\24 9\108 1\12 0\5 0.47\0.56 0\19
67 0\5 1\6 0.9/0.6 1\23 14\145 2\10 1\6 0.53\0.52 0\16
80 3\14 0\3 0.9/0.6 7\37 7\103 0\10 0\3 0.42\0.53 0\13
67 0\5 0\3 0.9/0.7 3\35 12\175 1\17 0\3 0.38\0.51 0\16
80 0\5 0\0 1.1/0.7 4\44 20\181 2\19 0\0 0.6\0.46 1\26
80 0\4 1\7 0.6/0.5 2\38 9\112 2\14 1\7 0.61\0.58 4\31
69 1\5 1\4 1.1/0.7 5\37 12\162 1\18 1\4 0.53\0.49 1\16
80 0\9 0\5 0.4/0.6 0\19 5\102 2\17 0\5 0.36\0.47 2\19
69 0\6 0\2 0.9/0.7 5\51 9\164 1\23 0\2 0.49\0.49 3\23
71 1\14 0\10 0.7/0.6 2\17 7\113 0\19 0\10 0.45\0.56 2\13
TOTAAL 796 5\77 4\58 8.6\6.6 33\336 107\1438 12\168 4\58 5.15\5.65 15\216
% 796 6.49 6.9 130.3 9.82. 7.44 7.14 6.9 91.15 6.94

X 4 80 4\7 2\13 0.2/0.4 0\11 3\73 2\9 2\13 1.14\0.48 4\24

80 0\3 1\5 0.5/0.5 2\24 6\108 1\12 1\5 1.05\0.56 0\19
80 0\5 1\6 0.6/0.6 1\23 11\145 2\10 1\6 0.99\0.52 4\16
80 1\14 0\3 0.2/0.6 2\37 4\103 0\10 1\3 1.11\0.53 1\13
80 1\5 0\3 0.5/0.7 0\35 10\175 1\17 0\3 0.91\0.51 2\16
70 1\5 0\0 0.3/0.7 1\44 4\181 1\19 0\0 0.85\0.46 2\26
68 0\4 0\7 0.3/.5 2\38 3\112 0\14 0\7 0.96\0.58 2\31
80 0\5 0\4 0.8/0.7 2\37 13\162 0\18 0\4 0.82\0.49 5\16
80 1\2 0\0 0.4/0.8 1\43 5\161 1\15 0\0 0.84\0.47 1\11
74 0\9 0\5 0.8/0.6 0\19 10\102 0\17 0\5 0.95\0.47 1\19
70 1\9 2\12 0.5/0.5 2\11 4\111 0\14 2\12 1.01\0.51 2\21
69 3\6 0\2 0.2/0.7 1\51 3\164 3\23 0\2 0.94\0.49 0\23
33 0\14 0\10 0\0.6 0\17 0\113 0\19 0\10 1.13\0.56 0\13
TOTAAL 944 12\88 6\70 5.3\7.9 14\390 76\1710 11\197 7\68 12.7\6.63 24\232
% 944 13.64 8.57 67.09 3.59 4.44 5.58 10.29 191.55 10.34

Y 4 80 0\7 0\13 0.4/0.4 0\11 6\73 2\9 0\13 0.5\0.48 2\24

80 0\3 0\5 0.6/0.5 0\24 10\108 3\12 0\3 0.64\0.56 2\3
80 0\5 0\6 0.5/0.6 0\23 10\145 0\10 0\6 0.49\0.52 1\16

247
 80 0\14 0\3 0.8/0.6 1\37 12\103 0\10 0\3 0.60\0.53 1\13
80 0\5 0\3 1.0/0.7 2\35 17\175 4\17 0\3 0.61\0.51 0\16
80 0\5 0\0 0.8/0.7 6\44 12\181 6\19 0\0 0.4\0.46 2\26
26 0\4 0\7 0.9/0.5 0\38 4\112 0\14 0\7 0.73\0.58 2\31
80 0\5 0\4 0.7/0.7 2\37 12\162 3\18 0\4 0.54\0.49 0\16
80 0\2 0\0 0.7/0.8 1\43 11\161 0\15 0\0 0.51\0.47 2\11
74 0\9 0\5 1.0/0.6 0\19 12\102 3\17 0\5 0.47\0.47 0\19
80 0\9 1\12 0.7/0.5 0\11 11\111 1\14 1\12 0.57\0.51 0\21
80 0\6 0\2 0.6/0.7 3\51 10\164 1\23 0\2 0.49\0.49 1\23
80 0\14 0\10 0.6/0.6 0\17 8\113 1\19 0\10 0.54\0.56 2\13
TOTAAL 980 0\88 1\70 9.3\7.9 15\390 135\1710 24\197 1\68 7.08\6.63 15\232
% 980 0 1.43 117.72 3.85 7.89 12.18 1.47 106.79 6.47

248
SEASON 3
Decision Making

turnover turnover Good off Bad off Win Lost Breakdown In tackle Ball Pos Neg total total
won lost Off Loads loads loads Cleans possession possession efficiency pass carries carries Carries attack defence

