Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association

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Experimental Evaluation of Waste Tires Utilization

in Cement Kilns

Michèle Giugliano , Stefano Cernuschi , Umberto Ghezzi & Mario Grosso

To cite this article: Michèle Giugliano , Stefano Cernuschi , Umberto Ghezzi & Mario Grosso
(1999) Experimental Evaluation of Waste Tires Utilization in Cement Kilns, Journal of the Air &
Waste Management Association, 49:12, 1405-1414, DOI: 10.1080/10473289.1999.10463976

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TECHNICAL PAPER Giugliano, Cernuschi,
ISSN 1047-3289 Ghezzi,
J. Air & Waste Manage.and
Assoc.Grosso
49:1405-1414
Copyright 1999 Air & Waste Management Association

Experimental Evaluation of Waste Tires Utilization

in Cement Kilns
Michele Giugliano, Stefano Cernuschi, Umberto Ghezzi, and Mario Grosso
Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy

ABSTRACT
is disposed of in landfills, 20% is recycled as raw product
The present work outlines the main results of a full-scale
for shock protection purposes or in the production of
study conducted on the utilization of waste tires as auxil-
rubber crumb, and 30% is used in combustion.1 Landfill
iary fuel in cement production. Experimental tests were
disposal, the prevailing method, shall be drastically re-
conducted for determining the influence of shredded tires
duced in the near future, due to the recent introduction
on combustion conditions, emissions produced, and the
of European Economic Community (EEC) directives con-
characteristics of clinker obtained, for feeding ratios over
taining significant restrictions on this practice in favor
35% in terms of total heat input. The addition of tire chips
of alternatives oriented toward the recovery of materials
did not lead to any appreciable modification in either the
and energy.2 Furthermore, the disposal of used tires in
whole process or the quality of clinker produced; gaseous
landfills, stockpiles, or illegal dumping grounds increases
emissions were mostly unaffected, with significant improve-
the risk of accidental fires, with uncontrolled emissions
ments related to the reductions obtained in nitrogen and
of potentially harmful compounds.3
sulfur oxides concentrations. Experimental findings from
Waste tires are non-hazardous wastes with a high en-
tests conducted with tire chips exposed to kiln combustion
ergy content—nearly 7500 kcal/kg in terms of lower heat-
flue gases compare favorably with the typical burnout times
ing value (LHV)—and characterized by a chemical
derived from theoretical approaches. These experimental
composition particularly suited for their potential utiliza-
data and calculations to estimate particle trajectories be-
tion as a fuel.4,5 Furthermore, their highly sophisticated in-
yond the injection point, through proper theoretical analysis
dustrial production process assures qualitative characteristics
of the kinetic behavior, result in important indications for the
that are significantly constant over time. Chemical analy-
shredding operation and for optimum injection modes.
sis performed at the Unicem Research Centre in Barletta,
Italy, has pointed out that volatile substances account for
INTRODUCTION
70% weight fraction and ash accounts for 7–10%, while
The amount of used tires annually produced in Italy is
sulfur and nitrogen contents are well below the correspond-
roughly 330,000 tons. With the exclusion of 73,000 tons
ing values reported for some conventional solid fuels com-
of re-treaded material, 50% of the remaining 257,000 tons
monly used in cement kilns (coal and petroleum coke).
Results obtained for tires with the steel belts recovered, in
terms of ultimate and proximate analysis, are compared in
IMPLICATIONS
Actual strategies for waste disposal within European Eco- Table 1 with typical compositions of petroleum coke, the
nomic Community countries are strongly geared toward main fuel used for cement production in Italian plants.
the restriction of landfilling, through the adoption of alter- Cement production plants provide interesting oppor-
native options providing for materials and energy recov- tunities for the utilization of waste tires as auxiliary fuel.6
ery. Scrap tires are waste products with qualitative char-
Aside from developing auxiliary equipment for tire receiv-
acteristics particularly favorable for the recovery of their
energy content, through their use as a substitute for con- ing and feeding installations, the characteristics of the fir-
ventional fuels in industrial production processes. Cement ing process for clinker production do not require any other
plants provide interesting opportunities for this practice, modification in the operation and layout of the plant. With
in terms of process operating conditions. However, the respect to operating conditions, the most significant pro-
feasibility of the industrial application should be carefully
cess characteristics required for the proposed practice can
investigated with dedicated, full-scale trial burn tests for
be summarized as follows:
evaluating the potential influence of conventional fuel re-
placement on combustion and process conditions, clin- • flame temperature of about 2000 °C;
ker product quality, and emissions-related issues. • residence time of combustion gases above 1000
°C in excess of 3 to 4 seconds;

