2013 Book ModellingComputingSystems PDF

Undergraduate Topics in Computer Science
Faron Moller
Georg Struth
Modelling
Computing Systems
Mathematics for Computer Science
Undergraduate Topics in Computer Science
Undergraduate Topics in Computer Science (UTiCS) delivers high-quality instructional content for un-
dergraduates studying in all areas of computing and information science. From core foundational and
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ous examples and problems. Many include fully worked solutions.
For further volumes:

www.springer.com/series/7592
Faron Moller r Georg Struth
Modelling
Computing Systems
Mathematics for Computer Science

Faron Moller Georg Struth
Department of Computer Science Dept. Computer Science
Swansea University University of Sheffield
Swansea, UK Sheffield, UK
Series editor
Ian Mackie
Advisory board
Samson Abramsky, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
Karin Breitman, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Chris Hankin, Imperial College London, London, UK
Dexter Kozen, Cornell University, Ithaca, USA
Andrew Pitts, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
Hanne Riis Nielson, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
Steven Skiena, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, USA
Iain Stewart, University of Durham, Durham, UK
ISSN 1863-7310 Undergraduate Topics in Computer Science

ISBN 978-1-84800-321-7 ISBN 978-1-84800-322-4 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-84800-322-4
Springer London Heidelberg New York Dordrecht
Library of Congress Control Number: 2013943907
© Springer-Verlag London 2013

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Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)

CONTENTS v
Contents

Preface xiii
0 Introduction 1

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13 Logical Properties of Processes 333

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F. Moller, G. Struth, Modelling Computing Systems,

Undergraduate Topics in Computer Science,
DOI 10.1007/978-1-84800-322-4_1, © Springer-Verlag London 2013
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Part I
Mathematics for
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Chapter 1
Propositional Logic

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Propositions and Deductions 19

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...
if CabinPressure < MinPressure then PrepareForLanding;
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Modelling with Propositional Logic 33

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Ambiguities of Natural Languages 35
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'

(

$

Example 1.17
)

“You may have coffee or tea with your meal.”
*

+

“You may have coffee with your meal
or you may have tea with your meal.”
#

, , -


!

"

" !

and you may have tea with your meal.”
#

!

!

and you may have tea with your meal,
but not both.”
$ %

!

!

& You may have coffee with your meal

& You may have tea with your meal

' ( ' (
#
!
!
!
! )* +
'
(

,

! modality
may

do

!

!

!

& You have coffee with your meal

& You have tea with your meal

!

'- (


“You have coffee with your meal
or you have tea with your meal,
but not both.”

“You have coffee but not tea with your meal
or you have tea but not coffee with your meal.”

“You do not have both coffee and tea with your meal.”

“You do not have coffee with your meal
or you do not have tea with your meal.”
!

"

#

$

Example 1.18
%

&

$

! ' $
(

) * $

+
“If Carlos is a man, then Carlos is the King of Spain.”
, $

+
“If Carlos is a woman, then Carlos is the King of Spain.”
-

#

%

$

+
“If Carlos is a woman, then Carlos is the Queen of Spain.”

“If I told you once, I told you a hundred times!”

!

“If he ever pays me back, then I’ll be a monkey’s uncle!”

"

! #

Example 1.19
$

“If you understand implication, then you will pass the exam.”

% $
&

' $

!

(

)

* $

+

, $ -

#

.



!

"

# "
1.5 Truth Tables

$

%

&

'

%

#
(

)

truth table
* negation #

'

*

T
F +

F T
T F

Truth Tables 41

' $ ' $

F F F F F F
F T T F T F
T F T T F F
T T T T T T
& % & %
' $ ' $

F F T F F T
F T T F T F
T F F T F F
T T T T T T
& % & %

Example 1.20

!
“Everyone who sits quietly for the next hour
will get an ice cream when we stop for petrol.”
"

Quiet # You sit quietly
Ice # You get an ice cream
$

Quiet Ice %
& %

!
' $
Quiet Ice Quiet Ice
F F T
F T T
T F F
T T T
& %
ÓÒÐÝ

Quiet Ice
%


!

"

#$
% &' (() *

“If you understand implication, then you will pass the exam.”
!

Example 1.21
+

, , , ,
#
-
Cat . Catherine goes to the party
Jim . Jim goes to the party
Jules . Jules goes to the party
+ #
Cat Jim Jules
! + ,
, # /

Cat Jim Jules
0 !

Truth Tables 43
' $
Jim Jules
Cat Jim Jules Jim Jules Cat Jim Jules
F F F F T T
F F T F T T
F T F F T T
F T T T F T
T F F F T T
T F T F T T
T T F F T T
T T T T F F
& %

Cat Jim Jules

Jim
Jules

Cat Jim Jules

!

" # $
%
' $
Cat Jim Jules Cat Jim Jules
F F F F T T F F F
F F T F T T F F T
F T F F T T T F F
F T T F T F T T T
T F F T T T F F F
T F T T T T F F T
T T F T T T T F F
T T T T F F T T T
´¼µ ´¼µ ´¼µ ´½µ (4) ´¿µ ´½µ ´¾µ ´½µ
& %

%
&

'

Cat Jim Jules
(


Jim Jules

Jim Jules

Cat Jim Jules

!

È " É" Ê Ë # $

#
$
Ò

#
%

& È É
È É È É
È É Ê Ë
'(
)
Ô Õ
*
' $
Ô Õ ÔÕ
F F F
F T T
T F T
T T F
& %

" Ô Õ

"
" Ô Õ

%
( &&+ , (-

Ô Õ

Equivalences and Valid Arguments 45
1.6 Equivalences and Valid Arguments

Cat Jim Jules Cat Jim
Jules
!

Cat Jim Jules Cat Jim
Jules

Cat Jim Jules Cat Jim Jules

"
#

$

logically equivalent

tautology

valid
contradiction

unsatisfiable

%

&

&

satisfiable
Example 1.24

"
'
!

(
#

F T T F T F
T F T T F F

(

(

)
* +

+


!
"

# $
% % & ' ()
Either this man is dead or my watch has stopped.

My watch is still ticking.
Therefore
This man is dead.
"
#
*

%
%
# )
Dead Watch Watch Dead
+ %

%
$

# , &

)
' $
Dead Watch Dead Watch Watch Dead
F F F F F F T F T F
F T F T T F F T T F
T F T T F T T F T T
T T T T T F F T T T
& %
- %
. /)
If my dog barks, then my dog doesn’t bite.

My dog doesn’t bark.
Therefore
My dog bites.
Algebraic Laws for Logical Equivalences 47

' $
Barks Bites Barks Bites Barks Bites
F F F T T F T T F F F
F T F T F T T T F T T
T F T T T F F F T T F
T T T F F T F F T T T
& %

counterexample

!" ##$

%

& Pressure Land Height Land

'

& Pressure Height Land(

& Pressure Height Land
)

%

*

!"

1.7 Algebraic Laws for Logical Equivalences

+

*
*

,

*

- "
$ ./0 & 12

$ . / 0 & $ . / $ 0
& #1 / #0 & 12

/ & / (


Commutativity Laws

Associativity Laws

! " !
"
! " !
"
Idempotence Laws

Distributivity Laws

! " !
" ! "
! " !
" ! "
De Morgan’s Laws

! "
! "
Double Negation Law

Tautology Laws
true true true
Contradiction Laws
false false false
Excluded Middle Laws

true false
Absorption Laws

! "
! "
Implication Law

Algebraic Laws for Logical Equivalences 49
Contrapositive Law

Equivalence Law

!

"

#
$ %

&
'

'

(

Example 1.26
) '

'

!

true
true

) '

'

true
Example 1.27
)

!

true
true

true

true
true


!
"
#
$
%
&
1.8 Additional Exercises

! '

(
)!*

+
),

-+
).

+
)

(+
Additional Exercises 51

!

"

!

#

" $

%

%

"

"
&

%

" &

&
' #

%( ) **

+

Æ

, -

* **
+ .
**&

/*
+ .

*
**
+ .
**

"

**

½ + .
**

/*

*
**&
*
¾ + .
**

/*

*
**&
*
)

0 *

**
1 2

3

4 5

4

! "
#

"

#
$

#
$

% & CatAway

' ! MicePlay
'

'
!
' !
' !
( )

$

*
“Every card with a circle on one side

always has stripes on the other side.”

+
'
" Wason Selection Test
,
-
.

/(00 1

*

2345

!

!
"

#
$
% & '

()(*! (+,

-

& !
'

!

. &

&
/ 0
1

& !
2

&

'

3 !

()(*

&
3 !

(+,

&
4 )

#

&
&

!

2
!

& /2
!

2

!
&

5
$
6 5

! &

! " &

! ! )
7
) ! 87

5
9 5 ) $ " 7
$
: ) 3

; ! #

5 3

&
& !

3

&
&
5 3

&
& !
2

&
& ! &

5 3
!

&

) <

&

!
"

#$ %

&
'
(

'
)

(

(

#*

++
' ,

! -

!
.

/

0

0

0

1 "

1 0

'

2

.
,

30

1

1

1

! !
) 4 1


! "

!

#

$

%

&
' (
) (
*
% )
+, -

.&
!
"
! +/0

! %
%
0 %

!

%

+1 -

!
&
!

%
!

Chapter 2
Sets

! "

# $
% & ' % & % (&
% & % & % & % &
% & #

'
2.1 Set Notation

) set * # *
elements

members # * cardinality

'
false true +
, - ./ +
+
0 1
2 )
) 3 4 5 6 ! +

58 Sets

! "

#
¯ $ %
&&
'

'
% ( $$ $ $(

) *

+ +

, - +

.
)
$( $ / '

) 0 1 2

3

4

set-builder notation #
#

5 3
6

Example 2.1

#
$

0 /

#
# 0 /

1 7
#
#
1 7

#

#

#
#

Membership, Equality and Inclusion 59

! "

! " # $

$ # " ! " # $

%
!

%

& '

(

)

" % !
*
# %

$ % + ,---

. % / 0 Æ

2.2 Membership, Equality and Inclusion

(
1
2 Membership

3 $ 3 ". 4 3 $ 3 ". 5
60 Sets

!
" !
# $ % & % &$

&!
! ' % ( ) ) * !

)! ' % ) ( ) * !
#& % $+
! ) ) !
)! ) ) !
! ) ) !
! !
*! !
,& - equal

. ! , $
& $ $ $ &
/ ! "$
(

(

!
0 $ 1 $Æ& -

&2 & !
#& % 3$ +

Membership, Equality and Inclusion 61
¯

subset

superset

!

"

#

$ % &

Example 2.4
"

!

"

'
'
Venn diagrams (

& )

* + ,
* +
* + , -
.

& /
'

universe of discourse

)

0
1!
62 Sets
Í

!" ## $

# % #" &'
# ! ( '
#&! & !&
(

& # )& "

(
)& "
)
*# &) )&&' && & +

, &! $& ' # & )&&' # & &)
! & &) '# &!$&
- reflexive & )& $"

- antisymmetric )
- transitive )
.&&$ " ' # & # &(
#& " &
& )& #
Sets and Properties 63
2.3 Sets and Properties

Primes

!
Primes "

Primes

#$

$

%

"

$ & '

#$
$

(

!
$

)

$ $
"

"

"

(
!

#$

$

Example 2.5
*

$

&

$

$
$ ' +$$!

,

- Animals

Humans

$
Humans Animals "

(
Humans Animals

Example 2.6
.
Ê
/ $$
$
"

64 Sets
Ê
Ê
Ê
Ê

! "
Example 2.7
#
"
$ % & #' (
"
$ % & #' (

!! " )

"
$ % & #' (
2.3.1 Russell’s Paradox

)
" !

*
" "! +

,"
!

-

* '
. )

. #

. - "

/
0!!

)
" !! " 1

"

Operations on Sets 65
¯

! Russell’s Paradox

"
#
$ !

%

&
'
#
#
( &

#

) '
* + , + ( "- .

+
2.4 Operations on Sets

$

&
$

2.4.1 Union
union
/ 0'
) '

66 Sets

Í

Example 2.8
!
Example 2.9
"

# $

% &

# $
% & '

(
2.4.2 Intersection
intersection

)

"% "
*
! *
"

Í

Example 2.10
!
Example 2.11

disjoint

!
"

"

Theorem 2.11 Inclusion-Exclusion Principle

"
2.4.3 Difference
difference

#

$

Í

Example 2.12
% & ' ( ) & ( * + %, % ' )

68 Sets

Example 2.13

!

" #$

!!

2.4.4 Complement
complement %# &
' ' & (
(

'$

' & $ )# *

&$ #
Example 2.14
+'& ' ' , - $

, - $

, -
Example 2.15
+'& ' ' $

& & !
! . & &


! "

# #

# $ %

# $ %

# $ % #

# $ % #

& !
' #
# ( !

)" ) '" *

# ( !

)" ) '" *
# +
!

*
# (
!
*

# (
!
*

2.4.5 Powerset
,
powerset $ %
"'

$ % #
,
"!
$ %
#
( "! $ % $ %#

+
) ' "' # (

') ¬Ò $ %
"'

¬Ò $% - #

70 Sets
Example 2.16

!

" # $% &' ( )

# $% &' (

# $% &' (
# $% # &' # (
$% &' $% ( &' (
# $% &' # $% (
# &' ( $% &' (

# $% &' (

%

¯

¯

Example 2.17

! "! #

$ %
&
' (
"

Friends #
$ %
&
'

)
"!

! Friends * " "" $ &

! !

) "!

#
%
' Friends
+
Friends Friends
,
$ -
" ./ ( !

0 1
*
"!
.

2
( !
1
3

! 1
72 Sets
2.4.6 Generalised Union and Intersection

! " ! " #
$
! " % ! " ! " % ! "

$
% %

&
!"
$

Ë % $

Ì % $

% % Ì
Ë

$
' %
Ë % Ì
( %
Ë ! " % Ì ! "
)
Ë Ì
% %

#

* Ë

+ Ì

Example 2.19
+ ,+'-'

ClassLists

,+'-' ClassLists # Students

Ordered Pairs and Cartesian Products 73
Students
Ë ClassLists
Ì ClassLists

Ì ¬Ò Ë ¬Ò
2.5 Ordered Pairs and Cartesian Products

ordered pair first coordinate
second coordinate !
" # $
! # ! $ %
"

&

Cartesian product
'

(

Ê Ê Ê ¾
!
Example 2.20
)
*+
, *+
, *+
, *+
,
' -
.)/ 0

+ + + 1 +
1 + 1 1 +

+ 1
74 Sets
Example 2.21

Keys Values Keys
Values

! "

#
$

#

%
IDNumbers & '( )*+,-
'.
" /0+)-
'1 *23)-
'! 4*5+-

! "

%
CapitalCities & '. 6
-
'6 7
-
'( -
'
-

8

Æ
. "
& ' - %

' -

#

$

# Ê & Ê Ê Ê
¿
9

$

& &
Ordered Pairs and Cartesian Products 75
Example 2.22

Example 2.23
pixel

!
! "# $$%
#
&

" #
' RGB model

(
% !¿ % ! ) Ê * %
%
#
+ # ,
% % %

#

-

% % % % % % .
(
*
Pixel ) !
!
Colour ) % !¿

(
Point ) Pixel Colour

# "
(

"

/0 # / 0 1(

76 Sets
2.6 Modelling with Sets

Example 2.24

! "

#

$

%

&

! '
(

)

*

+ , -
!!.

/
"

!

, 0 /)

1 "

2 " /
3 4

Modelling with Sets 77


All babies are illogical.
Nobody is despised who can manage a crocodile.
Illogical persons are despised.
!

! !!

All oceans are full of water.
No ponds are oceans.
Therefore no ponds are full of water.
Example 2.26
!
" #$ !

"
" !
%&

!

'(

"

!

)
*" %%

"

!
"

!
+
*
,
- !
"

, , ,
, , ,
,

78 Sets

¯

!

¯ "

!

#

$

¯ %# && ! '

(

¯ )

!
'

*

¯ &+
&, '

-

¯ ,
&*
'

+

¯ )

-,

!

,

.
/

, ( +
* $
-

%
.

/

- , $ * + ( 0 ,
#

!

.

/
Algebraic Laws for Set Identities 79

¯ ¯
¯¯¯ ¯ ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯¯ ¯¯
¯ ¯
¯ ¯ ¯¯ ¯ ¯ ¯¯
¯¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯¯ ¯
¯ ¯
¯

2.7 Algebraic Laws for Set Identities

! "

"

#

$

Commutativity Laws
% %
Associativity Laws
& ' % & ' & ' % & '
Idempotence Laws
% %
Distributivity Laws
& ' % & ' & ' & ' % & ' & '
De Morgan’s Laws
& ' % & ' %
Double Complement Law
80 Sets
Universe Laws

Empty Set Laws

Complement Laws

Absorption Laws


!