1\8 1\17 0\7 0\6 0\1 1\113 0\0 1\16 100 0\6 3\53 3\49 0\4 13\283 4\214
0\10 3\19 0\12 0\7 0\5 0\191 0\0 1\19 66.7 0\11 4\73 4\68 0\5 7\148 11\231
0\10 0\31 0\10 0\7 0\3 1\204 0\0 1\29 100 0\7 1\87 0\73 1\14 22\434 10\219
0\11 5\25 0\6 0\5 0\1 5\210 0\0 2\25 100 0\5 4\87 3\77 1\10 44\444 17\262
1\18 6\23 1\6 0\5 1\1 0\106 0\0 3\18 66.7 1\4 1\50 1\48 0\2 28\264 19\271
0\11 6\32 2\20 1\18 1\2 1\171 0\0 3\28 83.3 1\15 5\95 5\86 0\9 49\485 19\257
1\9 0\27 1\20 1\17 0\3 3\131 0\0 0\24 80 0\15 3\78 3\71 0\7 28\342 9\214
2\9 4\18 0\7 0\7 0\2 0\113 1\1 1\16 80 0\7 0\62 0\55 0\7 26\297 15\216
0\10 0\25 0\28 0\24 0\4 1\238 0\0 0\29 100 0\24 0\121 0\106 0\15 10\550 2\157
5\96 25\217 4\116 2\96 2\22 12\1477 1\1 12\204 776.7\9 2\94 21\706 19\633 2\73 227\3247 106\2041
5.21 11.52 3.45 2.08 9.09 0.81 100 5.88 86.3 2.13 2.97 3 2.74 6.99 5.19

0\10 0\14 2\18 1\15 1\3 4\96 0\0 0\10 100 1\12 3\60 2\47 1\13 15\300 11\186
0\8 4\27 0\13 0\9 0\4 5\156 0\0 2\24 77.8 0\10 7\83 7\76 0\7 19\408 2\181
1\5 2\30 1\21 0\12 1\9 7\187 0\0 2\16 90 0\18 3\94 2\87 1\7 18\480 10\181
0\6 3\20 1\16 1\13 0\3 8\120 0\0 1\13 100 1\15 4\68 3\61 1\7 22\353 3\198
1\13 1\16 1\10 1\8 0\2 4\89 0\0 1\14 71.4 1\10 2\42 1\36 1\6 13\266 4\259
1\10 3\21 0\16 0\15 0\1 8\175 0\0 2\19 100 0\15 5\99 5\93 0\6 25\478 11\216
1\7 3\28 2\23 2\16 0\7 12\228 0\0 1\24 94.4 1\17 7\119 6\106 1\13 33\580 8\176
4\59 16\156 7\117 5\88 2\29 48\1051 0\0 9\120 633.6\7 4\97 31\565 26\506 5\59 145\2865 49\1397
6.78 10.26 5.98 5.68 6.9 4.57 0 7.5 90.51 4.12 5.49 5.14 8.47 5.06 3.51

0\7 1\19 2\13 2\9 0\4 6\161 0\0 1\13 77.8 1\10 6\64 4\56 2\8 19\375 6\160
2\10 2\23 2\10 2\8 0\2 4\117 0\0 2\19 71.4 2\7 4\54 4\51 0\3 16\126 16\203
2\15 0\24 4\15 4\14 0\1 9\134 0\0 0\23 100 4\14 4\62 1\54 3\8 20\327 16\221
0\8 1\17 2\7 1\6 1\1 2\113 0\0 2\16 100 2\6 4\53 3\49 1\4 18\283 11\214
1\10 2\19 4\12 1\7 3\5 5\191 0\0 2\19 88.9 3\11 9\73 9\68 0\5 21\430 10\231
0\10 2\31 0\10 0\7 0\3 9\205 0\0 2\29 86.7 0\7 3\87 3\73 0\14 15\434 14\219
2\11 1\25 3\6 3\5 0\1 8\210 0\0 2\25 90 2\5 4\87 3\77 1\10 22\444 19\262
0\18 1\23 2\6 2\5 0\1 1\106 0\0 1\18 75 2\4 4\50 4\48 0\2 12\264 9\271
0\11 4\32 .\20 2\18 1\2 7\171 0\0 3\28 88.9 2\15 8\95 8\86 0\4 29\485 11\257
1\9 3\27 1\20 1\17 0\3 11\131 0\0 3\24 84.6 1\15 5\78 4\71 1\7 26\342 5\214
1\9 0\18 1\7 1\5 0\2 5\113 0\1 0\16 92.3 1\7 5\62 5\55 0\7 12\297 16\216

249
 1\16 1\27 3\23 3\17 0\6 6\139 0\0 1\20 100 1\20 7\80 5\67 2\13 21\377 7\239
0\10 0\25 6\28 6\24 0\4 6\238 0\0 0\29 100 4\24 14\121 11\106 3\15 38\550 7\157
10\144 18\310 30\177 28\142 5\35 79\2029 0\1 19\279 1155.6\13 25\145 77\966 64\861 13\100 269\4734 147\2864
6.94 5.81 16.95 19.72. 14.29 3.89 0 6.81 88.89 17.24 7.97 7.43 13 5.68 5.13