Volume 49 December 1999 Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 1405
Giugliano, Cernuschi, Ghezzi, and Grosso

Table 1. Comparative analysis between metal-free tires and petroleum coke (ASTM • the assessment of stability and operating condi-
standard n° D5142 and D3176). tions of the kiln when fed with alternative fuel;
• the comparison of atmospheric emissions and clin-
Ultimate Analysis, wt % Tires Petroleum Coke
ker quality obtained with and without waste tires
utilization; and
Carbon 85–90 85–90
• the assessment of combustion times of tire frag-
Hydrogen 5–9 5–10
Sulfur 1–3 3–5 ments under real operating conditions for evalu-
Nitrogen 0.7–1 1.5–2 ating the emission results obtained and the
combustion modalities of the alternative fuel.
Proximate Analysis, wt % The evaluation is particularly significant for the indus-
Volatile matter 70–72 11–13 trial scale on which it was conducted, for the high percent-
Fixed carbon 10–12 84–88 age of fuel substitution obtained, and for results related to
Ash 7–10 0.3–0.5 process operation and to the quality of atmospheric emis-
Moisture 1–3 1–3 sions and clinker produced.
LHV (kcal/kg) 7500 8250

INSTALLATIONS, MATERIALS, AND METHODS

Experimental tests were conducted at the Unicem indus-
• raw material firing at temperatures up to 1450 °C; trial installations in Barletta, in southern Italy. The cement
• alkaline characteristics of the solid material within plant (Figure 1), in operation since mid-1993, has a mean
the kiln, deriving from the high calcium oxides capacity of 100 tons/hr of clinker produced and is equipped
content of the pulverized crude meal; and with a five-stage cyclone preheater in line with an in-line
• inclusion of ashes and of the tires’ residual iron calciner (ILC). The first stages of raw material firing (dry-
within the clinker product (iron oxides are basic ing, dehydration, and calcination) occur in the cyclone
components of clinker). tower, while clinkering takes place in the rotary kiln (54 m
In particular, long gas and solids residence times at high long and 4-m internal diameter). Raw feed introduced in
temperatures should ensure optimal conditions for achiev- the top cyclone flows downward, countercurrent to flue
ing complete alternative fuel combustion and a high trace gases, to the precalciner, which is a duct 50 m long with a
organics destruction efficiency, thus reducing the main particular “swan neck” shape connecting the bottom cy-
environmental concerns related to the fuel utilization of clone with the feeding side of the kiln (Figure 2).
waste-derived materials. The alkaline properties of the sol- Fuel for the highly endothermic calcination stage of
ids inside the kiln can determine a very efficient removal raw materials, leading to the dissociation of calcium car-
of acid gases (essentially sulfur dioxide [SO2]) resulting from bonate into lime and carbon dioxide, is fed at the base of
the waste tire fuel, while the inclusion of iron in the prod- the duct with tertiary air recovered from the final clinker
uct permits the use of tires with a small amount of iron. cooler, giving to the precalciner all the characteristics of a
Fixation of the ash fuel content within the clinker should
also prevent any significant implication related to the po-
tential increase of particulate matter emissions.
The state-of-the-art kilns equipped with cyclone
preheaters and precalciners provide for all the characteris-
tics listed above, with main process parameters included in
the optimum range of values. Nevertheless, the industrial
application of this practice in full-scale plants requires a
thorough investigation of some relevant aspects, mainly
related to the operation and control of combustion and
clinker production process and to their influence on the
resulting atmospheric emissions.
The paper is intended to illustrate a series of full-scale
experiments, conducted at the cement plant of the Unicem
Group, aimed at evaluating the utilization of shredded waste
tires, chipped into fragments of max. 6 cm wide, as partial
substitutes for conventional fuel in clinker production. The
study was oriented toward the most significant process Figure 1. Overall layout of the clinker production plant used for the
implications of this practice, namely: experimental evaluation.