Example 2.27

"
#

$

%
&
! ' (

! #
! ! !
Logical Equivalences versus Set Identities 81

Í

Example 2.28

! " #
$ " " " #

% #
&
#
2.8 Logical Equivalences versus Set Identities

'
$ ( $ ) *#+
)
) ,#+# -

. .#
Commutativity Laws Commutativity Laws
"
"
Associativity Laws Associativity Laws
! ! ! " !
! ! ! " !
Idempotence Laws Idempotence Laws
"
82 Sets

Distributivity Laws Distributivity Laws

De Morgan’s Laws De Morgan’s Laws

Double Negation Law Double Complement Law

Tautology Laws Universe Laws

true true
true
Contradiction Laws Empty Set Laws

false
false false
Excluded Middle Laws Complement Laws

true
false
Absorption Laws Absorption Laws

false true

Example 2.29
Implication Law

true

!"
#

$

Contrapositive Law
% Equivalence Law " "
&

$

' $

(
)

"
*

+


,
% - . /
. / 0 1 2
% . 0 1

)

3
"
"
84 Sets

!

"

## #

$

%
##

& '
##

(

(

) !
* " $ &

+

##
#

*

,

, " $ &

- . symmetric difference

/

#

0

## #


!
! "

# $

% %

& &

&
' ( !(

)

'

*' ' +
% ,- .' ( " '

!

'

$ '
/( ' -
%
$ '

( '

% " 0 (

'

'

% % *

( ! '
( ''

! "
#
% 1
' ! ,- 2

%
1 ! .' 2
.'

!

% % *
3 !
'

' 4 3 ' !

' ( *
#

!
2
%

!
,- 2
.
"

%
( !
!

1

!
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/ * $

$
% !

% ( %

* ( !
$

1

! * *% ! ' % ! ( '

! !
'
/ 5
#
* * ( !
6 . 7
autological
*
'% 8
9

"

: 8
( * 9
"

( * :

%
$ ( * .( 7

"
* heterological '% 8 "9
8' ( * 9
"
86 Sets

Chapter 3
Boolean Algebras and Circuits

!
Boolean
algebras

"

#

$ % &

%

& "

logic gates

% '
(
& '

(

F '( T '
(

)

*

!

3.1 Boolean Algebras

Boolean algebra

'

(

% &
zero unit

+ sum product

¼

complementation "

' (

'

,
(

+ ¼
"

Laws of Boolean Algebra - . &

88 Boolean Algebras and Circuits
Commutativity:

Associativity:

Distributivity:

Identity:

Complement: ¼

¼

! "

# $ # " !! %"
"
Example 3.1 The Boolean Algebra of Sets
&

& & & ' # & & & & ! #
¼

$ !& & !

!(" )! *+
Commutativity:

Associativity:

Distributivity:

Identity:

Complement:

Boolean Algebras 89
Example 3.2 The Boolean Algebra of Propositions

false true

¼

!
"

# $
%
&'
Commutativity:

Associativity: ! !

! !

Distributivity: ! !
!
! !
!
Identity: false
true
Complement: true
false
Example 3.3 The two-valued Boolean Algebra
($

$

# '

¼

)

$
$

*
(

+ $
$

$

¼

, -$
!!
$ ¼ ¼
3.2 Deriving Identities in Boolean Algebras

!

"

# $
! %&
Theorem 3.3 Further Distributive Laws
Ü ' Ý Þ ( ÜÞ ' ÝÞ

ÜÝ ' Þ ( Ü ' Þ Ý ' Þ

Proof: " ) !

Ü ' Ý Þ ( Þ Ü ' Ý

( ÞÜ ' ÞÝ

( ÜÞ ' ÝÞ

Theorem 3.4 Idempotence Laws
Ü'Ü ( Ü

ÜÜ ( Ü

Proof: " ) !

Ü ' Ü ( Ü ' Ü*

( Ü ' ÜÜ ' Ü ¼

( Ü ' ÜÜ ¼

( Ü'+

( Ü

Theorem 3.5 Domination Laws
Ü'* ( *

Ü+ ( +

Deriving Identities in Boolean Algebras 91
Proof:

Ü Ü Ü Ü
¼
Ü Ü Ü
¼
ÜÜ ¼

Theorem 3.6 Absorption Laws
ÜÝ Ü
Ü

Ü Ü Ý Ü

Proof:

Ü ÜÝ Ü ÜÝ
Ü Ý

ÜÝ
Ü
Ü

Theorem 3.7
Ü Ý ÜÞ ÜÝ ÜÞ Ý Þ
Proof:
Ý Ý Ü Ý

Ý Ü Þ

ÝÜ ÝÞ

ÞÜ ÞÝ

Þ Ü Ý

Þ Ü Þ

Þ


Ü Ü ¼
ÜÜ ! "

Ý #
¼
Ü

¼
Theorem 3.8 Uniqueness of Complement
ÜÝ
ÜÝ Ý Ü
Ü
¼ ¼

Ü Ü ÜÜ
¼ ¼
Proof: $
Ü Ý ÜÝ
ÜÝ

ÜÜ
¼

ÜÝ
ÜÜ ¼

! %& Ý Ü ¼

Theorem 3.9 Involution Law
'Ü (
¼ ¼
Ü
Proof:
Ü ¼
'Ü (
¼ ¼

Ü Ü ¼

Ü 'Ü (
¼ ¼ ¼

ÜÜ ¼

! %& 'Ü ( Ü ¼ ¼

)
¼ ¼
Theorem 3.10 De Morgan Laws
'Ü Ý ( ¼
ÜÝ ¼ ¼

'ÜÝ( ¼
Ü ¼
Ý ¼

The Duality Principle 93
Proof:

Æ

Ü ÝÜ Ý Ü Ý Ü Ý
¼ ¼ ¼ ¼

!""
#" $% &

Ü Ý Ü Ý
¼ ¼ ¼
Ü ÝÜ Ý ÜÜ Ý ÝÜ Ý

¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼
Ý Ü

¼ ¼

Ü Ý Ü Ý Ü Ý Ü Ü Ý Ý
¼ ¼ ¼ ¼
Ý Ü

'
&
"
ÜÝ Ü Ý ÜÝ Ü Ý
¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼
( ) ÜÝ ÜÞ Ü Ý Ü Þ

Ý Þ ¼ ¼
$ ) ÜÝ
Ü Ý
* Ü Ý ÜÝ Ü Ý Ý ¼ ¼
3.3 The Duality Principle

+ " , &
dual "
&&

&
- &

"
& , &

"

"

# "
Ü Ý Þ ÜÝ Þ ¼ ¼
# & "
, &
Theorem 3.11 The Principle of Duality

Proof: #

"

" "

" "

Example 3.11

ÜÜÝ Ü!
Ü Ü Ý Ü "Ü Ý
Ü "Ý

Ü Ý"
Ü"
Ü
#

$
Ü ÜÝ Ü
%&'

!
'

($
'
)

)

'

$

'

'
(

$

*

'

( # '

*
+ , '

+ ,

-

.( %/"
/ ÜÝ Ü¼ Ý ¼ ¼ ÜÝ ¼
Ü¼ Ý
0 # ÜÝ Ü Þ Ü Ý
¼
Ü Þ ¼

Ý Þ
% # Ü Ý "
Ü Ý "
1 Ü " ' ' Ý ÜÝ ¼

Ü¼ Ý Ý
Logic Gates and Digital Circuits 95
3.4 Logic Gates and Digital Circuits

bits

!

" #

$

%

Example 3.12

"!

&

"!
'

(
&

# (

"

)

*
(
"!

) (

(
+

(
"


OR gates AND gates NOT gates
OR gate

Ü
Ý

ÜÝ
Ü Ý
ÜÝ !

"

Ü Ü Ý
Ý
AND gate

Ü
Ý

ÜÝ
Ü Ý
Ü Ý !

"

Ü Ü Ý
Ý
NOT gate

Ü

Ü ¼
Ü!
Ü
¼
! Ü
"

Ü Ü ¼
#

Ü Ý Ü Ý Ü Ý ÜÝ Ü Ü ¼
! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! !
! ! !
$

%
&

% '

(& )) *

ÜÝ

ÜÝ #


Example 3.13
!

"
Ü
Ý Ù
Þ Ú Û
# Ü$ Ý Þ
# Ü Ý

%&
Ù ' ÜÝ ($
Þ
%)#

Ú ' Þ #
Ù Ú
*

¼

)+
* Û ' Ù , Ú
# -

$
$

Û ' ÜÝ , Þ ¼
#

"
Ü Ý Þ Ù Ú Û
. . . . / /
. . / . . .
. / . . / /
. / / . . .
/ . . . / /
/ . / . . .
/ / . / / /
/ / / / . /
0
$ Ü'/$ Ý '. Þ '/$

%& .$

%)# 1

)+ .$

Û

."
Ü'/
Ý'. .
Þ'/ . Û'.
#
*
Û ' ÜÝ , Þ ¼

È É Ê $
$

Example 3.14

¯

! "#
$
¯

"#
$
¯

"#
$
¯

! %&

$ '
¯ !

%&

! $ '

( ( ( ( ( ( ( (
( ( ) ( ( ( ( (
( ) ( ( ( ( ( (
( ) ) ( ( ) ( )
) ( ( ( ( ( ( (
) ( ) ( ) ( ) )
) ) ( ) ( ( ) )
) ) ) ) ) ) ) )
"

$ ' $ ' ' $ ' '

exclusive-OR gate XOR gate

¨
¨
!
!
!

!

"
!
!

¨
"

!
#

$
# %

&

'

# '

¯
!
(
¯

!
(
¯

!

!
#

3.5 Making Computers Add

3.5.1 Binary Numbers

!

"

#

$ %
$
&

% ' ( %

)*+,

-
¯ , , $
¯ + + $
¯ * *

! "$
¯ ) )

! "

)*+, . ) ¿
. ) . )
* *
¾
/ . . *
+ +
½
/ . . +
, ,
¼
/ . . ,
)*+,
0

'

'
!" ( %

-
Making Computers Add 101
¯

¯

¯

¯

¯

! !
" "

#
$% & & &% & ' %

& &

&%
&
&
(

&%
%) %
(
* &
& +

Example 3.16

( ,
&%)
¯ & -
,
(
#
¯ &
#
(
-
¯ &
-
(

¯ &

(

. & , - &% )

¢ ¢ - -
¢ ¢

¢ ¢ !
¢ ¢ "
¢ ¢
¢ ¢
,
3.5.2 Adding Binary Numbers

Example 3.17

!!!"! !"!!"

#

$
½ ½ ½
!!!"!
!"!!"
!!""!!

!

"

!

!
%
% &

#
'

(
)# #
¿ ¾ * *#
$


3.5.3 Building Half Adders

! "#$% &

%

'

half
adder
(
) &

* %

+
%
,

-

.+ , /
¼ ¼

%
)

% ¼ ¼
+

¼
¼

¼
/ ¼
+
¼
/ ¼

0

12

+
, / ¼ ¼
,

+ 12 % 1(
(3 4
+

'
4

)

0

)

5 6 % &
+
¼

¼ ¼ ¼

¼ ¼ ¼
¼ ¼

¼ ¼

¼ ¼¼ ¼¼

¼ ¼

¼

!

"

# $

¼
%

#&

¼ ¼

¼

'

$
(

)
)

#

*
+

3.5.4 Building Full Adders
'

! !
,

(

-

"

, full adder

./

0
1 2

$


¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼

¼ ¼ ¼

¼ ¼

!"#
¼ ¼ ¼

¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼
" # " #
¼ ¼

¼ ¼ ¼

¼ ¼

¼ ¼ ¼
" # " #
¼ ¼
¼

$
%&

'( ÜØ
¼ ¼
Ø

'( ÝÞ
3.5.5 Putting It All Together

' ) *

+
,*

,* ¿¾

-*

'(

.(

.(

.(

/ 0

) %


!
! "
#
$ # % &

&

' & (

lcm ")

gcd ") $ &
¼
* + $ # * , #

#
-.
#
/
0
¬Ò "

& ( + !
¼

!"1 2
! !

% " $ & ! ( $
¼ ¼
" 3 "

, " $ ! ( $ &
¼ ¼
" 3 "

4 NAND gate
0
!"5

& & $
&
&
&

$
&

)

"

6 78 67

" 3
( !
¼

66
9 NOR gate
0
!"5

& & $

& &
& &
&

! ""

# $ #

"
% &
¼

!
'

"" (
% %
# % %
¼ ¼
%

¼ ¼
# #

#&
(
# )

#

* +( ,

" " -
# . #
# + )" + , )"
/ " 01 + 01
+ , & )" "2 &

"
3 multiplexer

¼ ½

) 4
× Ü ¼ Ü½ Ö
Ü¼

Ö

Ü½

×
×
selector Ö
Ü¼ Ü½ ×

Ö ! × Ü¼ " ×Ü½ #
¼
Chapter 4
Predicate Logic

! "

#

$

"

%

predicates &

" "

& quantifiers &

"

"

4.1 Predicates and Free Variables

'
( " #
Ü # Ü

)

" (

" *

" #
Ü # Ü È
" *
Ü
" È

" predicate È +Ü, - *
Ü
È .

" "

Ü " $ "

110 Predicate Logic

!

"

#

free variable $

% &
&
' (
' ))
#
!

truth set

#

*
"

Example 4.1
+

, "

- . /

, , . + ,

"
0 1
#

. ,

- / .
+ ,

. ,

2

$

0 1 0 1

0 1 0 1 #
3 3

#

4

#

Quantifiers and Bound Variables 111

Example 4.2

!

"
"

!

#$


%
& '

(
) & '
(
& '

(
& '

* & (

#

4.2 Quantifiers and Bound Variables

+ , -$ . /

0

1

!

/

,
-$
. /

0

112 Predicate Logic

Children

!

"
#Ü$
%
Ü

"
% % " &
%
% "

'

& "

#$ # $ #$ #

$
% "
(

#Ü$ "

) "

%

"
# #$ # $ #$ #

$$

# #$ # $ #$ #
$$

# #$ # $ #$ #
$$

# #$ # $ #$ #
$$

)

)

)

%

% %
" " %
*

"
+
#Ü$
Ü

" % ,

-

'

#.$ #/$ #0$ #11$ #1.$

2
,

#Ü$

Ü , % ,

-
'


quantification !! "

!

!

!

#!

4.2.1 Universal Quantification

$!

!

È Ü

Ü
!

%
Ü È Ü
!!

Ü È Ü &

" !

È Ü
'

Ü
#!
universal quantification
(

)
(
*+ ,

! Ü
!

"
Ü Ü
!! " !

! !
! '!
!

!
!

!

!
!

-
! Ü Ü % !

!

#!
'
Ü
'
!
& bound variable &
' '" !
.
/Ü0
Example 4.3
#!

%
Ü À Ü
!

À Ü 1 Ü

114 Predicate Logic

Example 4.4

!"
Ü Ã Ü É Ü
Ã Ü #
Ü
ÉÜ #
Ü

!"

" " "
"

"
"

Ã Ü É Ü

"
Ü

$ Ã Ü
$
Ü

$ ÉÜ
%

Ü

&

ÉÜ

"
"

& "
'
!"
!"

Ü Ã Ü É Ü

Ü Ã Ü É Ü

"
Ü

Example 4.5

!

" # $
% & $
' ( $
4.2.2 Existential Quantification

)

116 Predicate Logic
Ü
È Ü

È Ü

Ü

Ü

Ü Ü

! Ü Ü Ü ! ! ! !
" # $ Ü% " # " #
!

Example 4.6
&

'
Ü À Ü
À Ü ( Ü
&
!

& À Ü
'
! )
*+ ,
! & ,
! !

#

Example 4.7
&

'

Ü


!

"

# $

% &


'

'

!
"#
!

118 Predicate Logic
4.2.3 Bounded Quantifications

bounded quantification

!
!
"

#
$
# !

"

Example 4.8

! " # $%& ' ()* + &

' ' & $ , $¾ &

!

, ¾ , ¾
-
' &
'
, ¾ &
&

, ¾ &

Example 4.9
.

' //
# ((% ' )$ 0
& 1
2 3

& '

-

4 4

&

&
'
'

' 5

3

5

3 0
4
& 6Oskar7

8 , 0
1 2 3

9
,

6Joel7
9 6Felix7

9 6Oskar 7
1
&

-

( #

#

)

'

120 Predicate Logic

Oskar


!

"

4.3 Rules for Quantification

# $ % $ &
$ $ % $ ' &

($ )& $ % $
& $ $ % $ ' &

* + ,

$% ($ - ) - .$&

($ - ) - .$ /$
$% $ 0 *

'

Rules for Quantification 121
Example 4.10

Ü !Ü"

# $ $ # !Ü"

Ü

#

%

&
'
Children (

)
) %

%

*

! "

! "

'

! ) " #

'
! "

*
#

! " ! "

+ %

# %

,

'

! "

# $ $ # ! "

#

%

#

'
! "
*
#

! "
! "


#

) #

%

)

*

- )
122 Predicate Logic

! " # $ % &

' ' #$
(
ÜÈ Ü ÉÜ ÜÈ Ü ÜÉÜ

) ÜÈ Ü ÉÜ ÜÈ Ü ÜÉÜ
*
+
, È Ü ÉÜ ' Ü$ È Ü
' Ü ÉÜ ' Ü
"$ È Ü ' Ü ÉÜ
' Ü$ È Ü ÉÜ ' Ü
+
, È Ü ÉÜ ' Ü$ È Ü
' Ü ÉÜ ' Ü
!$ È Ü '$ ÉÜ
'$ È Ü ÉÜ
' Ü
- %$ " % (
Ü
Ü Ü Ü
Rules for Quantification 123

Ü Ü Ü

!