0\11 3\36 2\19 2\16 0\3 6\182 3\31 3\26 87.5 1\16 7\84 6\73 1\11 19\449 2\132
0\6 0\15 0\14 0\13 0\1 10\266 1\31 0\11 100 0\14 3\102 3\84 0\18 15\509 4\166
0\8 0\15 0\12 0\12 0\0 6\197 0\27 0\14 85.7 0\11 1\82 1\75 0\7 7\420 10\206
0\6 1\16 0\6 0\4 0\2 3\218 3\37 0\13 80 0\6 5\89 5\79 0\10 11\481 3\160
0\14 0\13 0\11 0\9 0\2 1\162 0\24 0\15 100 0\7 0\59 0\54 0\5 1\348 6\267
0\8 0\22 0\4 0\3 0\1 3\122 0\39 0\11 75 0\3 1\39 1\39 0\0 5\287 6\261
1\12 2\26 0\6 0\5 0\1 7\259 0\29 2\21 81.8 0\4 4\96 4\92 0\4 14\512 10\179
0\16 1\24 0\9 0\8 0\1 1\136 1\32 1\17 100 0\8 2\60 1\55 1\5 9\334 7\249
1\10 0\12 1\13 1\11 0\2 5\186 0\25 1\13 70 1\8 3\85 3\76 0\9 12\447 9\164
1\15 1\24 0\6 0\6 0\0 8\150 3\32 1\20 77.8 0\4 4\62 4\51 0\11 13\352 3\236
1\16 1\17 1\13 0\5 0\2 6\205 3\33 2\15 100 1\11 3\96 3\92 0\4 19\490 6\188
4\122 9\220 4\113 3\92 0\15 56\2083 14\340 10\176 957.8\11 3\92 33\854 31\770 2\84 125\4629 66\2208
3.28 4.09 3.54 3.26 0 2.69 4.12 5.68 87.07 3.26 3.86 4.03 2.38 2.7 2.99

1\6 0\16 0\6 0\4 0\2 12\218 1\37 0\13 87 0\6 2\89 2\79 0\10 15\481 12\160
2\14 0\13 1\11 1\9 0\2 14\162 0\24 0\15 87 0\7 4\59 4\54 0\5 21\348 20\267
0\8 0\22 0\4 0\3 0\1 11\122 0\39 0\11 85 0\3 0\39 0\39 0\0 11\287 26\261
0\12 1\26 0\6 0\5 0\1 17\259 0\29 1\21 79.3 0\4 3\96 2\92 1\4 21\512 7\179
1\16 0\24 0\9 0\8 0\1 7\136 3\32 1\17 80 0\8 6\60 5\55 1\5 14\334 13\249
1\16 0\28 0\10 0\4 0\6 14\165 1\21 0\23 92.3 0\8 1\60 1\54 0\6 16\351 15\216
0\13 2\19 0\11 0\9 0\2 13\174 1\28 2\10 73.9 0\8 4\78 4\71 0\7 17\396 10\170
0\10 0\12 1\13 1\11 0\2 13\186 1\25 0\13 78.9 1\8 3\85 2\76 1\9 17\447 7\164
5\95 3\160 2\70 2\53 0\17 101\1422 7\235 4\123 663.4\8 1\52 23\566 20\520 3\46 132\3156 110\1666
5.26 1.88 2.86 3.77 0 7.1 2.98 3.25 82.93 1.92 4.06 3.85 6.52 4.18 6.6

0\11 2\36 0\19 0\16 0\3 1\182 3\31 2\26 100 0\16 5\84 4\73 1\11 10\449 3\132
0\6 1\15 0\14 0\13 0\1 0\266 2\31 1\11 0 0\14 3\102 3\84 0\18 7\509 5\166
0\6 1\16 0\6 0\4 0\2 1\218 2\37 1\13 100 0\6 4\89 4\79 0\10 10\481 2\160
0\14 0\13 0\11 0\9 0\2 3\162 0\24 0\15 100 0\7 1\59 1\54 0\5 5\348 11\267
2\8 1\22 0\4 0\3 0\1 2\122 3\39 1\11 66.7 0\3 0\39 0\39 0\0 13\287 13\261
2\12 1\26 1\6 0\5 1\1 4\259 3\29 1\21 80 1\4 2\96 2\92 0\4 8\512 6\179
1\16 5\24 0\9 0\8 0\1 4\136 9\32 2\17 100 0\8 4\60 3\55 1\5 20\334 7\249
4\16 1\28 0\10 0\4 0\6 2\165 0\21 1\23 50 0\8 3\60 3\54 0\6 8\351 12\216
3\13 1\19 1\11 1\9 0\2 7\174 1\28 1\10 88.9 1\8 5\78 5\71 0\7 17\396 12\170

250
 0\10 1\12 0\13 0\11 0\2 5\186 0\25 1\13 87.5 0\8 4\85 3\76 1\9 18\447 3\164
2\15 1\24 1\6 1\6 0\0 3\150 2\32 2\20 100 0\4 4\62 4\51 0\11 13\352 13\236
0\16 1\17 0\13 0\11 0\2 9\205 2\33 1\15 100 0\11 5\96 5\92 0\4 25\490 5\188
14\143 16\252 3\122 2\99 1\23 41\2225 27\362 14\195 973.1\12 2\97 40\910 37\820 3\90 154\4956 92\2388
9.79 6.35 2.46 2.02 4.35 1.84 7.46 7.18 81.09 2.06 4.4 4.51 3.33 3.11 3.85