1406 Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association Volume 49 December 1999

Tires
Figure 2. Schematic representation of the precalciner duct with injection points for feed and auxiliary fuel (vf is the upward flue gas velocity).
combustion chamber. Flue gas from the top cyclone dis-
charge is treated with an electrostatic precipitator (ESP)
and a fabric filter (FF) for highly efficient particulate re-
moval, before being emitted to the atmosphere through
the stack. In order to avoid potential damage of the fab-
rics from excess temperature, gas flow at the ESP outlet is
mixed with excess air taken downstream from the clinker
cooler, pretreated in a cyclone system for recovering en-
trained clinker product, and cooled down to 120 °C with
a gas-gas heat exchanger. All the ESP and FF removed sol-
ids are recovered in the process as raw materials.
Waste tire trial burn tests were conducted during four
consecutive months for a total of over 100 hours of con-
tinuous plant operation. Waste material was utilized in
the form of shredded chips injected at the entrance of
the precalciner (Figure 2), with a pneumatic feeding unit
specially installed. Bulk fragments were properly charac-
terized in terms of weight distribution and physical pa-
rameters of interest (weight, maximum dimension, and
maximum surface) through the analysis of a representa-
tive sample collected from the storage bin. Particle di-
mensions were directly measured and the surface
calculated by approximating each side of the particle to
Volume 49 December 1999
Giugliano, Cernuschi, Ghezzi, and Grosso
vf =17 m sec-1
vf = 22 m sec-1
an equivalent rectangle. The distribution obtained, re-
ported in Table 2, results in five different representative
classes, with average dimensions between 2 and 7 cm
and weight between 2 and 18 g; four of the classes (A, B,
C, D) were selected on the basis of particle weight, while
the fifth (E) includes stretched fragments, flatter and
longer than the average particles, typically produced from
shredding operations and potentially subject to differ-
ences in their combustion behavior, due to their lower
weight/surface ratio.
The size characteristics, feeding location, and in-
jection modes of waste tire chips were selected after a
careful evaluation of the most important process re-
quirements: optimal recovery of the fuel heat content,
minimization of fuel heat combustion time, accuracy
of the material proportioning, and the eventual utili-
zation of different alternative fuels. The plant was in-
tensively monitored during the tests for the main
process parameters related to fuel consumption, raw
feed flow, flue gas and solids temperatures, and com-
bustion quality (in terms of oxygen, carbon monox-
ide [CO], and oxides of nitrogen [NO x ] flue gas
content). All measurements were derived from standard
Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 1407
Giugliano, Cernuschi, Ghezzi, and Grosso
Table 2. Weight distribution and main physical characteristics of the tire fragments utilized (all averages reported in terms of arithmetic mean values).
Class Characteristics Average
Weight (g)
A Weight < 4 g 3.1
B Weight = 4–7 g 5.7
C Weight = 7–12 g 9.4
D Weight > 12 g 15.2
E Stretched shape 11.4
Whole sample - 8.9
instruments provided in the plant for routine continu-
ous process monitoring and control. Clinker quality
obtained during baseline operation and with shred-
ded tire replacement tests was evaluated in terms of
the main characteristics of the final product normally
adopted for quality control procedures according to
Italian legislation 7 (compression strength, free lime
index, and sulfite [SO 3] content).
Stack flue gas measurements with two dedicated cam-
paigns were conducted for investigating the influence of
waste tire addition on atmospheric emissions of normal
major (CO, SO2, NOx, and total particulates) as well as
trace pollutants (heavy metals, volatile organics,
polyaromatic hydrocarbons [PAHs], and polychlorinated
dibenzo-dioxins and -furans [PCDD]). Conventional gas-
eous pollutants (CO, NOx, and SO2), as well as combus-
tion-related parameters (oxygen concentration and
temperature), were measured with a continuous electro-
chemical cell analyzer. For all other substances, reference
protocols included in national Italian standard methods
for flue gas sampling and analysis were followed.8 Vola-
tile organic compounds (VOCs) were collected with acti-
vated carbon cartridges and determined through
gas-chromatographic analysis. Total particulate was de-
termined through isokinetic sampling on silver filters and
gravimetric analysis. Trace metals were sampled
isokinetically on a glass fiber filter in series with a con-
denser and analyzed with atomic absorption spectros-
copy after hot digestion of the particulate phase. Organic
trace pollutants (PCDD/F, PAHs) were sampled with a
glass probe and analyzed with gas-chromatography-mass
spectrometry techniques.
A dedicated run of combustion tests was performed for
the evaluation of burnout times and weight losses of typical
tire chips. The tests were conducted through the manual
introduction and maintenance of single characterized frag-
ments in the precalciner section nearest to the injection point.
Results obtained were utilized in the kinetic model applied
for describing the particle trajectories in the duct, aimed at
the optimization of injection and shredding modes with re-
spect to their effect on combustion conditions.
1408 Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association
Average Maximum Average Maximum Weight
Dimension (cm) Surface (cm2) Percentage (%)
2.5 3.4 16
3.3 4.9 26
4.0 7.0 23
4.9 9.5 18
6.8 13.0 17
4.3 7.5 100
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Influence on Process Operation
Trial burn evaluations were performed with six different
test runs and conducted with constant mass feed ratios of
tire chips to conventional pulverized petroleum coke rang-
ing from 0.25 to 0.7. The fuel replacement ratios applied,
derived from mass and heat balance calculations (Table
3), ranged between 16 and 36% in terms of total heat
input (37 to 80% in terms of the precalciner heat load),
with a tire chip LHV of 6500 kcal/kg to 7150 kcal/kg, cal-
culated from the petroleum coke feed rate substituted.
The comparison of the main process parameters moni-
tored during the utilization of alternative fuel with those
measured in baseline operating conditions leads to the
following observations:
• The furnace as a whole appears rather insensitive
to the addition of tire chips, even for the higher
percentage of fuel replacement utilized (36%).
• CO emissions have not limited the fuel substitu-
tion percentage achievable: no significant differ-
ences are observed for concentration values
measured upstream of the ESP (Table 4).
• Using alternative fuel does not result in any par-
ticular influence on the main operating param-
eters, including most common indicators of
process stability (specifically, CO, O2, and NOx
concentrations in different sections of the kiln,
exhaust gas and raw material temperatures, and
rotation velocity of the kiln and exhaust fan).
• Adding tire chips has no influence on the qual-
ity of clinker produced. Table 5 compares the
characteristics of mean clinker samples obtained
with waste tire utilization and during baseline
operation: all the parameters evaluated have es-
sentially the same values.
• The pneumatic conveyor system installed for
feeding the shredded tires to the furnace provides
for a high precision in material proportioning and
good flexibility for different operating conditions.
• During the tests with tire chips, a slight displace-
ment of the temperature profile toward the kiln
Volume 49 December 1999
 Giugliano, Cernuschi, Ghezzi, and Grosso