"
Ü
¼

# $
"

%
&

"

&
' ("
&

&

"

&

)

&

&

*

)

"
)

"
)

!

"
#
¼
+ $
"
%

&

&

&

("

&

&

&

, -

)

"

'

$

)

-

*
-

%

.

"

)
*

)
/

-

124 Predicate Logic
Example 4.11

Ê

Ê

! " !!

!
"

!

!
! # !
!

4.4 Modelling in Predicate Logic

! $ !

%

Example 4.12
&
' !(( )#
$

All babies are illogical.
Nobody is despised who can manage a crocodile.
Illogical persons are despised.

!
* !
!

+
+
+
+
Modelling in Predicate Logic 125

Ü

!

"

"

#

$ % &

'

(
Example 4.13
#
)
* +, -- . .

/
!

,
. * 0

& --

$
--
#
) $

!
1

" 1 2

,

1
!

3 4.5

.
6

.

."
126 Predicate Logic

¯

¯

¯
! " #
$ % & ' $ % (

) # )
* #
$ + ,% $ -%
$. % $. / %
$0 0% $0 .% $0 - % $0 + +%
$ / .% $ , 0% $ - ,%
$/ . .% $/ / ,% $/ + /%
$, 0 % $, -% $, / %
$- . 0% $- 0 % $- , -% $- %
$+ / % $+ ,%
$ % $ . +%
1* # " #

! !
" ! #$!
! %&!
# #$! !
' #$! #$!
$ #$! %&!
% %&! !
( %&! #$!
& %&! %&!
)*

+
,

--

.,

/
,
0
" .,

,
,

.,
1
,
,

# .,

,
,

2

,

3 ,

*
1
,

,

4,

4 --
)
#

5

,

,

*

1

./

+ .

128 Predicate Logic
Ü

! "#

$
% &%

"

' (

"#)

* "#

%
% %

%

)

%

$

$
$

%
"$
%
&%

$
)

"$ $

%

+ "#
"

% % Ê
%

,
,
¾
¾


! !

"

#

$ % &
' ( ) *

(* *

)
*

+ *

(* !, -
& .
*

+

/0 1 2

!"
#
$
%"
# &

!"
& &

$
%"
.
!

&
// 1 2

# '&

!"
( ! '' "
# '&

"
.

!

&
/3 #

"
(

!"
#!
''
"
&

''
"
Chapter 5
Proof Strategies

! proof "
#

Æ

theorems

$
%

&

'

" #

(

(

(

)

'

(

*

+

,

' -
.

/ )0
1 )

/2 3 1

132 Proof Strategies

proof strategies

!

"
#

$
5.1 A First Example

! %
&

&

!

&
Í
'

Theorem 5.1

Proof: ' (

) *
&

+
,

A First Example 133
Ü

Æ

!

"
! #! !

$

#
$

#

%

&

$

' (

!

)

$

# $

introduction strategies

#
$

#

!

*

'

(

$

+


!

"

"

#$

%

&

'
(

5.2 Proof Strategies for Implication

)

"

* +

,

,

-

Proof Strategies for Implication 135
' $

&

%

Example 5.2

! "

!
#

$
%
%
&

'
' % %
#

$
( %
Proof:
% %
% %
) % ' %

%

*

Example 5.3

Proof:


!

' $

&
%

Example 5.4
"# $

%

Proof: & %

%

Proof Strategies for Implication 137

modus ponens

' $

&
%

modus tollens

' $

&
%

!

" ## $! % & ''(
Example 5.5

Proof:

!

" #
5.3 Proof Strategies for Negation

"

$
"

%

$ $

$

$
' $

&

%
" " "
" $ "
&
$ "

Proof Strategies for Negation 139
' $

&

%

proof by
contradiction

reductio ad absurdum

Example 5.6

Proof. !

"

¾
#
" ¾
¾ ¾ " ¾
$ % &
'(
¾
) "

* ¾ " ¾ " %)¾ " +¾ ¾ " ¾

,

&

-
&

&
.. (' -

Example 5.7

Proof.

½ ¾ ¿
½ ¾ ¿

½

! !

" ! !

!
!
!
! !

!#

Example 5.8

!

$
!
! !

!
%
!
!

&
! '
" ! !

!

' (
!

!)

!
!! (

!
Proof. $

! *
!

!

#

Proof Strategies for Negation 141

A Different Proof.

!

Example 5.9

"

Proof.

¾
#

"


5.4 Proof Strategies for Conjunction and Equivalence

' $

& %

!
"

' $' $

%& %

&

#
$ %

%

&
Example 5.10

Proof Strategies for Conjunction and Equivalence 143
Proof: Ü

Example 5.11

Proof:

' $

%
&

' $' $

&
%&
%
5.5 Proof Strategies for Disjunction

É Æ

' $' $

È É

&
È É %&
È É %

È É

È
Ê

É
Ê

È É

' $
Ê

È

Ê

É

&
È É %
Example 5.12
Ò

Ò¾

!
" #
Proof: $ Ò

Proof Strategies for Disjunction 145
¯

¾
¾
¾

¯

¾
¾ ¾ ¾

¾

! "
#
" "

$

"

"
' $
!

&

%
Example 5.13
%

¾

Proof: !

¾ &

'

¾
(

%

"


' $

!

"
&

# %
Example 5.14
" # " #

Proof. $ " # % " # " #
" #
Proof Strategies for Quantifiers 147
Ü

Example 5.15
¾
Proof.

¾

¾
! " "
# ! ¾

$ % & ' ¾
! ( ) *
+ , -
Fact: "
. $( . ) !
. *
Proof: /

. ) !
. *
0 . ) !
. *
1
"
. $( . ) !
. *
5.6 Proof Strategies for Quantifiers

5.6.1 Universal Quantification
/ #
, , 2#
3
2
!

, !
/
4 , 2

3

0 , , , !

3
! , 0
, !
' $

&

%

!
"# $ %
& ' (
)
*
+ #
,-
'

' $

&

%
Example 5.17
. /
Proof. / +

0


Example 5.18

Proof.


5.6.2 Existential Quantification

! "
#
$# $

%

& %
%

#

' $

&
%

!

" #

!
$
%

' $

&
%
Example 5.19
& ' ( )

*( '
Proof. ' *)
( ' ( ( ' +

+
) ' *) )( ' ,
( (
*( ' *)(
* ( ' ,
(

Æ

!

"#

$

%

% $ $ &

# $ "
'

"

( ) ( ) *
" ( ) "

(
) ( )
+
( ) %

,#
"
%

$

-
.

( )
/

# 0 ( " "
)

()*
"

"
Example 5.20 A Strange Proof of Existence
Fact:
"

Proof. 1 $ " 2" 34

¾
5
"#

¾
& 6
¾

#
¾ ¾
& 6

#
¾
¾ (¾¾) ¾



!"
5.6.3 Uniqueness
#

$
%

&

$

! '

(
)
(

$

Example 5.21

&
(
¾
Proof. *
(
+! ¾
#
( + ! ( ++!! (
¾
¾
¿ ¾
¾
'

$ ( $
+ ! ( $
¾ ¾
( + ! (
¾
Example 5.22
,

&

!

)

Proof. *
(


Ë

Ë



!" Ê #
$

%!

&
$

&
"
"
&&

' %!

' $ &&

! " &&
(

! !"

)
'
* &

! !"
"
! !"
+ %!

¾
,

- & ! "

. ) *
/

$ (
.
0 " #

"

É È
È É È Ê É Ê
È É È Ê É Ê

Ü È Ü É Ü Ü È Ü Ü ÉÜ

Ü È Ü

Chapter 6
Functions

! "

!

#

"

$

%

"

%

&
6.1 Basic Definitions

' function

!

(

"

)

*

+ "

( ,-

Example 6.1
.

"

/
-//"

156 Functions
¯
¯ ¯
¯ ¯
¯ ¯

! "

# $% # " &# $
' " ( )* ++
, - " .
/0 # #
Class 1 # ' , #

( - ! &# )* .
#
Marks 1 + % 2 " ++

)#
score Class Marks

##0 30 score ( 1 4 # score #
( # 0 # 0 score (
5 #

6
5 # 30
score ' 1 score ! 1 "
/0 * * *

5 #
0 * # ## *
7 * # 7

Basic Definitions 157

Ü

domain
codomain argument
value
½ ¾
arity

binary function

infix
!

" # " $ #" " $

% range range

range
&
image

% !
range
&
½

preimage

½

½
'

(

½

½

Example 6.2
) " * +

) " *
%
) " *
) %
" %
*
) " ) *
½

) *
½
) *
158 Functions

score

!

" #

Example 6.3
$

"

%
&

id ' "

' id () *

' ¬Ò ( )

' *
(&
% %

)
+ % " ,
!

"

- .#
!
'
"

/ '
( )

*

" "

Humans
,
! "%

( )

()

- ()

0
()

Example 6.4
,
! "
%
%% # %

,
! ' Ê Ê %
Basic Definitions 159
¿

Ü

¿
¿
Ê Ê

! ! "# ! ¿ $
!

¿

%

&
#
# '

'
(

)
"# " *!(

!
+
graph
( graph (

( #
*# graph (
!# , *!( score
! -*! (
graphscore , % , . +

/
0
- % /
1 2
/ 3 /
&!
. # 44 $

! % 5
¿ (
graph ¿ Ê
160 Functions

Theorem 6.4

graph graph
Proof:

graph graph !

graph
graph

graph graph
!
graph
graph graph graph


"# $%&
6.2 One-To-One and Onto Functions

'

(
)

¼ ¼
* #

¿

+ , + ,
-

)

Definition 6.4

one-to-one 1-1 injective
¼ ¼ ¼

¼
¼
¼

!

!
One-To-One and Onto Functions 161

¼
¼
¼

score Class Marks ! "
#
Ê Ê $ ¾
%
$ ¾
Definition 6.5

onto surjective

range


score Class Marks ! "
#
Ê Ê $ ¾
%
Æ Æ $ ¾
&

!

!
$ !
!

! !

!

'

Definition 6.6

bijection


!

(

162 Functions

¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯

Definition 6.7

inverse

! "
! " ! "

" !

! "
Example 6.7

Ê Ê # ! " $ % &

! " &!$ '
(

)! " $ ) % & " *&

*&! " *& &!$ " )
+

range ! #
range !

Composing Functions 163
Example 6.8

!

"

#

$

%
&

#
&
&

&

½
'

"

( &

&

)

'
* &

&

½
'


&

+ ,-
6.3 Composing Functions

# &

164 Functions
¯

Æ

Æ

Æ

Definition 6.8

composition

Æ

Æ

!

Æ

"

Æ
Æ

Æ

#
$
%
&

# # # #
$ $ $ $
% % % %
& & & &
Composing Functions 165
Æ Æ

¾
Æ ·½ Æ

Æ Æ Æ

¼ id ½

Æ id

!
! "

!
! "
#
"
"
#

Theorem 6.9

Æ
Proof: $" Æ Æ %

&

$ !
!
' !
!
Theorem 6.10

Æ
Proof: $"
&

Æ

$

$

'
Æ

(

)
)*

Æ
(

)*

½ Æ id Æ ½ id
166 Functions

Æ Æ Æ Æ
6.4 Comparing the Sizes of Sets

!

" #

$ " # %& '

((

)
* + , - $ " # %& '
. " #

* '
+ " #
, $
- %&
/ ) $ " # %& '
* + , -
)

0
) 1 #

" # )
$ " # %& '

2
&

((

0

& &

"

Comparing the Sizes of Sets 167

!

!

" # $ ! %

&
"

'

Definition 6.12

'

( !

" ( !
! (
"

Theorem 6.12

Proof: )
** !
¼ Ý & !
range# $ '
# $ + !
#$ + ,
range# $ ! # $ ¼
Ý
¼

168 Functions

Theorem 6.13 Schröder-Bernstein Theorem

Proof:

!

"

# $

$ ½ ½

½
½
½
½
½
½

½ range
½ range
%
#

$

½

$

½

&
"

½
# $

!

½ #
$

'

' # $

½
½

½ ½

' # $

' # $

# $
½

½

(
½ ½

# $
$

# )
$
¯

½

½ ½ ½

½

½

½ ½

!

"
Example 6.13

#
$
%

&
' $ (

) *
(

'
' # + $ , % - . / 0 1 +#

# $ % . 0 +# +$ +% +. +0 $#

"
) *
2
(

3

"

Definition 6.13
finite

' +
$
,

170 Functions

cardinality

countably infinite

countable

uncountable

Example 6.14

! " # $ %

! !
& '

(( ) * '

++
,'

-

* ½

*

.,/+ " 0
1 * '

)
*

)

,/+
2 )
/ / /

3
) /

/' / + '
) / /


Example 6.15

! "

! #

! $

%
&$

''

%
&$

(

%
&$)

*

+&

$#

,

- " # $ + . & / 0 1 "-

" # " " $ + $ # " " .
" " # $ " " # $ + . "

''

2*

172 Functions


Example 6.16
!

" " # ! $
%& & % %

¼½

&

&
' ( % $ " %
) &
The Knaster-Tarski Theorem 173

½ ¾

! " #

!

!
$ ! %

&

'
!
(
!
#
!

$ "
"

" ) *+
, &"

-
! !
+

.

/
!

!
0
( 0 / 0 #

!

!

6.5 The Knaster-Tarski Theorem

) +
.

+ !
"+ ! !&
"
! 1

!
"+
Definition 6.17

0

monotonic

fixed point

174 Functions
¯ greatest fixed point

least fixed point

Example 6.17

!
" # $ %" %

%"

& % % %

'" "
Theorem 6.18 Knaster-Tarski Theorem

Ë

Ì
Proof: ( %

" )" #$
#*+
& G
Ë &' (

' G G % G % '
G
, G -
G ' '
" ." / G
" '" %
G ." G 0
% ' " G G
The Knaster-Tarski Theorem 175

G G

G G

G

G
G G

G

G
G
! "

" "

Theorem 6.19

½

·½

Ë
¾
Ë
¾
# ·½ #

# ·½ #

# #
#
Proof:

$ %& %'(
)
¼ # ¼ ½ ¼
)

½
½

# ½ # ·½ *

# ½ #

+
# ¼ ½ ¾ # ·½ #
,

"
*

176 Functions


! "
# ½ ·½
$ % &


! ' ( ( &&
&

&
! $ )
( & ½( ¾ ¿
&&
graph ½ !
$ )
graph ¾ !
$ )
graph ¿ ! $ )

' **( (

+
$ , &
**
**
** ( & &
**
) - && ! $ ' (
**(

. %
/ !0 ! ! 1 !
! && 1 "
+

Æ Æ Æ Æ Æ Æ
Æ Æ
¾

Ê Ê
!
"
# Æ id id Æ

id #

$ % &
"
&
"

' Æ

( )) ( ))
( ' Æ
( )) ( ))
' Æ
( (
' Æ
( (
* !
" ( (
' +,& -

&"
(
(# ..

/
#
(
0 "

(

' ,
,&

" &&
"
&

)1

2
(#

&
(
& (

(
(

(
(

%
"
# &"
(
&&
,#

(#

+"
# ( (#
(

( +"
#
(
&&

3
(
&&

178 Functions

!

"

!
# !
$ L %

%& !
'( "

!
) ' $(
'( "
!

) ' $(
Chapter 7
Relations

!

" #
"

#

$

!

% " #

&

!
"#

7.1 Basic Definitions

'
( ) “student , in course , scored a grade of
”

! ' (

*

) ' (

+ -ary relation
!

'
, (


180 Relations

Example 7.1

! http://www.imdb.com "
#

$
% # # #
# ! #

& ' (
) $

*( )+

#

, $ -
, -
, -
./ 0!1
/' , '34. 5 6 7 !

2
/. , '348 5 6 7 !
./ , 59 ./'. 6 5 !

# : ;
# # : $ # ( )
$ < # : #
1
,
1 <
,
/4 /& /= '/ ''
> # # :

(
)
Binary Relations 181
Title Year Star Director

! " #$
% & ' ("$)" # * +$ , &$
$
-" . / ! # & -$
0 1 !! , ' " #$
'
! ' 2 ! , ' " #$
3 / 4" 3 , ' 5 #
3 6 7"
.
$0"" 3 , ' 5 #
. 8 $ 7 3 , ' 5 #

$" 3! -$ $ 5 #
$ 7 3 -$ $ 5 #
% # 4 + 9" ' $ -0
- " ! + 9" ,
0$$"
1 6" + 9" ' .0$
$ 4
! .$

+ 9" -
3 " ,
' $ -0
: $- ;
3 ' /"$

2;

- '"

!
7.2 Binary Relations

Binary " # $% & ' #
' & & (&
¯
#
182 Relations
¯

¯

infix

from to
source target

on
homogeneous

heterogeneous
Example 7.2
!

"
"
# # # $ $ $ # % $ % % %

!
"

"

! "
"
Example 7.3
& ! ' ( ) !

( *! ! (
!

Children Flavours

Children & ) *!

Flavours + , ,' , -
"

Children Flavours
! "

#

$
%
& '
! "

($ )

' $ * & +% ,"- )!