0\11 2\36 0\19 0\16 0\3 6\182 1\31 2\26 81.8 0\16 7\84 7\73 0\11 16\449 5\132
0\6 0\15 1\14 0\13 1\1 10\266 2\31 0\11 93.8 1\14 10\102 9\84 1\18 22\509 9\166
2\8 1\15 1\12 1\12 0\0 9\197 1\27 2\14 76.5 1\11 6\82 6\75 0\7 17\420 18\206
0\6 2\16 0\6 0\4 0\2 7\218 1\37 2\13 77.8 0\6 13\89 13\79 0\10 26\481 8\160
1\14 2\13 0\11 0\9 0\2 7\162 1\24 2\15 92.3 0\7 5\59 5\54 0\5 12\348 13\267
1\8 3\22 1\4 1\3 0\1 9\122 7\39 3\11 90.9 1\3 10\39 10\39 0\0 24\287 24\261
1\12 1\26 2\6 2\5 0\1 19\259 1\29 1\21 91.7 1\4 10\96 10\92 0\4 34\512 15\179
0\16 2\24 1\9 1\8 0\1 5\136 3\32 3\17 100 1\8 6\60 6\55 0\5 19\334 17\249
2\13 1\19 0\11 0\9 0\2 8\174 3\28 1\10 81.3 0\8 9\78 9\71 0\7 18\396 11\170
1\15 2\24 1\6 1\6 0\0 14\150 0\32 2\20 90 1\4 4\62 4\51 0\11 19\352 15\236
0\16 0\17 0\13 0\11 0\2 10\205 2\33 0\15 100 0\11 8\96 8\92 0\4 21\490 11\188
8\125 16\227 7\111 6\96 1\15 104\2071 22\343 18\173 976.1\11 6\92 88\847 87\765 1\82 228\4578 146\2214
6.4 7.05 6.31 6.25 6.67 5.02 6.41 10.4 88.74 6.52 10.39 11.37 1.22 4.98 6.59

1\11 6\36 4\19 2\16 2\3 2\182 8\31 5\26 100 4\16 11\84 11\73 0\11 83\449 8\132
1\6 2\15 3\14 3\13 0\1 2\266 4\31 2\11 80 3\14 9\102 8\84 1\18 76\509 8\166
1\8 2\15 1\12 1\12 0\0 1\197 5\27 0\14 75 1\11 5\82 4\75 1\7 61\420 18\206
1\6 2\16 0\6 1\4 1\2 0\218 2\37 1\13 100 2\6 7\89 6\79 1\10 83\481 6\160
1\14 3\13 1\11 0\9 1\2 1\162 2\24 1\15 100 1\7 4\59 2\54 2\5 57\348 16\267
1\8 3\22 1\4 1\3 0\1 0\122 2\39 0\11 75 1\3 3\39 3\39 0\0 50\287 9\261
0\12 5\26 0\6 0\5 0\1 0\259 3\29 3\21 100 0\4 4\96 4\92 0\4 60\512 6\179
0\16 3\24 1\9 1\8 0\1 0\136 2\32 0\17 100 1\8 2\60 2\55 0\5 47\334 19\249
1\16 1\28 1\10 1\4 0\6 0\165 1\21 0\23 100 1\8 1\60 1\54 0\6 59\351 8\216
0\13 4\19 1\11 0\9 1\2 2\174 2\28 1\10 75 0\8 3\78 2\71 1\7 59\396 11\170
0\10 0\12 0\13 0\11 0\2 1\186 3\25 0\13 50 0\8 6\85 6\76 0\9 65\447 6\164
1\15 7\24 1\6 1\6 0\0 1\150 8\32 3\20 100 1\4 6\62 5\51 1\11 61\352 4\236
0\16 0\17 0\13 0\11 0\2 0\205 1\33 0\15 0 0\11 3\96 3\92 0\4 37\490 0\188
8\151 38\267 14\134 11\111 5\23 10\2422 43\389 16\209 1055\13 15\108 64\993 57\895 7\97 798\5376 119\2594
5.3 14.23 10.45 9.91 21.74 0.41 11.05 7.66 81.15 13.89 6.45 6.37 7.22 14.84 4.59

1\11 3\36 1\19 1\16 0\3 16\182 2\31 4\26 90.5 1\16 5\84 4\73 1\11 29\449 11\132
0\6 0\15 1\14 1\13 0\1 27\266 5\31 0\11 83.3 1\14 4\103 2\84 2\18 38\509 13\166
0\8 2\15 0\12 0\12 0\0 18\197 0\27 3\14 88 0\11 1\82 1\75 0\7 26\420 13\206

251
 0\6 1\16 0\6 0\4 0\2 27\218 2\37 1\13 90 0\6 3\89 2\79 1\10 35\481 13\160
2\14 0\13 2\11 2\9 0\2 22\162 3\24 1\15 95.8 1\7 3\59 3\54 0\5 28\348 21\267
0\8 1\22 0\4 0\3 0\1 14\122 6\39 1\11 77.8 0\3 1\39 1\39 0\0 17\287 15\261
0\12 0\26 0\6 0\5 0\1 7\259 0\29 0\21 90.9 0\4 2\96 2\92 0\4 13\512 6\179
3\16 2\24 2\9 0\8 0\1 15\136 1\32 2\17 90.9 2\8 3\60 3\55 0\5 27\334 16\249
0\16 0\28 1\10 1\4 0\6 13\165 1\21 0\23 95 1\8 8\60 8\54 0\6 28\351 13\216
0\13 1\19 1\11 1\9 0\2 14\174 4\28 1\10 86.7 1\8 3\78 2\71 1\7 23\396 12\170
0\10 3\12 2\13 2\11 0\2 17\186 3\25 2\13 80.8 1\8 6\85 6\76 0\9 34\447 12\164
0\15 1\24 0\6 0\6 0\0 15\150 3\32 2\20 85.7 0\4 3\62 2\51 1\11 26\352 13\236
1\16 2\17 1\13 0\11 1\2 22\205 1\33 2\15 83.9 1\11 3\96 3\92 0\4 30\490 13\188
7\151 16\267 11\134 8\111 1\23 227\2422 31\389 19\209 1139.3\13 9\108 45\993 39\895 6\97 354\5376 171\2594
4.64 5.99 8.21 7.21 4.35 9.37 7.97 9.09 87.64 8.33 4.53 3.69 6.19 6.58 6.59

252
TABLE 2
SEASON 1
Skill execution Concentration Response Time Index

Breakdown
Line Tackle Tacle per Tackles Tackles Turnover Defender kick turnover
PLAYERS GROUP Min Average Average Breaks Breaks min missed made forced beaten work rate pressure won

A 1 288 75.25 95.71 19.35 8.7 96.15 8.62 4.75 6 8.7 72.54 5.88 0
B 1 782 80.27 99.3 6.02 5.41 170 7.83 10.57 8.16 5.41 140.55 5.52 0
C 1 438 87.11 99.09 0 0 91.53 5.24 3.27 1.68 0 83.96 0.87 5.71
D 1 61 80.33 93.06 0 0 35.71 2.67 0.98 2.22 0 92.49 4.17 0
E 1 220 84.67 98.12 4 0 130 2.88 7.82 6.98 0 101.28 8.77 0
F 1 776 75.64 99.25 3.61 1.35 132.86 9.28 7.17 3.4 1.35 104.26 4.91 7.69
G 1 846 82.64 99.32 3.61 21.62 200 4.35 9.08 8.84 21.62 125.04 5.52 10.26

H 2 854 83.64 99 8.43 5.41 88.57 6.67 5.26 6.12 5.41 110.22 7.36 0
I 2 681 81.4 98.54 11.11 9.09 62.5 4.98 3.26 7.52 9.09 76.67 2.55 0
J 2 744 78.9 99 9.21 13.89 51.56 5.43 0.51 4.29 13.89 74.22 5.33 5.26

K 3 244 72.75 95.35 7.41 0 165.22 6 6.93 0 0 107.08 5.19 0

L 3 553 85.36 99.25 5.26 0 101.49 3.23 4.48 2.76 0 104.29 3.52 3.7
M 3 46 82.75 81.28 4.55 5.88 77.78 0.98 1.01 2.63 5.88 184.87 3.23 16.67
N 3 873 81.82 98.43 10.53 22.35 50.75 4.03 3.11 8.97 22.35 67.92 4.02 0
O 3 578 78.75 98.06 7.81 3.17 85.42 9.17 3.78 5.71 3.17 56.28 7.26 20
P 3 474 76.86 97.11 4.17 4.26 178.38 15.05 10.28 2.35 4.26 101.31 14.29 0
Q 3 523 81.64 98.52 2.86 5.33 162.26 7.25 7.4 5.26 5.33 131.28 8.33 0
R 3 66 81 100 16.67 8.33 40 0 2.1 11.11 8.33 53.57 3.13 0
S 3 72 79.4 94.4 5 4.35 61.11 0 1.4 2.56 4.35 71.61 0 0

T 4 689 73.7 98.89 8.82 2.53 65.57 5.67 3.22 3.15 2.53 46.98 6.63 0
U 4 481 88.3 98.79 0 0 84.75 2.56 3.13 6.25 0 116.28 2.14 13.04
V 4 867 78.09 98.55 10.53 9.41 76.12 6.72 4.48 10.34 9.41 52.49 5.53 11.11
W 4 418 85.82 98.24 3.95 0 110.45 511 3.37 1.38 0 94.68 3.52 0
X 4 841 88.64 99.14 10.53 11.49 85.07 4.57 5.26 7.59 11.76 183.7 7.04 0
Y 4 800 85.2 99.34 4.41 2.53 122.95 6.27 8.26 11.68 2.53 115.28 4.42 0

253
SEASON 1
Decision Making Index
Break-
Good Win Lost down
turnover turnover Off off Bad off posses- posses- efficien- In tackle Ball Pos Neg total total Assist Putting Pick Dum-
won lost Loads loads loads cleans sion sion cy pass carries carries Carries attack defence tackle pressure and go mies