'

& '

* "

*
' ! %
' . ) .
/
)

'0
"

)
$
.

' %
' . )

.
/'/ . )

. $

&

$

.

1 ""

"

)

)

' %
' % )

$

$ . ) . $

. ! "

Example 7.4

$ +% ,"2 %
$.

184 Relations

Children Flavours

Example 7.5


!" #$%

" &
% '
&

(

) &

" & &

%

*
+ "
&

%

% % % !

Example 7.6

! "

!

#

$ ! % %

#
$

& " ! #

! %

'
'

#$

& " "

& ! !

! %

& " "
! !

! %

& # #

! %

( )*

7.2.1 Functions as Binary Relations

+
' $ #

*,

#
$
graph &

$
&
186 Relations

Ê
Theorem 7.6

Proof:

Ê

!

graphÊ "
graphÊ Ê "
graphÊ

Ê
" graph

7.3 Operations on Binary Relations

#

$

#

!
7.3.1 Boolean Operations
%

!

& ' ( )*

"

Operations on Binary Relations 187

! "
"

#
$%
# $&
'

½ ¾ ¿

(
½
¾
(
¾
¾

¿
¾
)

* ½ ¾
+ ¿ ¾
, ¿ ½
7.3.2 Inverting Relations

-
.

(

- inverse

½

½
!

½

188 Relations
Example 7.7

Children Flavours

½ Flavours Children

½

! !
" # !$ "

% #! $ ½ &
' ½ "

(
7.3.3 Composing Relations

% ) )" ) &"
" % &
%* % +

" composition
Æ
,
Æ - # $ )
# $ # $
.
%
" %

Æ &
%* / %
& / %"
%*
Æ

Operations on Binary Relations 189

Æ

!
Example 7.8

"
Æ
#

$ %

Æ
"
Æ

&
'%
(
7.3.4 The Domain and Range of a Relation

)

domain
domain* + " * + ,
range
range* + " * +
#

Example 7.9
-

190 Relations
Ü

domain not
range all
domain

range


domain
range range

7.4 Properties of Binary Relations

7.4.1 Reflexive and Irreflexive Relations

!

"
#
$ $ $ $
%

Definition 7.10

reflexive

irreflexive

&

& ' &

(&

Properties of Binary Relations 191


7.4.2 Symmetric and Antisymmetric Relations

!

!
"

#$ ##

Definition 7.11

symmetric

% &

antisymmetric

'

% & '
(
#
$

'

%

&

"

7.4.3 Transitive Relations

$

$
)

$
(
##

$$ ) ##

Definition 7.12

transitive

% &
192 Relations


Example 7.13

! "
# $
$ "

% # # #
# #
& '# $ # # $
( $ $ )
#
$ * + )
# #
$ * ,
$ #


,
$ "
"
# )
# - .# # $
7.4.4 Orderings Relations

/ #
, '

0 1 2 ! % &
3 # $
$# 1
# ,
$ ,
, 3#

1
¯

¯

¯

Definition 7.15

partial order

total order

!
Example 7.15
" #

"
$%
!

"
& ' ' &
7.4.5 Equivalence Relations

(

(

)

*

194 Relations

Æ
Definition 7.16

equivalence relation

Example 7.17
¯

¯

Example 7.18

! "

#

$
" # $

% & %

& %
& '

( " # $
)
"
# $

* "
# $
"
)#

+

, $
½ ½ ¾ ½ ¾

¾ ½ ¾ ½ ¾

7.4.6 Equivalence Classes and Partitions

!
"#$
%

!
!

&

'
&

(

)

Definition 7.20
partition

Ë ¾

blocks

%

!
"
!
Example 7.20
'

%

!
"#$ & !
!
!

(

&* &

*

! +, ! -
!
*

!

& .
!
&
)
!

%

!
%
& &

'
%
!
*

&

%

/

! '

*
%
!
!

%

*
(

! !
"#$

-

&

* *

!!

&
!
*

196 Relations

Definition 7.21

equivalence class

Ê

Ê
Theorem 7.22

Ê

Proof:

! Ê

Ê
" #

#
Ê
$ #

%

#

#

Ê Ê

%

Ê

&

'
Ê

Ê Ê
( #

!)
*" +
,
" $ "-

$.
Ü

!

" #


!$
% & '

!

( ) *
+
, ) )
(
) - . / *
.
!
( 0 * , +

!
( ' *

#
%

% #

&1

&1

%

&1

%

2 !
!$
1 $
3 ! 3 ! !
! - !
½ (
% ¾ (

( 4 5
(
2 !
!$
1 +
$ 3 ! 3 ! !
! - !
6
!

% 6
!
%!

$
198 Relations

!" #

$ %&&

#

Æ ½
' %&&

#

Æ ½
( )

&&

&&

*
+ !" Æ
, !" id -

- ½

id
$

½
id
. reflexive closure

!"

%
symmetric closure

transitive closure

/&

!"

- 0 + + ,

- 0 + ,
1 2

*
!"
+0 2

½

++ 2

½ * ¾ ¿ ½

·½
- + , +

+, 3

&&"
4

++000

Ê 5 *

-
*
++000

! "# "
" " $ %
&' (

&' )

! " *
&' )

! " +
*
, -

"

"
" #
&' &' ./Ê % ./Ê ./Ê %
&' . /Ê
Chapter 8
Inductive and Recursive

Definitions

!

"
#

$

#

$

%

& #

8.1 Inductively-Defined Sets


202 Inductive and Recursive Definitions

! " # $ % &
Children ' ($ ) *
+#" , # " ! -
$ . ! / ( $ !
!

# # , -%. 0 ! %
$ ! % # %
% " 1$ 2 /
+#" , ! # /
/ +# # $ 3 % -! ! .
! ! , 4 * "% # #!
# " $ !
/
/ +# # " ! !% ,
! 4 ( $ ! " , %
- ! .
-// ! . ! 5 - #

#! % ! "! ./

/ 6 # # " #
1$ 2 4

/ +# # #
% #
, # % 4
) % #% , , "
# $ / 6
% # , /
Definition 8.1
inductive definition

basis clause

inductive clause

Inductively-Defined Sets 203
extremal clause

smallest

Example 8.1

! "

#

$

#

%

& ' !

'

'

' !

# (

!)

*

%

+

,

! -

#

%

.(

-
-/
Example 8.2


!" # !

#

!
$ " $

#% #
&
# "
#

#% #

#
' #
%
#
#
&
% "
%
#
%

(
$ #
$ &
"
#
"
#
% #
'

!
)
*%
#% $
! "

+ , - -+

Example 8.3
*%
$ " #
$ ! #%

.
!" "
#
"

!!#
#% #

(
!!#
%

"

/ #
!!#
#% #

Inductively-Defined Syntactic Sets 205

!"
# # $ %& !"
#

#
'( )$
8.2 Inductively-Defined Syntactic Sets

#
*

"
#
Children + ( ,-
-

-
#

'

" "

*

. " / /

-
"

0

" 0

"
#
"

*
#

" alphabet # symbols characters #
0

string word
length ½ ¾ ¿

"

!
"

empty word " 1
2 "

Definition 8.4

A

Example 8.4

!
"!

#
$
!
" #

%

$
! !
" #

%
$
!
" #

$

" #

&

Backus-Naur Form 207

! !

"

!

!
#

$
%
&'
(&'

8.3 Backus-Naur Form

)

" Backus-Naur Form (BNF) "

*+
,,!
"

*+
,,!
-
.
*+
"

)
% ( successor function ! /0 1
*+
,,! (
2 3 (
.

4 $ .

5
Example 8.5

true false

!"# $

% true false
&
'

(

!"#

)*) + !' ,

- " . / 01(21

/

'

Example 8.6

!"# $

% := ½ ;¾ if then ½ else ¾ while do
#

% :=
½ ; ¾
if then ½ else ¾
while do

'
3

/
! /

4:=5

/

3
Backus-Naur Form 209
¯
½ ;¾
½ ¾
½
¾ ½
¯
if then ½ else ¾

½ ¾

½

true ¾
false

¯

while do

false

true
!

"
"

#

$
$ %

%

# & ' ( ) ( * ( (
i := 0;
s := 0;
while i < n do
i := i + 1;
s := s + i }
% +

$

$
#
i := 0 ;
s := 0;
while i < n do
i := i + 1;
s := s + i }
%

$

$

$
#
s := 0 ;
while i < n do
i := i + 1;
s := s + i }

i := 0 ;
s := 0 ;
while i < n do
i := i + 1 ;
s := s + i

i := 0 ;
s := 0 ;
while i < n do
i := i + 1 ;
s := s + i
!

" # ! $

i := 0 ;
s := 0 ;
while i < n do
i := i + 1 ;
s := s + i
% %

&
!
8.4 Inductively-Defined Data Types

' !

# ( $
Inductively-Defined Data Types 211

! "

#$

% empty list & '
&'

( ) *
"
( ) *

( & ) & * ' '
+
",
" "

-

"
Example 8.7
. " binary trees
&½ ¾ '
% leaf in-

ternal node &½ ¾ '
½ ¾

& & ' & & & '' ''

%

" /

dictionary

& '

&
'

"
0 +1 -
"



!

"

8.5 Inductively-Defined Functions

#

$

!
%
!

% &
¼ ½

%

!
&

Example 8.8
$ factorial function '

!
( )
' * (+,
- %

.' * (
' * / (0' .
$% %
Inductively-Defined Functions 213

! "
¼
½ #
$ %
Example 8.9
& harmonic numbers !

# # #

#
! '

(

#

! '
Example 8.10
& Fibonacci numbers '

(
(
#
& ) ! ! ! $ $
! ' & *! !

!" # ! $# $# "
%& '()# (
*% + & #!
Liber Abaci

" " %#

$# # %%
"& %# % #!
,%% % "(# ##

% ## % " % ##
'" % ## "
- ./! 0 " ! % 1
" !& # 0

) # 0
2 successor function .1 3 4
0
# % 5%
# # 0 % 6

Example 8.11
7 & 0 #
883 . 1

& %& 9 " 0
8
" " # " 8

. 1 3 :
. .11 3 .. 11

0 4 3 :
% " "& " " " " 8
. 41 3 . 1 4

5%
Inductively-Defined Functions 215


!
"
# $ $ $%

" & $
"
Example 8.12
& '

$ "

& ' $ "

( )

& ' $ $ "

'
'
½
¾ * '
½ '
¾

" + $ (, ) "
& append ½ ¾ - ½ ¾ '" .

* ( ) ( /) ( /)"
"

!

"

8.6 Recursive Functions

#

$
#

$

"
%
$& recursive func-
tions

$

' $ ' %
$ "
&

( !
"$ ) * + * +,
- " $
) + * + ) * ) . * . )

Example 8.14
/ 0
$- 1+& 2
+ +,
)
* ++ +
3
$ " $ 4

Æ

& '

# ) 1+

+ ) +
+
5
/ 0
$- 1+& $ ) 1+
+ ) +

+
Example 8.15
0
2
Recursive Functions 217

! " #
#
! " #
! ! " #
$ # $
! #

! " #
" #
%&'
( )

'

* + ( , - .

' ' &

'
' /( 0 + .
& ! .
+ 1 . !+ $ .
$ * & . ! (
$ (
+ ( & .
$+ . . 1 . '
% ' .
* & +
+
' % ¾ ¿
'
+
. ( (
$!# $!#

2 Collatz conjecture
%

. . .

8.7 Recursive Procedures

Example 8.16 Insertion Sort

Insertion Sort ! "
# $

"

%

& $

!

'
!

( %"

"

) * + )*

" +

,

,

-

.

! "
) * +
" +

.

! /%

, 0

Recursive Procedures 219

!
" "

#

$
!

" "

%

%

!

Example 8.17 Merge Sort
&

Merge Sort
!

'
(

'

$ )

*" + , "
"

-
.

/ 0

!

# !

$'
" +

*" + , -
1

1

!
2

'
(

!

$ )

*" +

. !

! !

3

1 1

/ 0

!


Towers of Hanoi

!

" #

$ %
%
&

' ( )
*
+ & ,
'
(-
. '
,- /
,- ,01- ,02-
,- 3

4 "
" )

' &

! "

"
#
"

"

$ %& '
"

( )
) *+, -"

" "

"
. "

"

/

$ %& "

"

& "

"

/ "

" -"
"

% "

"

/

"
0" 1 2 !3 ( 1! 2 3
' "

"
1 2 !3
4 5
"

"

,

0

," %2 6

/7 6

7
"

"

"

8"

" "

-"#9

:/; ,"
"
,

( < =

(

(

♀ ♂ ♀ ♂ ♀ ♀ ♂ ♀
♂ ♀ ♀ ♂ ♀
♀ ♂ ♀
♂ ♀
♀
♂

♂ ♀

! "# $ # % ! &

'( ) "
" * +
'( )
* +&
'( ) &
& * ¿ &
'( ! "
Chapter 9
Proofs by Induction

inductive reasoning

!

" #$ %
ÜÈ &Ü' Ü
È &Ü' (

Ü (
) (

9.1 Convincing but Inconclusive Evidence

Ò
Ò&Ò*+' -
,
Claim: . Ò / +*,*0* * Ò 1

Ò&Ò*+'
,
2

3 (
+ * , * 0 * * / /
4
Ò-

224 Proofs by Induction

!!

" # $

%&
$

"
'
& "
¯ Fermat’s Last Theorem

&

(

!

&

" )

!
* +,

!
-- " .

/
$

!
!
!
"
# !
$

/
!

0

/

0 "
1 2

2
, 3
) 4

&

)
&
(
4
%

5

67
4
!
! !

&

"8 7

&

" ) !

! &
!! !

(
!(

% ! + 9

" 7
!

2

&

(
(!"

¯ Fermat numbers
&
¾ " )

1 2

: : ;

5

< < <

.
! !

$

Convincing but Inconclusive Evidence 225

¼ ¾

!" " # "$
% &

' (' ( (

")
" " ") ) "" "
"" ) *" +
" "
"
' ,, '
# -"
.") -"
"/
¯ Goldbach’s conjecture #

)
% " " #
"# ) "
" "# "

" , . # ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,,/ 0
" -"# ) )
"
" " "- " " 1 * 2"#
)
" " " "# " % "
%
¯ ((# 3) 4") 56" "$
" . # " ,7/ " )

" " " %#

" " "# "#
" ¢¢ . "/# ' ¢

."/ " " 0 (,1

" 56" 1 "$ "$
"
" 8,,#,,, 3"
# " "
&)" )
&
# 56" 1 "$ "
(8 9 0 3&
)"
" " " "
" ¢,
. # "" :"/ " "
" (, ,
¯ 9" "" )

½

¾

! !
!
"

# $ %&& '(& '% (( (& ))' ))$ &(* '+'
! , -

.
/0 1
2, * & 3 ! .
$$$ % 4 -
! 5 5 !
!
4 !

!
6
. . 7
, $ ( ) &
$ ) * +

8 ! , 7
A Primary School Induction Argument 227
9.2 A Primary School Induction Argument

!
" # $
%

% % &
"
'

! !
(
$

! !

)
" *
! !
! !" # $ ! !

%

% (
+

% &
+

%"

! (
!
!

( ! "
,

&

!
! )
! !
" '

" '

&

- . " /

! 0
& % &
%& &

& %

& 1

&1

,

(
$

!
% (

%& %
& $0
%" *
!

( !

&"
2

!

!
& (
(

(
( !
% (" 3

&
" 4 !


!

" # $

%

&
'

(

)

!
*

+

%

"
,

#
,

-
. /

011

+
/
!

,
!
/
#
9.3 The Induction Argument

2

! ! !3

!

.
mathematical induction

!

& '

¾

4
0 (Base Case) !
1
&1'%

(Induction Step) !
50 ! %

&' µ &50'
The Induction Argument 229

inductive hypothesis

! "#
$
¼
%

& # #
## ' #

( )
* # '
+ + , # '
# "
# #

- . " .

' # $
/"
" & #
#' #
$ / . $
% %
0%
,
# ## # 0
* . #

1 ##
1 $%
& !
2 , $

!

"
#

$
%
&
'( )"
( & %

(
( % )

( )" *

%

( &
%
' & % $ +
$ (
( %

Example 9.3
Fact:

, -
!
!

Proof:
Base Case: #

, -
!
!

Induction Step: # (

, -
!
!

(
( ,
&

- % &

, -, !-
! , -
!


! "
# #

#

$

#
%
&

'
( # )
* * +

# $ # # ,
#

*
# , -
¾ ¾ &¾ ¾ .
& / ¾


¼ ½
·½
¾

! " # $ %

& $

·½
¾ ¿

' ·½ (( ((

)* "

¾ ¿

" (" ( & + "
$ "
" , ,(
Example 9.6
Fact: - ( $ . ( (

/ %( 0%( (
Proof: 1
Base Case: - %( ( 0%( ( 2 ( . (

Induction Step: - " (
$ ( . (
0%( ( "
( %( ( *
! 0%( (
%( ( * " %
( 0%( (

Example 9.7
Fact:

!
Æ

" #
convex
$

Proof: %
Æ
Base Case:

!
Induction Step: &

"'

Æ
!
(

) '

Æ
!
# * )

* ) * $

*

Æ

!