7.14 9.52 0 0 0 3 0 7.94 65.58 0 5.61 5.22 11.76 3.82 4.55 5,04 6.46 0 5.26
11.2 2.02 6.82 7.87 4.08 8.66 4.68 4.3 82.89 8 7.3 7.62 5.36 6.37 11.77 14.32 5.99 9.84 4.89
2.88 0 0 0 0 8.09 1.83 0 71.19 0 1.83 1.67 0 3.63 2.87 2.36 1.95 4.17 0
0 1.72 5.77 7.14 0 0 5.26 0 0 4.65 2.46 1.9 9.09 1.89 0.55 1.11 1.54 0 5.88
7.89 4.62 0 0 0 9.72 2.56 3.85 73.17 0 1.72 4.55 4.17 5.33 7.4 9.29 9.05 5.56 4.26
5 2.88 8.52 8.66 8.16 7.9 1.8 3.76 84.64 9.33 4.68 5.12 4.48 5.71 6.9 4.13 7.09 3.28 4.35
11.67 5.76 14.2 17.32 6.12 6.15 7.55 6.99 81.16 16.67 14.14 14.23 14.93 7.04 10.05 10.19 5.13 6.56 3.26

6.67 15.23 2.84 2.36 4.08 1.74 14.03 6.45 76.83 2 3.88 3.75 5.26 7.94 5.26 5.34 6.11 0 27.72
8.7 9.82 7.19 3.67 13.64 2.34 15 6.55 86.15 6.92 5.77 5.87 4.35 4.43 3.15 3.38 5.23 0 6.02
4.2 4.52 8.48 7.56 10.87 4.64 3.95 4.68 80.74 9.22 6.81 7.08 4.05 4.63 4.51 3.38 6.73 0 7.06

0 15.84 5.26 3.13 16.67 1.13 5.31 7.5 88.55 5.88 3.32 3.19 4.17 5.22 5.42 5.63 3.75 0 11.91
3.64 1.29 0.89 1.03 0 6.87 0.34 13.3 71.3 0 3.58 3.63 3.16 4.3 4.36 5.14 1.59 6.99 1.45
3.45 3.85 3.7 4.17 0 0 2.67 1.79 50 4.35 2.1 2.23 0 2.95 1.34 2.33 1.56 3.7 9.68
1.82 12.88 6.25 6.19 6.67 2.75 23.21 8.87 81.06 7.22 8.79 8.6 10.53 5.25 2.92 2.16 5.01 0.7 5.8
8.75 2.55 5.95 5.56 8.33 2.39 2.38 2.88 78.96 2.86 3.63 3.68 3.13 2.74 4.54 3.88 9.19 0 5.61
1.61 8.04 5.88 6.78 0 1.42 3.87 5.88 70.57 3.51 2.88 2.69 5 5.88 8.38 6.84 9.64 0 13.79
3.53 4.19 2.91 2.5 7.14 7.54 3.72 7.14 81.13 3.7 6.25 6.64 2.67 5.11 8.98 6.37 6.76 3.33 0.84
20 0 18.18 11.11 50 1.4 9.38 0 50 18.18 5.06 4.41 9.09 3.1 2.79 2.86 4.71 0 0
3.7 1.49 0 0 0 0.91 1.27 3.08 70 0 1.3 1.44 0 1.33 1.24 0 2.5 0 0

2.91 3.79 9.62 10 7.14 1.52 6.02 2.73 63.64 9.89 4.56 4.04 8.79 2.5 3.21 2.01 6.56 1.53 1.54
6.19 1.9 0.99 1.15 0 9.2 3.37 3.7 75.23 1.15 1.78 1.84 1.22 4.91 4.1 3.28 2.18 1.59 0
10 8.58 2.68 2.02 6.67 1.6 11.95 6.4 80.08 3.09 4.45 4.96 0 2.89 4.67 1.89 5.99 0.7 2.17
0.91 2.58 2.68 3.09 0 3.8 1.71 3.94 73.43 3.09 4.99 5.33 2.11 3.03 3.01 4.32 3.67 2.8 2.9
9.09 17.17 15.18 15.46 1.33 2.29 12.29 8.87 59.4 15.46 5.65 5.33 8.42 14.88 5.21 4.32 5.62 6.99 18.84
3.88 2.84 1.87 2.22 0 11.22 10.19 3.28 81.04 2.2 6.95 6.73 7.22 7.25 6.95 3.44 6 7.63 5.39

254
SEASON 2
Skill execution Concentration Response Time Index
Breakdown
Line Tackle Tacle per Tacles Tackles Turnover Defender Kick turnover
PLAYERS GROUP Min Average Average Breaks Breaks min missed made forced beaten Work rate pressure won

A 1 214 77.33 96.75 0 9.09 38.89 0 3.05 2.78 9.09 44.6 1.54 0
B 1 825 80.73 99.42 4.35 8.47 164.29 7.84 11.4 10.78 8.47 144.86 10.62 25
C 1 318 86.33 98.62 0 0 93.94 4.26 4.41 4.82 0 88.74 2.13 0
D 1 262 72.33 96.75 0 0 84.62 6.19 4.2 3.45 0 82.47 6.25 0
E 1 564 83.88 99.05 2.74 0 125 5.31 7.07 3.88 0 99.05 3.9 5.26
F 1 553 77.63 99.96 3.33 13.89 131.82 4.23 7.33 4.9 13.89 86.49 6.11 10
G 1 640 82.13 98.55 9.26 19.44 154.17 10.05 10.82 14.68 19.44 134.31 9.47 20

H 2 480 82.33 98.44 3.28 0 106.06 10.27 6.27 4.49 0 122.61 11.3 0
I 2 607 85.13 99.2 6.76 8.89 40 1.99 2.51 7.96 8.89 68.06 2.96 0
J 2 958 84.17 99.35 17.35 16.95 66.67 5.43 4.4 4.76 16.95 71.69 6.25 0

K 3 517 80.57 98.47 0 3.57 114.63 4.07 7.82 6.58 7.14 113.58 7.35 0
L 3 726 83.9 99.29 2.47 4.17 101.64 4.56 6.79 7.32 4.17 103.3 3.37 0
M 3 61 86.8 95.8 0 0 61.54 1.59 1.8 0 0 182.47 4.88 0
N 3 697 83.33 98.83 1.96 2.94 50.94 3.54 2.93 10.48 2.94 66.59 5.41 0
O 3 906 77.92 99.07 13.64 5.56 91.43 9.66 4.96 6.71 5.56 68.26 3.86 14.29
P 3 466 76.8 97.77 8.96 6.45 137.14 13.16 8.48 4.94 6.45 112.71 13.39 0
Q 3 731 84.69 99.17 5.68 20.37 127.14 6.9 6.73 4.7 20.37 119.86 7.3 28.57
R 3 350 85.08 98.39 11.54 3.57 109.3 6.21 4.97 8.54 3.57 114.07 6.84 0
S 3 951 76.67 99.19 8 5.56 131.88 7.39 9.22 8.9 5.56 100.69 11.49 0

T 4 808 80.75 98.76 6.25 2.22 64.06 4 3.9 5.74 2.22 53.23 4.27 0
U 4 699 84.85 95.66 1.98 3.33 121.05 4.94 5.56 8.92 3.39 100.32 2.28 0
V 4 923 77.25 98.41 18.89 11.32 53.52 5.42 3.26 10.07 11.54 51.22 3 0
W 4 461 82.85 98.31 3.96 3.33 117.11 3.4 3.94 3.82 3.39 110.91 4.18 0
X 4 970 89.15 99.19 11.88 11.67 64.47 3.09 4.19 4.46 11.86 196.47 7.22 0
Y 4 774 85.5 99.09 1.23 0 113.11 6.84 7.62 6.5 0 108.87 7.21 0

255
SEASON 2
Decision Making Index
Good Win Lost Break-
turnover turnover Off off Bad off posses- posses- down In tackle Ball Pos Neg total total Assist Putting Pick Dum-
won lost Loads loads loads cleans sion sion efficiency pass carries carries Carries attack defence tackle pressure and go mies
%
0 4.69 0 0 0 2.4 9.38 3.28 53.4 0 2.29 2.58 0 2.86 2.77 0 4.700 0 3.5700
12.69 2.54 3.49 2.99 5.26 8.35 6.35 3.67 92.56 2.46 6.45 6.75 3.85 6.3 12.13 17.28 7.98 10.84 1.56
5.8 1.42 0 0 0 9.44 2.63 0.72 81.22 0 1.59 1.54 2.08 4.42 3.8 5.78 2.58 1.96 0
2.17 5.62 1.72 2.04 0 0.32 4.95 1.37 50 0 2.56 1.77 10.34 5.43 3.39 0.73 4.13 0 13.51
5.71 0.52 1.54 2 0 8.19 1.1 2.4 85.88 2.33 4.17 4.36 2.67 4.68 6.61 6.4 5.22 6.1 1.04
6.49 2.45 5 5.63 3.45 4.41 3.33 1.6 73.45 5.75 3.6 3.99 0 4.12 6.77 7.48 7.61 0.85 2.94
20.69 8.33 11.5 9.64 13.33 7.09 6.6 8.95 84.25 13.68 12.14 12.74 6.25 7.28 12.44 15.98 7.13 15.83 5.8

2.82 15.67 4.08 5.19 0 1.62 5.94 3.28 90.55 4.76 2.02 2.02 2.08 9.2 6.15 3.8 9.37 0 20.9
5.81 6.77 5.6 5.1 7.4 3.02 21.19 4.55 95.09 5.56 6.88 5.9 15.07 5.13 2.63 1.28 3.65 0.82 4.26
4.55 6.62 15.34 19.55. 2.33 3.63 3.98 6.56 95.87 16.22 7.89 7.67 9.71 5.18 3.93 1.16 6.63 0 12.8

2.22 14.38 2.56 0 7.14 0.88 4 3.33 77.61 2.78 3.26 3.14 4.26 7.25 6.67 7.59 5.79 0 15.39
9.72 2.78 5.33 7.14 0 9.97 1.27 10.16 80.92 6.35 4.54 4.52 4.69 5.84 7.16 7.63 4.12 10.61 0.89
0 6.52 0 0 0 0 4.23 3.33 50 0 2.24 1.75 5 5.76 2.27 1.41 2.47 6.25 4.35
6.15 11 5.36 8.57 0 2.63 23.94 5.56 84.79 4.08 6.48 5.93 11.29 4.9 3.17 2.42 4.99 0 17.05
9.52 3.58 4.6 3.33 7.41 4.07 2..83 4.61 89.63 4 4.68 4.86 2.82 3.56 5.27 4.66 8.16 1.35 3.94
6.67 9.38 7.14 10.26 0 2.73 2.03 5.17 85.57 8.89 4.74 4.21 11.11 7.1 7.67 6.6 9.69 0 28.21
8.33 5.38 8.05 8.33 7.41 6.66 3.34 5.99 88.58 8 9.1 9.03 9.86 5.7 7.37 5.7 6.76 6.76 0.79
3.77 2.67 3.85 5.13 0 5.02 5.38 4.65 87 4.44 5.98 6.03 5.41 4 5.37 7.66 6.65 0 1.41
10.59 7.9 4.4 6.56 0 4.53 4.18 7.24 88.68 5.19 8.31 8.87 2.67 5.32 9.63 7.75 9.05 0 12.98