* )
!
Æ
!
Æ
+ Æ
!
,

)

- )

¾

.

/

0 ,
)$

1

0 ,
) )
*
)



function
if then return
else return !

"#
!

$% % ¾
9.4 Strong Induction

&

'
% ( )
strong induction

* %

+ , &
% %
%

Example 9.8
-

*

! ! *

Induction Proofs from Inductive Definitions 235
Fact

Proof:

:
even:

odd:


!
!
" # $ %#

9.5 Induction Proofs from Inductive Definitions

& ' # ' $ #
(!
! %)! # *+ , ! %)! # *
- ##

#
.$

##' )! #
Example 9.9
Fact: , ##
½ ¾ ¿
Proof:

Base Case
½ ¾ ¿ ¼ ¼
Induction Step:
½ ¾ ¿
½ ¾ ¿ ½
½

½


Example 9.10
Fact: ¼ ½ ¾ ·¾

Proof:

Base Case
¼ ½ ¾ ¼ ¼ ¾
Induction Step
¼ ½ ¾ ·½
·¾ ·½

·½ ·¾ ·¿
!
"

¼ ¾ ½ ¾ ¾ ¾ ¾ ·½

#

$
"

% &
'

"
Fun with Fibonacci Numbers 237
Example 9.11
Fact:

¾ ½ ½ ¾
Proof:

Base Case
!

½· ¾ ½ ½ ½ ¼ ¾
Base Case !
¾· ¾ ½ ¾ ¾ ½ ½ ¾
Induction Step: !

· ¾ ´ ½µ· ¾ ´ ¾µ· ¾

½ ½ ¾ ¾ ¾ ½ ¿ ¾

½
¾ ½ ¾ ¿ ¾
½ ½ ¾
" #
$
%

9.6 Fun with Fibonacci Numbers

% & &

9.6.1 A Fibonacci Number Test

' & & $
&
(
) * "

+ $ + (
) " ,
& !

( -
¾

Ü
¾ ¾ Ü

¾ ¾
Ü

! ¾ " ¾ # $
%
& Ü
$ '( '
! ¾ "
) ! % )
" *
¾ ( $ % ¾
"
) ! % ) " *#
¾
$ % +!$
! !
, ! ! !
) ! "*
$
'( ' ! "*¾ #"*"
) !
% ) " ! ¾ $ %
) ! ! "* - ½ "*.

+! $ ) ! $ ! ) ! !

/!
(
! $ * ! - . - .
0 ! %

/!
(
! $ ! - . $ ) 0
! %

! - . - . $ * - 1 !
!
! ! 2 3 ) - . .
Theorem 9.13 Fibonacci Test

Proof: 4 ( ) ! quadratic formula ! ! !
! % %

*
( ! $ ) $ 1

Fun with Fibonacci Numbers 239

Ü
¾
¾

¾ ¾ ¾
!

" #$ %!

&
&
¾
½
& & !
¾
'
&

&

( &
#$ %!)

& *

&!
9.6.2 A Carrollean Paradox

+

( ', !
- ¾·½ ·¾
.!
', & & //

0
'
! + //

$!
+( 1

)

+ 1 1 2 )

2 3 4 $ & &5
+ & &

( & * &! * $&

) ) 1


9.6.3 Fibonacci Decompositions

! "#
" " "
$"
%&' " ! " "
(
&' % ) ) * &
" !

! + ,
"
" -
Example 9.15 Zeckendorf’s Theorem
Fact: .# ! / $" !
% ½ 0 ¾ 0 ¿ 0 0
/ ½ ¾ 1,
)2
$"
// % & 0 0 % 0 0
Proof:
!

½ 0 ¾ 0 ¿ 0 0
# /
Base Case 1 % 2( ½ ½ ) /

Induction Step 1 2(
When Inductions Go Wrong 241
½ ¾ ¿ ½
½
½

½
½ ½
·½

½ ¾
½ ¾ ¿

·½

Base Case ½ ¾ ¿ ¼
Induction Step ·½
·½ ½
! !
"
# ! $

½ ¾ ¿

½ ¾ ¿
%! ½!
!

&" ·½ !
" $

½ ¾ ¿ ·½
9.7 When Inductions Go Wrong

' "
$ " ( (

Example 9.16

)
* +

,


Base Case
Induction Step

!

"

#

$#

# %

#

&

&

# range #
'

()

#

&

&
*

)

#

#

Example 9.17 Sorites Paradox
+
,-

)

Claim: !
&
Proof: .#

Base Case
/

Induction Step:
$ 0

+#
& #

1 #

#

1
0

&
sorites paradox
heap paradox

2& 3 ,- /

,- ,- #

'
# 0 #
When Inductions Go Wrong 243
¯

¯

¯

!

"

#
! !"

"

$

%
&

'
(
%
&

Base Case ) * +,

Base Case ) * +,

Inductive Step +, -

)

.

.

/
¼ ¼¼
/

0 , *
¼
¼¼
1
¼

¼¼ ¼ ¼¼
-

9.8 Examples of Induction in Computer Science

Example 9.18

if then return
! else if then
" if then return
# else return
$ else
% := &
' := &!
( return
)

*
+
+
" (

,
*
& -

+
. .
! !
"
+
!
"
!
+
! %/
! '/
! (

! & ! & !
!
0
.
!
! & ! & !
!
Examples of Induction in Computer Science 245

Fact

Proof:

Base Case

Induction Step

!

"

#
$ $

$ " $

# % %

&
' structural induction !

&

Example 9.19
( & &

Fact

Proof:

Base Case

)
!
!

Induction Step

) *
&!

&

:

! &

+

(where ):

# &
% & structural induction

! !

&

'
,
!

Proof:

:
:

(where ):

Example 9.20
Fact

Proof:

: ! "
½
¾ :
!
# $!
½
¾ ½
¾ ½ $¾ $!
½ $! $ ¾ $! ½ $¾ $!$!
%
½ $$ ¾ ½ $ ¾
½ ¾
&
'!#
&

'!(

! % "

¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¾

¾ ¾ ¾ ¾

! "#"$

%& " & $$ '

%& " & ( $)
"
*( #" $$ ' + + +

$$ &

" )!$'
'
'

'

& " & $$
, *( #"

$$ '

+

& " &

$$

- % ! $) ) . )!$ / ,
0 "!! !"$ "& 1&

! $ & "1
") &
) $ $

!

"# !

$
%
&
' "

%
(
)* + %

!

"# !

)) , - -
.

/ ) . ,
% - -

.
,

.
.

!
- -

% *
"# 0

%
.

.
%
- ½ - ½ .

)- ,

% .

% -
% .

% .
, % % %
1
2
% .
, 1


! " #
$
%

&
' (

)

(

%

(
*+
,

- .
%

.

/

0 1 23
4 * 4 4 4 5
& 4*&
*
Proof: 6

4 * 4 4 4
5 4 * 4 4 4 && 4
5
*& 4& 4

*
5
& 4*&
*
+ 1 23
Ý

Proof:

Base Case

Induction Step:

!
"
#
$
%& ' ( )

*
+
Proof:

Base Case * *

Induction Step:
*

*

*
*
*

* *

*
%, -

.

.

'

/

.

Ý

Chapter 10
Games and Strategies

Games-of-chance

!

"
#

$ games-of-no-chance

!

% !

Æ

&

' '
(

$

(

) (

"


252 Games and Strategies

10.1 Strategies for Games-of-No-Chance

A

B

perfect information

!

"

"

" #

$

% "

"
% " "

finite game

# %

$

&'

(

$

"
( " "

attacker-defender games #

%

%

#

(

"

strategy

"

Strategies for Games-of-No-Chance 253

winning strategy

drawing strategy

winning position

losing position

!

!
"

#

$
%

&

'

(

)

*

+

,

-

.

$
%

&

'

(

)

*

+


Theorem 10.1

Proof:

! "#

$

$
!
¯

¯ $

$

%&
'
$

%

Corollary 10.1

Example 10.1

!
()

* +


! !

–
" "

"

#
–
" "

"

$

% %

–
" "

"

#
–
"
"

"

"
"

& &

–
" ! "

! "

#
–
" "

"

$ '

( (

" %

% "

) )

" %

% "

* *

–

–

!" # !"

$
–
%

%

–

&

'

&

$
" ! ( ) % * !"

'

+ !"!

, game tree
'

'

-

-

'

$
!

,

-

.

-

,

¾
¾
¾
¿

¾ ¾
¿

¿

¾
¾ ¿ ¾

¿
¿ ¾

¾
¾
¿

¿
¾ ¾
¿

¾
¿
¾

¿

! "" " # ""

" " $ %! " % #& %! #
" "& % # %'" "(
% ! "$ #
% # "#
) " # !

! ! #
* #

% ' # # !
) #
$ ! # ! # ! (
$ ! " *
+ % %! ' # # !
%!
+ % %! ' # # ,
! %! %
# ! ! ! %# " %
# " -(

not


! " #

$

% &

' #
'

'
(

)
* "

$ #

% & + #

,
-
'

(

)
"

!*

&

.
%! !*)

* /
%
) " !* 0


!

"
#

$
#
%

#
&

'
#
%

"
(

$
#

&

# %

)

one
two

%

*

&
%+

%

) % "

*

*

,

*

%

! "

%
-

%

%

.

(

& (
/ 0 %

%

%
&

(


!
"

# "
"

"

"
10.2 Nim

" $

"
"

%
"
"
"
"
"

"
& # first "

'
(
) # "
second

"
' "

(

(
"
*
first

"
'

*
)

+ #
" first

"

' , "
*

)

"

second
"
'
Nim 261

!
! !
"
! #
Æ

!
!
!
!

$

! %!
!

&

!

#
' !

! () (
() &
! !

balanced #

unbalanced !
*
( & ! !

every ! !

! !

& !

some ! ! ! !

!

* ' ( ( * ' ( (
+ "
,-.
,* ( ' ' 0 (* ' ' (
!

-* ( ' ( -* ( ' (
!
/
.* ( ( ( .* ( ( (
! !

( ' ( ' ' '
!
!
+
! !

$ ! !

1 !

first

second


!
"

# $

%

&

'
&

(

&

" # )

$

10.3 Fibonacci Nim

"

&

*

+

,

,

-

2 coins: &

+
+

-

second

Fibonacci Nim 263
3 coins:

second

4 coins:

! "

first

5 coins: #

!
!

$ %

!
! $"

second

6 coins:

&

!
&"

first

7 coins:

&

!
&"

first

8 coins: #

!
!

' (

!
! '"
("

second

9 coins:

)

!
)"

first

*
+

!

+
# !

, - +

..

+

Theorem 10.6 The Fibonacci Number System

½ ¾ ¿
½ ¾

Proof:

Theorem 10.7

not
!

"

½
½ ¾

"

!
"
10.4 Chomp
# $
%
&

$ '&

$

$$($$ )* + , * - $ $* $%
'$ *$ $

$ '& $

-
% $
%
)* $ $ % $
% )* ' $ $
%
$

% $ $
$
- $ $ $
* )*
. '& - - $ $
%

# $
& $
/$ - %
$ -0
$

-
$ % $$%-

# $
$
+& -& $
$
,& $

-
$ % $$%-1 '$ 2 '*$ $
*
)*& % 3*$ $
* )* $
- $ $
Chomp 265

!

"

#

$

" " !

%
&
!

%

%

'
(

)

#%
*

%

%

&
*
% $

% %
( !

(
#
% #
$
+

# %

)
% ,

-

%
(
%
& ".
/ %Æ

(
Theorem 10.8

""

Proof: 0

(

)
#

%

#

#

1
%

%
(
#

!

!

"

½ ¾
!

!

"

" # $ %
& '
& %

10.5 Hex
" & '
&
(!) *!+
& , & -
(!+ *!)
& , & Æ - " &.
& .
" /
' &
Æ ' "
&
' & &
Hex 267

ÆÆ
ÆÆ
ÆÆ
ÆÆ
ÆÆ
Æ
Æ
Æ

Theorem 10.9

Proof:

! " " #$ %
#$
Æ%
# & # #%
$ $
Æ ## # %
#
%
' $
Æ !
# $ Æ
# # ! "
% # #
" #$ Æ% #
# #$ ( #
#$
) #


Æ Æ
Æ Æ
Æ Æ Æ Æ
ÆÆÆÆÆÆÆÆÆ
Æ Æ Æ Æ Æ Æ Æ
Æ Æ Æ Æ
Æ Æ Æ Æ Æ
Æ Æ Æ Æ
Æ

Theorem 10.10

Proof:

!
"#

$ % &

'
&
%

(

)
Bridg-It 269

10.6 Bridg-It

!
" #
" Æ #
$

Theorem 10.11

Proof: %
# & ' #
( #
) ) Æ
* #
+ * #
Æ , -

Æ


Theorem 10.12

Proof:

! "
# ! $%
& '
' '
&(
'
) !' !
' ! !

* ! !



!
" #
$% &

$#% '
# #( $)
* + "
"
" # !
"

# , %

+
! " #
$% &


!

"

#

$

%&

#

"

'
"

# %

$ #
"

(

"

)

*
$

+

,

,
"

-

,

#

*. !
,
¯

#

*.

/ "

#

#

*.'
¯

*.

#
#

#

#

*.
0

!

#

%
"
% 0 1 ( %

"

-

&

!

#

1

"

-

2% 20 2(

!
" ! ! #

$ !
% # ! #& !
#
! % #

'

( !
" ! ! #

$ !
% # ! #& !
#
! ( % #

)
# '# ! # !

#
* #
+ #
#
#
# '
' &
& % #
'#

# # * #
& #

#
* # # !

,
' !
" ! ! #
-
& # !

#
,
'
& !
#

,
'
'
# '# ! #
!
#
* # . + #

#
#

# #& ' # #
!
,
' ... !
" ! ! #

$ & !
'
% &

! /!& / &
'

# '
0 %
# '#
! &
& 1 0! #
! #


!
"
#

$

$

#

! % &

'

!
(

#

#

)
* +
# #

#
'
'

"

' ,

not -
(

#

*

# ,
-

#
. !

.

/

#

&

' #
'

#
' '

'

# 0
1 2 3 # #

1

%
*
(

1 *
"

&
44 5 6 7 8

"
' 5 6

3 ' # -

¼ ¼ ½ ½ ¾ ¾ 9


¼ ¼

½ ½

½

¼ ½ ¾

! ¾

"# $

"%& '
½ ¾ ¿
(

)
#
"# *

+ ,
"%&
+ ,#
- . .)

)
.
/
$

0 )

)

1

.)
)

2 3 4
5

Russell

&
¯ 2 )

¯
) )

)
2

*
$

0
6 7.)
Part II
Modelling
Computing Systems
Chapter 11
Modelling Processes

! "

#
$
%
%

& '

( !
' &
# #
) '

* ! +
( ,,, '
#

- .

.

)
. /0 C
' C

.

1 ,23 45

6

280 Modelling Processes
'
' $
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8.

7 8 9
4 5 6
CE 1 2 3
C 0
&
& %
%

!
" # "

$% & =

" !
$% ' "
# (!!!!!!
' " "
# #
" )

# # ! $%
#
*#"+ Ý ,"# " #
Ý

! "#
Labelled Transition Systems 281

!

"

#
$

11.1 Labelled Transition Systems

%

&

"

'()
')

( " # $

#
$

( #

$ !

*

+

,

#%

-

*

$
"

./


labelled transition system
Definition 11.1
labelled transition system LTS

! States Actions

States states
Actions actions events
States Actions States transitions

transition relation

Definition 11.2
!" ! States Actions extended transition relation

States Actions States #

#
Actions Actions

¼

¼
! ! ½ ¾


½ ¾
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ º

Example 11.2

States

!
Actions !
" # " # "
#
" # " # " #
" # " # "
#
"
# "

#

" # " # " #
$ %
%
Example 11.3 The Man-Wolf-Goat-Cabbage Riddle
& % ' % % ()
* " ++, -

# . %

!

"

#
#
$

%

& !

" ' (
)
' #
$

%

* !
+

,

$

%


!

"

!

#$
%&
¯ ÓÓÓ

ÓÓÓ
¯ '
ÓÓÓ ÓÓÓ ÓÓÓ ÓÓÓ

ÓÓÓ
ÓÓÓ ÓÓÓ
ÓÓÓ
¯ ( $

ÓÓÓ ÓÓÓ
ÓÓÓ
ÓÓÓ ÓÓÓ
ÓÓÓ

)

%& ( ##* (

%&

+
,-

.

%&


! " ! #

" $ ! " ##
% #$ " " ! &
! ! " #
!
$
# '! " ! !
!
( ! ) ! "*
Computations and Processes 287

!" #
$% &

'"$

("
)* $% $
+
,

+ -
, "
+"* .
,

/", ,
/", ,$

, /",
+" ,
$ + + +"

$
$ 0$ $$*
& , $ +1
" $, " ,

+
" + + "
$2" + +" $ + $
+" + "
$*
" " 3

+
, " " 3 " "
$ $ $ " $* # " ", +
$
$
+"
+%
" * 4$
"

" ,*
# $,

" ,1
11.2 Computations and Processes

$ +
,
, " 5"
* 677 !% +
", ,$ $ .% + " $ x y $

,$ ,
$ Ü Ý*

"
"$ +" x mod y $
"$ ,
x y := $$ $$, *%
loop begin
x := x mod y;
if x=0 then return y;
y := y mod x;
if y=0 then return x
loop end
8$
,
9-"$: +"
$ + 9loop
begin: 9loop end: "

" $ "* ; -
+

$
,
"$ Ü<=>? Ý <@> ,
" ? "
$ . + =>? @>*
Ü Ü Ü
Ý Ý Ý
x
x :=
x :=
x :=
od
od
ym
xm
xm
ym
xm
od
od
od
y :=
y :=
y
y
Ü Ü Ü
Ý Ý Ý

! "

# $%& $'% (%
$'% $ $% Ü) Ý )
* % x := x mod y+
, ! '! $% x
'! %'%% !

!

- ! . /
- ! . /
0 - ! . /
(% '

% '% % 1 %%
% , '
'%" ' ' % !
% '
¯ 2 % , # ' &+

¯ 2 % # ' &+
¯ 2 ' ' # % ,&

!

"# $ % $ %

& '
(

Example 11.7
) '
'

Cl
* Cl
Cl Cl $% +

Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl
Cl

!

Cl¿ Cl¾ Cl Cl
Cl

Cl Cl Cl
"
# $
%

Cl & ¾ ' Cl

¡¡¡ Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl
(

) Cl

Cl
*

*
Cl

+ , Cl

-
Example 11.8
*

. ( . !
¯ % . .
.
(
!

¯

¯

!

"

"

"

"
#

!
$ % & '(
#

$ $ )

*
'(

$
+
$,
-

"


11.3 A Language for Describing Processes

! "

# !
$ !

#

%! &&'

#

#

(

)* +

,

¯ (process) variables
-

¯ events actions
% !

%
!

!

operations
+

!

11.3.1 The Nil Process 0

,
!
0

nil

0
$ !

Cl¼ %! &&. !
#
(

0
deadlocked
A Language for Describing Processes 293
11.3.2 Action Prefix

action prefix

Cl½

0

0 0

Cl¿
0

0 0 0 0

!

" #
"
$

11.3.3 Process Definitions

defining equation

! "

# ! #

process definition !

$ !

¼

¼
$

11.3.4 Choice

¯

¯

choice

! "

¼

¼
¼
¼
#

!
$

$

%

& ! '

(

)((

%


½ ¾

! "

" #

$

$

%
#

#

#

&

% '
$
" nil 0
%
# (

Example 11.11
)
*
"

' Cl ' " ' Cl

'
Cl $ Cl

Cl $

0 Cl
$ Cl


¼
¼

¼
¼
¼
¼

¼

¼
0

!
"#

Clock#

"
$
%

%

&
"

"'

"

#

"

&# $
"# "

%

"

$
%

&
#

%
Cl $

(
Clock
Cl

#
"#

Clock #

%(
" Clock# %

)
$
" )

"
( &
#

%

( (

Cl $
" $

(
Clock
Cl Cl

&

*
+
( $

! " Cl
$

,
-
Clock

Cl¼ Cl½ Cl Cl Cl

Cl
Clock


!
" ! #!
$ "# !
!

% "#
# & "#
! ! '
(

) )
*" ' ! "#

#
Distinguishing Between Behaviours 299

Î½ 10p.10p.( coffee.collect.Î coffee tea
+ tea.collect.Î )

Î 10p.( 10p.coffee.collect.Î
10p
+ 10p.tea.collect.Î )

Î 10p.10p.coffee.collect.Î
collect
+ 10p.10p.tea.collect.Î

11.4 Distinguishing Between Behaviours

10p coffee
tea collect

!"

!
"
#
$ %

!

Î
10p.(coffee.collect.Î + tea.collect.Î )
coffee.collect.Î + tea.collect.Î
collect.Î
&

Î
10p
10p.(coffee.collect.Î + tea.collect.Î )

Î ' 10p.10p.(coffee.collect.Î + tea.collect.Î )
!
' $
10p
10p coffe
e
Î½ tea
collect
& %
' $
10p coffe
10p e
Î¾ 10p
tea
collect
& %
' $
10p
10p coffe
e
Î¿ 10p
10p
tea
collect
& %

10p.10p.(coffee.collect.Î½ + tea.collect.Î½ )
10p.(coffee.collect.Î
10p
½ + tea.collect.Î½ )

Î½ Î¾ Î¿
! Î½ Î¾ Î¿

10p

coffee
" !

10p

Distinguishing Between Behaviours 301

10p

coffee

Î¾ Î¿
Î

10p

10p

coffee

Î

Î

Î

Î

Î

10p

coffee

tea

10p

10p

tea

Î Î

Î

!

"

#
$
% 0 & 0

% &

% & 0 & 0

%

' (

) #

11.5 Equality Between Processes

¯
¯

! "!
#
$
% ½ & ' 0
% ¾ & '
% & ' '
%& % ' & ' ' % ' &
%& (

) *$

Example 11.17
' 0 $

¯ ' 0
¯ ' 0

+ $ ' 0
0
0
)! !
! )
!

¯ ¼

¼

¼ ¼

¼
¯ ¼

¼

¼ ¼
¼

!

"½ # $
% %
"¾ # $

&

'

(

!

¾

'
)


* + **,
--

. --

**/

*0(
$

1 2 & "

34 --5
3&
--5# $


! " # $ # ! "
! "$
$

!% &' " ( $

) *

) "
"
+
, & + -

- $ $

$
" .

/

%
&+

&
+ 0 #

$

$ 1$ 2 3
/ $

44 (
5 ($ 1 6 ($ 2
7, ( 3 54 ( $ 1 (
8
/

%

$ 1$ 2 3
(
/ $
$
$ 9 - :

$

- (
$ ,$
7 4 $
*
$
( :
/

%
7 - )
!

)
& + / )
(

! ! !
: $
$ $ $ 5$ ; 6
$
%
&+ / )
(

! ! !
: $
$ ,$ 5$ 9$ ;$ 6
4 $
%
5 )$ $

<
( )
<

! "# $%
&

' !
(
" ) x mod y *
+
while x y do x := x-y
return x
,- .

"% mod
, - /

# 0 1
2 0 3 2 2

,- .

, - &

4 5 Clock%

1

Clock% 2 Cl

1 Clock & 6666

6 .

5

!
7

66 8 !
1

,
-

1 9*
666 '

2

¯

¯ 2

!

"

# #

$ !

% !
&
" ' (

" ' (
" ' (
" ' (
&


!"!
# $
$

$ "
$
% &
$

'
"

$$
(

) *

+
,
$ ) -
'

.#

½ / 0 0
¾ / 0

/ 0 /
/ / 0 / /

1 0
0
2 *

+
,
$ )
1 0
/ 0 /
1 0
0
Chapter 12
Distinguishing Between
Processes

! "
#

$

¯ %

#
¯

&

'#

( %

12.1 The Bisimulation Game

&
' ) $
%
) * + % ¾

, -
& . ½' /
%
& ' ½& ' 0


310 Distinguishing Between Processes

!
"
#
$

!

"

!
!
% !
every time it is her turn " ! !
& ! !
&

! #&
! '!
The Bisimulation Game 311

Example 12.1

!

!
"

!

!

#

$

$

Example 12.2
%

!

&
"

' (

)

& *

*
"

*
!

+ (

'

)

& '

&
& "

+
!

' (

&

(
)

,

'


!

Theorem 12.2
" # ½ " #

$
" #

½" #
% "&% ' (()#
Definition 12.2
-game equivalent

" #
-game equivalent
½

½ " #
%
!
!
!
(!

¾ (

%

10p
½ ¿ ¾ ½ ¿ ¿

%

%
* ½
"coffee tea#

*
( ¾ ¿ ¿

%

Properties of Game Equivalence 313
Î¿
coffee

Î¾
tea
tea Î¾


0 0
0 0!
"

# $% %
12.2 Properties of Game Equivalence

& % '% (
%

%
'%
Theorem 12.3

¼
¼

¼
¼
¼

¼
¼

¼
¼
¼
½

¼
¼

¼
¼
½ ¼

¼
¼

¼
¼
½ ¼

½

½

Proof: % (% )* '% %

(
)

½

¼ ¼

¼ ¼

¼ ¼

½

¼ ¼

¼ ¼

½
¼ ¼

! " #$% &

&
Theorem 12.4

½

Proof: "
½ '(

½

" )

*

"

½

½ ½

)
"

"

½

½
½
½

Bisimulation Relations 315


½

Theorem 12.5

½
¼ ½ ¾ ½

Proof: ! " #

" # "
# #
# "
# ! # # $

" #

"
# ! # #
" # "

# # #
%

&
"

¼ ½ ¾ ½

Cl Cl Cl ·½ Cl'
Clock Clock

Clock ½ Clock "

(
" ! #)

*+

#
Cl Cl Cl
·½ Cl'

Clock Clock Clock ½ Clock

12.3 Bisimulation Relations

, # ½
-#.

" ! # "
"
)
! # $


Clock Clock

!"#

¾ $

%
!"#&#'

Definition 12.5
bisimulation relation

¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼
¼

¼ ¼ ¼ ¼

¼
¼
(

)

Theorem 12.6

½

Proof:

Bisimulation Relations 317

½

! !" # $
# % " &
' ½
Example 12.6
" # ( # "

!$ )$ * #

Ò Ó
' ½ ½ ¾ ¾ ¾
+ , # ½
- ,
- " "
Æ ( ½
½ " ½ ½
+ $ " # $&
. ! " $& . ! ½ #
Ì
½ ' ¾ ! # !!% / # !
Clock Clock Clock ½ Clock / "

Definition 12.7
image-finite

Theorem 12.7

½ Ì
¾
½
Ì
Proof: ¾

½ ½ ÌÌ¾

¾ ½ Æ
Ì
! ¾
" ! ½

# ¼ $ ½
%&' !
¼ ( !
( ¼
! ) ¼ ¼ ¼
( ¼ ¼
* ¼ ¼
¼ ¼ ¼
(
!

! $ !

! + , ! !

!
! !)
!
-

& '
$ .!
$

% $ &(
0 0 / 0'
Bisimulation Colourings 319
12.4 Bisimulation Colourings

Definition 12.8
bisimulation colouring

every

¼

¼
!

every

¯
¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼

¯
¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼

bisimulation equivalent bisimilar

"

#

$

Theorem 12.8

½
Proof:

%

& '()

'(* %

½

½

! "
½

# $
$
# %

!
&

Invariant:

'
#

! $
# #
partition refinement algorithm (
$ $ $ #
) *$
+
' $

&
%

, -

- . /

, # 0

, (

- . / ! 1 ,
( 1

' $

&
%
Bisimulation Colourings 321

! " " #

! $ %
' $

& %

#
# &

" "

' # ' (

" " )

*
" #
'

& " "
"

&

& " &
# &
& " &

" " "

" "
+" &
&" # #

!
"

#

"

!
#

$
%&%

'

(

!

% )

& )

* )

" +

(
12.5 The Bisimulation Game Revisited: To Infinity and

Beyond!
!

! !
½ ½
!
, -
%&.
The Bisimulation Game Revisited: To Infinity and Beyond! 323

Clock Clock ¾ Clock ½
Clock ½

!
"
¼ ½ ¾ ¿

#

$

%&'½¼¼
&'' ()
*
+ ,

-.

/

* 0&
01

0

) $
"

2 3 45
%$
(

6 )

%7 4&4( $
%7 4&4( /
%
( "

ordinal numbers
½
12.5.1 Ordinal Numbers

*
' & 1 0& 01 0 0 0& 0 01

% (

$
)
0
1

2

*

successor predecessor

limit

!

" !
# $

%

$
$

%
&

$

" '

(

( )

!
*

"
+
"

, & !!

Æ

#
!

!
- transfinite induction

!

!

.
/,
0 $

"

"

$
! "

+
-

Example 12.10
1
!
" '
!

2
#

( ( (
, , ,

#

"

"

!

"
12.5.2 Ordinal Bisimulation Games

& .
$ "

! $ $
" '
"

½

¼

!

"

#
½

$

¼ ¼ ¼ ¼

!

%

$

&

!

'

(

## &#

Theorem 12.10

Proof: )

* "

¼
+

* %

¼ ¼
+

* %

¼ ¼

·½

##
¯ +

·½


½
¯

·½

·½

¼ ¼

¯

¯

Definition 12.10

-game equivalent

Example 12.11
! "# $%& Clock Clock Clock Clock

Clock Clock
Clock ·½Clock Clock Cl

·½ Clock Clock
Clock

Cl Cl Cl
'
Clock ·½
Clock
(
· ··½
) # $%% *

* )
#

½
Theorem 12.11
¼

¯ ¼

¼

¼
¼

¼

¼

¼

¼
¼

¼

Theorem 12.12

Theorem 12.13

¾Ç
Theorem 12.14
½
Proof:
½
! "

# $

%

– # ¼

¼

¼ ¼ ½ ¼
!
¼ ¼
– # ¼
¼

¼ ¼ ½ ¼
!
¼ ¼

½
¯

Ì Ì ¾Ç ½ Æ

¾Ç

½

¼

¼ ! "

"
# ¼
$ "
% ¼ ¼ ¼
$ " & #
¼ ¼
' " ¼ ¼
¼ ¼ ¼ #

( " " $$
"

)

*

*

*
( " " $$
"

)

*
*

* *

* *

*
*
& ( "

½

!

"

!

"

!

"

!

"

!

"

!

"

# $

$
%%#

&
' 0
¾
¿

½

!

"##
½
$

$

% !

"#%$

&

&

' !
trace set

!

trace equivalent $
$ $
$ ($
deterministic $
$

! $

$

$
$

¼

¼ ¼
)

¼

¼

$

)

$

* + trace bisimulation relation

,

£

,

¼

¼

¼
¼ ¼
-
¯
¼
¼

¼
¼ ¼

! refusal set

" # ! $
¦ failure

failures
equivalent %

" #
% %

%
"# &

½ ¾ ¿ ½ % ¾
¾ % ¿

"# ' %

(

)* $+,
-
.

Ë /
· %
/

0 .
%
Ë %
%
· %

% %
$ %
· %

%
1 % $
· % $

$ % $

% $

Ë
% $ %
$
· 2 % %
%
$

/ (

.


¾ ¾ ¾ ¾

¾

!

"# $ "#"" ! %#&
"% $ "#"# ! %#&
"' $ "#"% ! %#&
Chapter 13
Logical Properties of Processes

!

!

"

#

$ %

! !

%

& '

%

%

%

& '

(

)

# %

*

+

334 Logical Properties of Processes

Example 13.1

!

"
# $%&$'()'(*+'++

"
,

-.
(

-

.

)

)(

- / .

0

0

1

)

$%&$'()'(*+'++

/
/
13.1 The Mays and Musts of Processes

2

0

3
4
/

10p

10p

coffee

# 10p

10p

tea

-
.

/

5

5

The Mays and Musts of Processes 335

! " #

! " #

$
%coffee&

' & Æ

coffee
( ( )
coffee

*

+

%coffee&
) "
"

& +

%coffee&

*

true

*
%coffee&

coffeetrue

coffee

true
, -
true true
#

. 10p 10p coffeetrue

/ 10p10p teatrue
)

(
(
10p

10p

coffee

10p

10p

tea


coffeetrue
coffeefalse
coffeetrue
coffeefalse

!
!
"

#
! !


! "
$ Cl %
% & $ #
$ Cl % '
% $ % $

$ ( #
!
"

! Cl "! Cl ) ! !

13.2 A Modal Logic for Properties

*
!

%
!

% " !

A Modal Logic for Properties 337

HML

! " # $ %
%%& true false ! "
' HML

#

& satisfies (

(

&

&
# &

satisfiable (

valid
) *

%
& true
true
&
false
false

& &

& &

&
#

& & &

#
& &

+ ,

& ! " &

! "
# + ,

$ HML - ./.
) 0
## %
true
false

HML

!

"

!

#

$

¾ # %
!

&'

! (

(

false

$
¾ # %
!

#
&'
! (

(

true
$

# %
A Modal Logic for Properties 339

¾ ¾

!
" # HML " $
$
Example 13.3
% &

0
0 ' 0

(

)

"
"
&

true true

true
true

* " )
+ ,
+,

-
HML . )
-

true

! "#true
$%

% % &
'
(

true

&
)
*
(

HML (
true true

(
true true
+

(

, *

- . true / . true 0 . "# true
1 . true 2 . true -3 . "# true
4 . "#false 5 . "#false -- . "#"#false
6 . " #false 7 . " #false -1 . "#" #false
Negation Is Definable 341

!
! "

!

# $

%! #$

!

# $

%! #
$

&

# $

'
!
# $

# $

13.3 Negation Is Definable

'
%(

! " ()

! ( ( *
( %

&'
+
!

,

% " ()

! ! -
!

- . . /
%(
%

-
0 1
0 1

!

-
!

" (

2

!

" (


! "

# $%

& !