6.76 6.08 15.79 9.43 30.43 2.04 6.82 7.39 83.52 11.94 6.35 6.76 2.63 3.05 3.67 1.17 6.94 0 2.46
7.78 2.24 5.26 4.69 6.45 6.85 3.55 2.97 85.94 3.7 3.25 3.46 1.2 4.06 5.51 5.7 3.9 0 0.7
10.23 9.19 5.75 3.51 10 1.66 9.16 6.98 81.44 6.76 4.58 4.77 2.74 3.32 3.28 2.25 5.87 0 2.4
1.11 3.51 5.26 4.69 0 3.08 2.37 3.39 83.07 2.47 6.05 5.68 9.64 2.94 3.59 4.99 3.46 3.57 1.4
2.22 18.21 18.95 17.19 2.58 0.09 14.45 9.75 59.08 19.75 8.06 7.65 12.05 16.09 4.18 2.14 6.82 26.19 25.87
2.78 3.17 12 14.29 5.26 11.19 6.98 5.88 89.86 11.11 5.25 5.3 4.69 7.42 6.2 4.8 5.76 6.06 3.57

256
SEASON 3
Skill execution Concentration Response Time Index
Breakdown
Line Tackle Tacle per Tacles Tackles Turnover Defender kick turnover
PLAYERS GROUP Min Average Average Breaks Breaks min missed made forced beaten work rate pressure won

H 2 540 83.56 98.38 5.06 0 98.33 7.64 5.03 3.42 0 124.14 10.71 11.8
I 2 560 84.43 98.46 8.7 10 52.27 4.26 3.61 8.7 10 67.98 2.8 0
J 2 1019 79.62 99.35 14.42 15.38 85.71 5.34 5.64 6.29 17.02 81.36 2.42 0

T 4 802 80.17 98.88 7.79 3.08 60 4.57 3.18 3.64 3.08 45.52 6.42 0
U 4 495 85.67 98.79 7.55 5.88 109.8 6.44 5.96 4.84 5.88 99 3.5 0
V 4 856 81.42 98.98 14.46 9.38 53.42 2.72 3.58 8.56 9.38 56.96 5.17 0
W 4 796 85 98.56 6.49 6.9 130.3 9.82. 7.44 7.14 6.9 91.15 6.94 0
X 4 944 90.69 99.54 13.64 8.57 67.09 3.59 4.44 5.58 10.29 191.55 10.34 0
Y 4 980 85.92 99.34 0 1.43 117.72 3.85 7.89 12.18 1.47 106.79 6.47 0

257
 Decision Making Index
Good Win Lost Break-
turnover turnover Off off Bad off posses- posses- down In tackle Ball Pos Neg total total Assist Putting Pick Dum-
won lost Loads loads loads cleans sion sion efficiency pass carries carries Carries attack defence tackle pressure and go mies

5.21 11.52 3.45 2.08 9.09 0.81 10 5.88 86.3 2.13 2.97 3 -2.74 6.99 5.19 6.38 7.99 0 22.03
6.78 10.26 5.98 5.68 6.9 4.57 0 7.5 90.51 4.12 5.49 5.14 8.47 5.06 3.51 1.53 4.31 1.49 5.93
6.94 5.81 16.95 19.72. 14.29 3.89 0 6.81 88.89 17.24 7.97 7.43 13 5.68 5.13 4.75 6.58 0.52 8.97

3.28 4.09 3.54 3.26 0 2.69 4.12 5.68 87.07 3.26 3.86 4.03 2.38 2.7 2.99 0.97 5.99 0 7.32
5.26 1.88 2.86 3.77 0 7.1 2.98 3.25 82.93 1.92 4.06 3.85 6.52 4.18 6.6 7.19 5.39 0 1.27
9.79 6.35 2.46 2.02 4.35 1.84 7.46 7.18 81.09 2.06 4.4 4.51 3.33 3.11 3.85 1.29 5.06 2.13 3.82
6.4 7.05 6.31 6.25 6.67 5.02 6.41 10.4 88.74 6.52 10.39 11.37 1.22 4.98 6.59 8.27 5.69 7.91 6.92
5.3 14.23 10.45 9.91 21.74 0.41 11.05 7.66 81.15 13.89 6.45 6.37 7.22 14.84 4.59 2.21 7.22 8.59 23.61
4.64 5.99 8.21 7.21 4.35 9.37 7.97 9.09 87.64 8.33 4.53 3.69 6.19 6.58 6.59 7.65 6.14 3.07 4.17

258
 APPENDIX 3

Enclosed disc - illustration of video clips

259
 APPENDIX 4

Ethical clearance letter

260