# !
! "

Example 13.6
' ()

true

*

true false !
+

false

false
# false
() ()

false
HML
HML ,
Negation Is Definable 343

HML

pos

pos

neg

neg

! "

#
postrue true negtrue false

posfalse false negfalse true
pos neg neg pos
pos pos pos neg neg neg
pos
pos pos neg neg neg
pos
pos
neg $ % neg

pos
$ % $ % pos
neg $ % neg

&
pos neg '

'

Theorem 13.6

HML
pos
neg

Proof:
(
)
*+,
) negneg

13.4 The Vending Machines Revisited

Î Î Î

HML
½ ¾ ¿

HML

!

½ ¾ ¿

"10p#"10p# tea true

½
!

$10p% tea
!

$10p%

½
coffee.collect. ½ + tea.collect. ½

tea

&

'
$10p%
¾ ¿

$tea% ( $coffee% ) !
¾
¿
10p 10p "tea#false

¼
½
(!

*)
½
+ "10p# 10p "tea#false

¾
!

$10p%

$10p%

$tea% !

$10p%
¾

10p.coffee.collect. ½ + 10p.tea.collect. ½

$10p%
coffee.collect. ½
$tea%

&

'
$10p% ,
½ ¿
½ 10p.(coffee.collect.
10p
½ + tea.collect. ½)
The Vending Machines Revisited 345
¯ Î¿
10p
10p.tea.collect.Î ¿

10p
tea Î½ Î

¼
10p10p teatrue

! 10p10pteafalse

"

10p

10p

tea

#

10p
10p.coffee.collect.

$
%

10p
tea
&
%

'

10p

(

10p
10p.(coffee.collect. + tea.collect. )

10p
10p.coffee.collect. + 10p.tea.collect.

10p

tea

¼
10p 10p teatrue

)

*"

+++,

0 - 0
-

- 0 - 0
.%
/ HML

(

'

13.5 Modal Properties and Bisimulation

!

"

!
!
"

#

$
!

HML $

" !

%

%

Definition 13.9
modal depth & '

HML

&true' ( ) & ' ( & & ' & ''
&false' ( ) & ' ( & & ' & ''
& ' ( & ' & ' ( * & '
&+, ' ( * & '
"

!

HML
-

Modal Properties and Bisimulation 347

false true

false true
false true

false

true

!
false !
true
"

#
$
"

% &

$

Theorem 13.9

Proof: '

#
&
true: "

true

false: "

false

: (

½ ¾ : )
½
*
½ ¾ ¾
½
¾
( ½ ¾

½

¾ +

½

¾

½ ¾
½ ¾ : )
½
*
½ ¾ ¾
½
¾
½ ¾

½
¾

½

¾

½ ¾
:

¼ ¼ ¼

¼ ¼

½

¼ ¼

!
¼
"#:

$
"#
¼

¼

¼ ¼

½ % "#
¼ ¼ ¼

$
¼

!
¼

&
'

(
!
) HML
'

Definition 13.10

HML HML *

HML

-logically equivalent

HML

logically equivalent

HML

Modal Properties and Bisimulation 349

Corollary 13.10

HML

Proof: HML

HML !
! " !
HML HML #
$" !
! "$ "

Theorem 13.10

Proof: % !

& ¼

' ½

¼ ¼ ¼ ¼
( ¼

½ ¾
$" " ¼
)

½ ¾ ¼
) *

½ ¾
+ ½ ¾ ½ ¾
Corollary 13.11

Proof:

Clock Clock

! "#$%
&

Clock Clock

Clock Clock

Clock Clock ' ( Clock Clock
13.6 Characteristic Formulæ

)
! %
HML

characteristic formula

*
+ ! %

0
!0% + , -false

.
/

0
!0% + true ,-false ,-,-false
" )
!0 0 0%

1

(

2(

(

1*

.

Theorem 13.11

! % HML
Characteristic Formulæ 351

Proof:

true
true ¼
States

½ !

¼ ¼

" # !
¼ ¼
¾
$ !
$
%

!
¼

¼
$

%

! &

¼ ¼ ¼
'
&
( &
( ¼

)

*

+ ·½

,
¼

¼

¼ ¼
¼ ¼

¼

¼

,
¼
" # ¼
¼

¼

¼ ¼ ¼

¼

¼
-
. ·½
/ ·½
, .

¼ ¼ ¼

¼

¼
0 ¼ ¼

¼ ¼
true States
false

States
¼ ¼

States
¼ ¼
HML

¼
! " #

¼ ¼ ¼
!

¼ ¼
$ ¼ ¼
¼ ¼

¼
¾ ¼
% ½
13.7 Global Semantics

$ " &! ' HML ! (
! HML & !
! ) & &

$ " ' " (
& States !
! * ' & &
Theorem 13.12

Proof: +! ! (

true: true States true
false: false false
:

½ ¾ :
½ ¾
½ ¾
½ ¾ ½ ¾

½ ¾ :

½ ¾

½ ¾
½ ¾ ½ ¾

:

¼

¼

¼

¼

:
¼
¼

¼
¼


½

¾

true
true
false

true
true
true


!
HML

"

# Cl $% & '
(
( !
HML

Cl " Cl !
)

false * ! %

+
*

true true
true false

!

" 0 # 0

"

" 0
$

%
&
'
'

true false 0
true
true
true
true
true
true
true
(
!

)% ! !

*
! ! !


¯ true true

true false
false false
! ""

#$%
!

& '(
& '

) * ! +

, -./

true
true

true
false
true
true

true true

true true
0 1
)+ 2- -.
-. !

3

3

3

3

4 5

+
HML 6-

6- +

+
- ! 7

6-

6- +
-.
1 6-

6- +
- 2-
+
+

-.
"$ 8 HML - HML -.

9:* 2-
3 true
; HML 2- 3 ! 0

##$+ 3 +
+

-. HML
HML

HML

true

HML

!"
#$
% & $' '
'

HML
# HML
HML

( )false

*

HML

! +
% && '
'
'

HML
Chapter 14
Concurrent Processes

synchronisation merge

!
14.1 Synchronisation Merge

!
! "

#
$

!
Example 14.1
% " #
" " &

"
&

"
" '
" &

" " &
# "

" &

"

(

358 Concurrent Processes

!! "

#

$ %

Synchronisation Merge 359

synchro-
nisation sort Sort

Example 14.2
! Sort
Sort " Sort " #
"

$

È É
Ê

Sort " $

È É Ê

%

&

Sort

'

Sort Sort Sort

synchronisation merge

!
"

!

#

$

% ¼
Sort

¼

" %
Sort
¼
¼
# % ¼

Sort
¼
Sort
¼
¼
&

'
(


(

)
*
'

+

(

+

)
14.2 Counters
,
-counter

$

,

!
Counters 361
¯

¯

!

"
#
!

$ % !

"
# ¼

¼
" ¼¼
#

¼¼
" ¼
!

¼ ¼¼

& ' ( %
$ Sort)* "

!


¾
14.3 Railway Level Crossing

! " #

$ Rail

Railway Level Crossing 363
¯ Road

¯ Controller

Safety Properties
¯

Liveness Properties

¯ !

¯ !

"

Road #
car.up.ccross.down.Road

SortRoad # up down

Road

car $

up $

ccross $ %

down

Road

car
Road
down up
ccross
Rail #
train.green.tcross.red.Rail

SortRail # green red

Road
Rail


train

green

tcross

red

Rail

train
Rail
red green
tcross

Controller green.red.Controller up.down.Controller

Sort Controller up down green red

Controller

up green
Controller
down red

!

Crossing Road Controller Rail
"

# $ #

"

Mutual Exclusion 365


¯

¯

14.4 Mutual Exclusion

!
" #
$%

Mutual exclusion

critical section &

&

"
'

14.4.1 Dining Philosophers
"

()*+
,


! "#
$
"
%

" Ý & "
"
& "
"
&

' " (
" ( !

& "
Ý


!
¯ !

¯ !

¯
!

!

½ "
#

"
#

"
#

"
#

"
#

$

% &

&
' &
&
& !

"

"

"

"

"

&

!
Sort "
! ( )
Sort "
! ( )
*

!

%

& &

&
$
& !

½


14.4.2 Peterson’s Algorithm

! " #$%#

& ' b1

( ) b2

( ) * k

# + , - (

) & b1 b2

k
(

)
' while true do ' while true do

b1 := true; b2 := true;
k := 2; k := 1;
while (b2 and k=2) do while (b1 and k=1) do
skip; skip;

b1 := false b2 := false

b1

k +

.

( b2 )

( k

#) *
b1 "

b1 b2 k

½ ¾ b1

Sort

b1
!

"
!

b1
! !

#

!

! b1

"

! b1
!

#

!

! b1

"

! b1

!

$
!

"

!

b2
!

Sort

%" k

&
'( & ' ( & ' ) &

'( ')
' )
& ') & ' ) & ' ( &

& &
Sort& '( ') ' ( ' ) ' (
' ( ' )

k

k

½ ¾

!
" ! #

b1

k $
% &

# "

$
while (b2 and k=2) do skip
#

b2

k &
'

b2

k &
!

$
%

( & ( ( &
)
! "

b1
$
%

#

$
Sort % &

# $
% &

% ( & ( ( &

%

Sort % &
#

!$
A Message Delivery System 371
½
½ È

Ï ½

Ï

¾

Ê ½ Ê

È È

È È

È È

14.5 A Message Delivery System

!

"
!

# $ !

%
"

$
& !

!

!

'
(in) *!

'
(snd) *!

' (ack) *"

!

$
&

!

' (err) *"

+

+

Sender ,

Sender in snd S
S

ack Sender err snd S
SortSender snd ack err

in
Sender sndS
err
ack snd
S
snd

rcv

err

Medium

snd rcv Medium err Medium

Medium
SortMedium snd rcv err

rcv
rcvMedium
Medium snd
errMedium
err
!

rcv "

out

#

ack

"

Receiver

Receiver rcv out ack Receiver
SortReceiver rcv ack

Alternating Bit Protocol 373
rcv
Receiver out ack Receiver
ack ack Receiver out

System Sender Medium Receiver

ack
snd rcv
in
out
err

! "# $
%

&'

14.6 Alternating Bit Protocol

(

communication
protocols
Sender
Medium
Receiver
ack in
S snd S
Medium Medium
ack Receiver Receiver
err snd
out
S
S
rcv Medium
Medium
err Medium
out ack Receiver
Receiver
rcv

!

" # " " !
" !# " " " !
"$ "
! #
! " " % "# #
" " !"
" & #
# " !
" ! !
' # ""(

# !"( ! ! " ) "
"
# "
" ! " # ! "
Alternating Bit Protocol 375

!

¯
"

#in$
%

& ' "
#s¼ $
#s½ $
%

"
#ack $
#ack $
%
(

)

*

" #t$
%
"

%
+

, Sort" % , s s

, in ¼ ¼
, s "ack - ack ¼
- t ¼
%

, in ¼

¼
, s "ack - ack ¼
- t %
¼
s
¼
in ack
ack t

ack t
ack
¼
in
s

s¼
s½

¯

r r

out

!

rack rack

"

!

#

$
%

Sort
% rack rack
% r outrack & r rack

% r outrack & r rack

out
r rack
r r
rack r
out

rack rack

!

!

"

#
$
%
Sort % r r ack ack

% s r & s r & rack ack & rack ack
s¼ s½
r¼ r½
rack rack½
ack ack½

s s

rack
rack

r
r

ack ack

System Sender

Medium Receiver

s r
s r
in ack rack
out
ack rack

in out

!

" in out

#


$ %& '

(#

#


¿

!

"

#

$
!

%&'
down

$ green
up
red
(

# $ &

# $
(

#
%&

)
)
) )
!

!

$
$ *
!

)

!"

)

+ ,

!!

-

!.
-

/ 0

!

1 0

2
3

22
1 0
4

½ while true do ¾ while true do

b1 := true; b2 := true;
while b2 do while b1 do
if k=2 then if k=1 then
while k=2 do skip while k=1 do skip
b1 := true b2 := true

k := 2; k := 1;

in out

!
"
#

"
"

$ 0
Sort " $ $

0

Sort " $
%

&
' (

!

" )!
¼
Sort "
¼

" )! ¼
Sort "
¼

" )!
¼
¼
Sort " Sort "

¼
¼

*

+

!
,

!

- !

Chapter 15
Temporal Properties

HML

¾ HML

!

" # $

%

&

! '

'

(

) *

+

,

temporal properties

-

'

¯ Safety properties

.

¯ Liveness properties

.


382 Temporal Properties

15.1 Three Standard Temporal Operators

15.1.1 Always:

! "#

$
%

Û
%

!"
& '

(

)*

+
& ' &'&' &'&'&'

*

*

*

*

+

)

% &'

## ,

-
.

+

.

true

+
-
.
% true
Three Standard Temporal Operators 383
Example 15.1

Clock Clock

!
!" " HML#
" $ %&
&" ¾ #

" !
#
"
$ %& '

Clock Clock

! "
" & & $ (
Clock ) true
! Clock ) true

Example 15.2
*
" " " & + ,-

*

.ccross/false .tcross/false
*
"# "

0 ccross
0 tcross
15.1.2 Possibly:
0

#

# 1$
2#

"

" & & "#
) # " #
)

Û
*

12

$
& & ! "

' &
" 3 4 5
"

! (

*
"# (

5 5
5
5 6

" &
& "(
!& 3 4
"

3
& %
)

! "false

##

$ ! "false

!"

$
$

$

%
$

&
#

$

$ true

$ !"false
15.1.3 Until: U
'

#

(

)
#

&

#
%

(

$ &

$ ¼ ½ ¾
½ ¾
$ ¼ ½ ¾ ¿

$
$

Recursive Properties 385

true !

"
# $

% #%

$

%
#%

$ !! &#

' #

( "

)
* +
,! #

15.2 Recursive Properties

'

## HML
# -
"% "

' % % #
$
% %
'

# HML%

##

.
%

( /01 #

2 #

% % -
"%
%
% %

3
3

' #
%

4 '

valuation function
V Variables States
Variables

States

V true

V false

V

V
V

V

V

V
V
V

V

V
V

V

V

V

! "

!

#

V

V
$

"

!

true V States
false V
V V
V V

V V V
V V V

V States ¼
V
¼

V States ¼
V
¼
%&%' "

Theorem 15.3
V
V
( %)&
15.2.1 Solving Recursive Equations

HML

!
V V
V "

# V V$ % "
V
States

V

V& ' V

!

V & ' $ %
V $ %

Example 15.4
(

!

) States
!

States !

V
States !

V
* +

,
"

V
V V
V V V


V

!"#
$
% %

15.2.2 Fixed Point Solutions
& ' States States
V
( %

fixed point
% ' States % )
* +( ,
( ( -!. !/# %
0 % 0
% % ( % %
%

Theorem 15.5
HML
V
W V W V W
Proof:)
% 0
% 0 %
true: trueV States trueW
false: falseV falseW
: V V W W

:
V
V V

W W

W

½ ¾:
V V V
W W
W
: V States V

¼ ¼
States W

¼ ¼
W

:
V States V
¼ ¼
States W
¼ ¼

W

! ! " #
# " #
! # #!
! # # $ % V &

'
( )* +
!

&

#!
,# #!

HML
modal mu-calculus #
# # !
- # #
$ % V
! . )* +'
/ ! '
true V States
false V
V V V
V V V
V
States
V
¼ ¼

V
States
V
¼ ¼
V V
V
Ì Ò States Ó
V
ËÒ Ó
V States V

15.3 The Modal Mu-Calculus

! HML "
" ! # $ %
%! & # '(
)

true false

*+ *+ ,
# * + $
%! )
& V #
%!

- $ % V " % #

# $ V " $

HML ./ # $
$ & %! $ 0,
12& 34& 0,
# V
5 HML & # !

The Modal Mu-Calculus 391
Theorem 15.6

V W

V W
V W
Proof:

! " "
# : V # # W
# : V " V

" W

W
#
:
V " V
" W

W
Definition 15.6

V

#V true

#V false
#V #V #V
#V #V #V
#V
#V

#V $% #V

#V V
#V States &

#V
#V
States &
& #V


V
V

HML


!
neg"true# false neg" # $%neg" #

neg"false# true neg"$% # neg" #
neg" #
neg" # neg"# neg" # neg" #
neg" #
neg" # neg"# neg" # neg" #
neg" #
&
V neg" #
V V" # V" #
15.4 Least versus Greatest Fixed Points

'

(
(
(
(

(

)

(

(
( (

(

(

*

(

(
(
+
,
- (
( .

.
(

/

(
(
.

Example 15.7
((

( (
( .

((
(
(

*

!

Least versus Greatest Fixed Points 393

Example 15.8

true

!

true

true true

true true " true #

true true " true " ##
15.4.1 Approximating Fixed Points

$

%
& %
'
( )

'
%
' ! '

%

false true ' % %

Definition 15.8

mu-approximant
nu-approximant


¼
false ¼ true
½ ·½

Example 15.9

! " # $
!¼ false #¼ true
!½ false #½ true
!¾ false #¾ true
!¿ false #¿ true

%
! & " & ' $
(
# & " "
"" & "
)
**
+*

,
(
&-

+*
" *
( * true
Example 15.10

! " # $
Least versus Greatest Fixed Points 395
¼ false
½ true false

¾ true true false

¿ true true true false

¼ true
½ true true

¾ true true true

¿ true true true true

!"
"

# !
#
" !
"
#

$

#
" % ##&

# #
## ##&

"

false

' " ! !

# ! !

!
#(#

true) !

# !

!

(#

false ' ! ! !
#

#
" !
# #

' *#
+, ! #
!

# #
!
" #
##
#

!
)

!
"
$ +-. $

( ! &

# #
"

" #

! States $ # #
!

Theorem 15.10
V States V V

Proof:

! "

falseV
V
!

"

V
V
V
# $V
V

Example 15.11
%
&

'
#$
(

V ' )

*

) () +, +-.
)
) "

)

) (

/"
)

States "

States States

States V

States V ' ) V

States V '

) V
States
"

Expressing Standard Temporal Operators 397

Example 15.12

false

! " States
¼ ¼
# $ $ %&'

$

States

!States" States
$

(
$ $

¼ ! "
½ ! " States
¾ ! " States ¼
¿ ! " States ¼
¼ ¼¼

! "

15.5 Expressing Standard Temporal Operators

$

)

* ! $ true

"
$ $


safety
properties

¯

false

liveness
properties

!

"
#$#

15.5.1 Always:
%

& ' (

)

*

+
& ' (
15.5.2 Possibly:
%

&

,

*

+
&
15.5.3 Until: U
%

-

Further Fixed Point Properties 399
true

!
" #
#
$
true !
%!

!
&
'
(!
!

&
'

)! true

!

&
true '
15.6 Further Fixed Point Properties

* #

+ !
There is an path.
,
+
!

" #

#
$
!
There is no path.

neg ! " #$
%
&

" #$

'

(
holds at every state along some path.

(

holds somewhere along some path.

)

(

(
&

"

*
(

&

(

+

(

,

(
-

.

!

'

(
/
(

!
holds at every state along every path.

!

"

#

$
%

&

'

( '
)

!

* almost always holds along some path.
+
,

,

- holds infinitely often along some path.

* (

weak until

-
.
*/-

0 true false

!
"#

0 $ 0
% &
' % States(
V ) V

% )V ( ( V (

* +
, %
& -( States ) V
) V
.

+

/

+0
(

entry

( entry
exit
1 &

( 2 3

+ *
-

+
4

&

(

4 (

4
(

4 (
4 (
5 ) $
(
) ( )

(

#

6 ) true 23 23


¾ true

¾
½

Solutions to Exercises

Chapter 1
Exercise 1.1 (page 20)

!" #$

%
&

'

"
&' " ! (
" !

) &
) " !

&"
&* !* * " !
*
*
+"
! !
&
+

! &
&"
& !*(
&
"*

,

*- !&

.
(
$

" *

* *
!
) &

)

!
" *(
!

& * + * !

" /

*
) &

)

!

&

) &

)
. "

& *

!
&
& *

DOI 10.1007/978-1-84800-322-4, © Springer-Verlag London 2013

!
"
#
$
%

$

%

&
&

' (

) (
(

#

!

"
* (
+
,
#

#

-
#

. (
/

#

0 (


' $(

%
) $+
%
* ) 1 ) .

' (

!

"
) (

* (


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#

$ % #

&
'

(


Cl % tick Cl # tick Cl

)
# # % *

% )*
% #
+ ,*
# # +
+ -
. )

-

(

10p.coffee.collect. + 10p.tea.collect.
coffee.collect.
tea.collect.
collect.

¼

Î
10p.coffee.collect.Î
10p.tea.collect.Î
coffee.collect.Î
tea.collect.Î
collect.Î

10p

10p

tea

0


!! !
!! !
"
!! !
!!

# $ %!
reflexive: &!!
!
'
symmetric: ' '

!
(#
! ) '
!
!

transitive: ' '
'

!
(#
! * ' +
!
* '
+

! ' ¼ ! $ ' ½
! % ' ½

½
¾ ¾

¾
¿ ¿

¼
Chapter 12
Fact:
!

"

!

Proof: #

!

¼
$

¼ ¼
!

!

%!!

!! &
¯

¼ ¼ ¼

!

¼
'

¼ ¼
¯

¼ ¼ ¼

!

¼
¼ ¼
( !!
!

·½ ) )
¼ ¼

!
!

!

(

!
·½

!

·½

!! (

¯

!
¼ ¼

'
¼ ¼

! ! !

¼ ¼

¼
·½ '
¯ ¼

¼

¼ ¼

¼ ¼

¼

½

¾ ¼ ½

¿ !

"
#

#

0 $ 0

0

0

0 0 $ 0

0 0 $ 0
#

0 0 $ 0

0 $ 0 0

0 0 $ 0
0 $ 0 0


Fact: #

Proof:

#
%& '(!'

¼
#

·½ ·½ )

'(! !'!

"
·½
½ ·½

¼ ¼
¼

¼

·½ ¼ ¼
¼
! " # ·½
¼

¼
# !
¼ ¼
$ ¼ ¼ ¼

¯ $ ¼
¼
¼ ¼
¼

!
¼

·½ ¼ ¼
! " #

¼ ¼
·½

¼
¼
# ! ¼
$¼ ¼ ¼

$ ¼
¼
¼
¼
¼
# # " ·½

Fact: % Cl Cl Cl ·½ Cl
Proof: & ' # !
Base Case: Cl¼ ¼ Cl #

Induction Step: (" Cl Cl !
Cl ·½ ·½ Cl
' " # " !

Cl ! Cl ) "
# Cl¼ ! Cl !
# #
Cl

Cl !
Fact: % Clock Clock Clock ½ Clock
Proof:

Clock
Clock Clock Cl

Clock Cl

Clock Cl Cl Cl

!"! Clock Clock

#

Cl Cl

½


$ !%

&
½ ½
'

½

'

&

'

&

'

&

'

'

&

'

'


(

Æ

¼

¼

¼
¼
¼

¼

¼

¼ ¼

¼
Æ
¼

¼

¼

¼

¼ ¼

¼

¼

¼
¼

¼
Æ
¼

Æ


! ½
"
#
reflexive:

symmetric: ! ½

transitive: $

! %

! &'

¼ ¼ ¼ ¼

¼ ¼ ¼
½

( ')*
½
+', simulation relation

#
–
¼
¼

¼

¼
¼

$

'), +',

-

½

'), .

Æ

#

/0
')1
2

Æ


¼

¼ ¼

¼ ¼ ¼ ¼
Æ
¼ ¼ ¼ ¼
Æ

0 ¾ 0 0 0 ¾ 0 0

!
"#"

!

$
!

%


&
"#"
' $

& %
!

!
! %

'

(

%

)
(
' $

& %

' $

& %

' $

& %


Clock
¼ Clock

¾

Chapter 13
coffeetrue

coffee

true

coffee

coffeefalse

coffee

false
coffee

false

!

"
#$
!"

false
% &coffee'true

coffee

true

(

coffee
( true
!

!"

true
) &coffee'false

coffee

false
* coffee

false "

!

coffeetrue
true
+

+

+


tick ticktrue

tick

tick

Cl Cl


! " # $
% & ' ( % $

true

%
true

& true

)

true true
true

*

$

+ true
$ , -

.


Fact:
Proof: , ,
/ , 0

/ , 0

/ , 0

/ , 0
,
Theorem 13.6: 1
HML2

pos

neg

Proof:

pos

neg

pos

neg

true
postrue
true !
postrue"
negtrue
false !
negtrue"

true !
true false"
false
posfalse
false !
posfalse"
negfalse
true !
negfalse"

false !
true false"

pos
neg !
pos"

! "
!
"
neg
pos !
neg"
! "

!
"
½ ¾
pos ½ ¾
pos pos ¾
½
pos ½ ¾
pos ½
pos ¾

½
¾
½ ¾

neg ½ ¾
neg ½ neg ¾
neg ½ ¾
neg ½ neg ¾

½ ¾
½
¾
½ ¾

½ ¾
pos ½ ¾
pos pos ¾
½
pos ½
¾
pos ½ pos ¾

½ ¾
½ ¾

neg ½ ¾
neg ½ neg ¾
neg ½ ¾
neg ½
neg ¾

½
¾
½ ¾
½ ¾

pos
pos
pos
pos

neg
neg
neg
neg

pos
pos
pos
pos

neg
neg
neg
neg


Fact:
negneg
Proof:

true: negnegtrue negfalse true
false: negnegfalse negtrue false
½ ¾ :

neg neg ½
negneg ¾ ¾
½
negneg ½ ¾ negneg ½ neg ¾ negneg ½

negneg ¾ ½ ¾
½ ¾ :

negneg ½
negneg ¾ ¾
½
negneg ½ ¾ negneg ½ neg ¾ negneg ½

negneg ¾ ½ ¾

negneg
:
negneg neg neg negneg

negneg
:
negneg negneg negneg


!" ###$ % "

HML

&'

&'

&'

&'
(
false false
¯

true true

!
neg neg
" #
true false false

# 0

$ % & '

$ & !

$ % & (

) $ 0 * 0

true false true true false


" true ½

) true ½ ¾

+ true

, true

- false

. true

Chapter 14
/
0 Sort

0 Sort

$ ! Sort Sort

0
0 Sort
0

0
$


¾ ¾ ¼
¾
¼
¾¼¼


!

"
¯

¯
"

#

$
#


"
" "
%

"
%

" "

"
&

' " "

( " $ " )
* +
" +


¯
b1
b2
k
½ ½

¾
¯

b2

k !


! " #

! $

%

! &
Sender ' insndS S ' ackSender ( errsndS

SortSender ' snd ack err
&

in
Sender
snd S
err
ack snd
S
!

$"

)rcv*

)out* $"

)rack*
"

)rerr*

Receiver rcv out rack Receiver rerr rack Receiver
SortReceiver rcv rack rerr

rcv
Receiver rerr outrackReceiver
rack rackReceiver out

!

"rcv# $ %

"rack#

"ack#
&

"rerr#

Medium snd rcv rack M err Medium

M ack Medium rerr rack M
SortMedium snd rcv err

snd
rcvrackM
Medium
errMedium
err
ack rcv
rerr
M rackM
rack
in
Sender snd S
Medium Medium
Receiver Receiver
err snd
ack
S
S
rcv rack M
M
err Medium
Receiver
Receiver
rack rerr rcv
S S
rack M rack M
rack Receiver out rack Receiver
out

!

System " Sender Medium Receiver
# !#
snd rcv
in ack
err
rack
rerr

out
$ !

#


¯ Ë Å Ê
Ë¼ Å Ê¼
in
Ë Å Ê
¼
in

Sender Ë½
Sender
Medium ack Sender Ë½
Medium Å
ack Sender

× Ø
Medium ack
Receiver rack
Receiver rack out

Receiver Ê½
Ë½ Å Ê½

Chapter 15

true
!
true
È È
"#false
È "#È

!

$ È È
É È È
% & '
È É
( ' É
true true
( $ È true È

Fact: V
V
Proof:

true: V true States trueV
false: V false falseV
: V V
V
: V V

V

V

V
:
V V
V
V

V
V V

V

:
V
V V

V

V
V V

V

:
V
V

V

V

: V
V

V

V


V
States

V
V
States

! "
#
! $
%
&
V
States
'

(
(
(
)%
# V

%

&


' " * %% *
+ " ,
% HML &
-. % -!-
:

V neg
V V
V

V
:

V neg
V neg
States
V neg
States

V neg
States

V

V
:
V neg V neg
States

V neg

States

V neg

States

V

V

! " !

# !

$
%

$
&

! !
!$

#

!
%

!

'

%

! ( ( ! !


almost always holds along some path.
)
!

!

!
*

+


holds infinitely often along some path.

!

" #
Index

F

Æ

É

Ê

T 0

Æ

½
¬Ò

id

V


DOI 10.1007/978-1-84800-322-4, © Springer-Verlag London 2013
494 INDEX

# #(
# (

#

2 4#

&
((
2."
2 (
! "# &
$% &
10# 2 (
& 2 (
# & ' # 0
( # 6#$
)*+) %
,
7

- 2
( 2 8-
./ (
8 /
8 5 "

(# & &#
8 )
& &# 8 #
0 80 #
& # 8! 9
(
1& ( - & #
- &#

2# 3- -
2#1.# " 7

8 #
2 4

5 & &#
(

&# 8: 5#
# 8:! 5#
#

INDEX 495

2

#

!$(
-# +,

# ""

$

$

$

%

!#
" .#

! "

#
%

% #

!
3"

# #

$

$

-* 4

-
%

%
#

% &

- "

!
!

! '#

! '#
#

(

-5

6

(
-

-
."

! )

&#

&
7

!((* #"
7

!#
+, -
7 84 #

! '#* .

7 &

7

! (
"

! /0 +" 1#

496 INDEX

6&
07 8 '
+ +*
6 92 ,
6/9 & ,
&

62 : ',
HML ,
6 . 3 2 #&&
!"# $
% & ' &
% $

+ 2 ,$ $-
( )
'
%* + ,
2 ,

& ',

-
&/% ,
-
!9" -
''
+ *

)
+ '
'
+ 2
&
/* ++ , '
& '
& '
./ / ' &
./ // ' '
. 0

% -
.0" , -

' + -
. 1 '
.2 3 $
&& -
.2 & '
.2 '
&+ '$ % -
. 4 52 %* ',
&
, %* -
& %* + , %*
1
-
-
$' !& '$
6 , !
! 9

" -
6 3 2

INDEX 497

30
,'< (
30

,

3 3
)

-

!

3 ;-

"

)
#
/

$
%
&
'
/
$
' #

-

'(
%
)
$ *'
mod

%, )
$
(+
+, )

,% - )

3

-
'

. //
-
)
#0#. /
(

.- 1

, 2 3 ) %

"

-

4 % ) /
0,

, / 3 $

, /

5
) (
%%

1
' / %
- #-
)
/ )
,'
"66

, )

)
=
%%
1
- >

%%' /
1
,< ;

/
1#1. /

7
)/ )
1#1.

#-
/
1

- /
8

%
1
5
% /
1,
(, 5
&

9 ' 1 +

( (,(

1
5 )
3
(:(&
; 1
, < +, )
3
&, / nil %

,

? )
498 INDEX

0
+

(

$+ 5
$+
&

nil
!" #
&
#
$ *

#

$$
# ' $

$
# '

$ %&'
#

%
*

&

$
( #) *

5&
$

+
#
+ (

, ,('
#
# #
'
,-$
'
, . / (
*
&
, 0' 12
*

6' ' (' *
,' (

,3
' 0
,3
'. 4
5$ #
*
-
5 +
$ # & *

5 +
$ $
$ $ (' (
$ -' &

+ # #
# # # *
#
#
* $
INDEX 499

+

.

.

.

' . 3

!" '
#
4

$ % &
" 5

'( ) *

( .

(
+

+
HML
+
6

'( ,
-" #(
.

'( ,
. $

(
HML

.

.
# . 78

( # . * .
-
' /
.

. *
.

'* $ 0( 0 .

#( "9
Sort1 2 (

#(

500 INDEX

# '
# #

536 #

7&8 "
9 !$
7& , $

!
!

!

"
# $
$

%&
' "
$
"
!$

! !

"
()) )'

'' $

''

!

$

* # "

+

, )
, -
.# !$
/ $
0 $
, 1 2
, 3
, 1
, 4 !$

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Undergraduate Topics in Computer Science

For further volumes:

Mathematics for Computer Science

ISSN 1863-7310 Undergraduate Topics in Computer Science

Library of Congress Control Number: 2013943907

© Springer-Verlag London 2013

Printed on acid-free paper

Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)

Part I: Mathematics for Computer Science 15

3 Boolean Algebras and Circuits 87

4 Predicate Logic 109

5 Proof Strategies 131

8 Inductive and Recursive Deﬁnitions 201

9 Proofs by Induction 223

10 Games and Strategies 251

Part II: Modelling Computing Systems 277

11 Modelling Processes 279

12 Distinguishing Between Processes 309

13 Logical Properties of Processes 333

14 Concurrent Processes 357

15 Temporal Properties 381

  .  ' 4

Solutions to Exercises 405

  !  " # $

  %&  '   

 &  4 & 50 # 6

6            +1

 !           HML 

$   %    

# "        )( ) ) 

          

            

               

                 

            !   "

     !    "

       %&   %&    ' 

         (      

       

)              * 

     +        ( 

    *      $   $   - 

                

%  

 $             

               $  

      

'               

              / 

   $  #   '        

         

    

#              

 Speciﬁcation              

 Implementation Synthesis        

 Veriﬁcation              

             "  #  

     

      

  &  

     ) 

 -    

      

. ' 4

! " # $

%& '

& 4 & 50 # 6

6 +1

! HML

$ %

# " )())

! "

! "

%& %& '

(

) *

+ (

* $ $ -

%

$

$

'

/

$ # '

#

Speciﬁcation

Implementation Synthesis

Veriﬁcation

" #

&

)

-

%

!

"

$

:

! &" " '

&

&

.

% ( %( % ( %(

!

)

/

! " #

# " $ " $

% &

%! & ! "#

. ! *

% " "

"

" " 1%

%% %% "

( " $

! " . % "

% " "

#

% Either this man is dead or my watch has stopped.

" statements propositions

*

# +

% This man is dead.

$ " deduction inference

#