Table 3. Fuel feed rates and heat replacement ratios applied during waste tire combustion (CO, NOx, SO 2, VOCs, and total particu-
burn tests. lates) and for trace pollutants of major concern of the
reutilization practice, including heavy metals, PAHs,
Baseline 16% 22% 36%
Operations Test Runs Test Runs Test Runs and PCDD/Fs.
Concentration values measured for conventional pol-
Fuel feed rate
lutants are reported in Table 6. One of the most signifi-
Precalciner
Tire (kg/hr) 0 2010 2530 4060 cant results observed is related to the clear reduction of
Petroleum coke 3900 2030 1910 550 NOx obtained with tire chip utilization. The reduction
(kg/hr) observed for stack emissions is further confirmed, as well
Main burner
Petroleum coke 5090 5040 5130 5130 as for all the other fuel replacement rates tested, by the
(kg/hr) analysis of NOx flue gas concentrations monitored across
a
Tire LHV (kcal/kg) - 7160 6630 6510 the precalciner, up- and downstream of the tire feeding
Heat replacement
section. This reduction is illustrated in Figure 3, which
Total heat input - 16% 22% 36%
Precalciner heat input - 37% 52% 85% reports—at five representative NOx emission levels at the
kiln flue gas exit (ranging from 1100 to 2350 ppm and
a
Calculated from petroleum coke feed rate replaced.
depending on the combustion modality of the main
burner) and for every fuel replacement rate applied—the
discharge is observed (a slight decrease in kiln corresponding NOx concentrations measured downstream
inlet temperature and an increase in clinker cool- of the fuel feeding section of the precalciner.
ing air temperature—see Table 4): this effect, with With respect to the baseline test results, the re-
no practical implications for plant operation, ductions observed for the latter values during tire uti-
could result from the combustion within the kiln lization appear rather regular, and are included in the
of non-volatile residues from larger fragments en- range between 200 and 280 ppm at 0% O2. In addition
tering the furnace with raw feed. At
the same time, the heat transfer ef-
Table 4. Operating process parameters measured during baseline and shredded tire trial burn tests.
ficiency of the precalciner, evaluated
by the temperature difference of the Parameter Waste Tire Addition (% total heat input)
crude feed between the duct inlet Baseline Tests 16 22 36
and the bottom cyclone discharge,
CO at ESP inlet
displays a small improvement (Table (ppm @ 6% O ) 204 227 197 196
2
4), attributable to the cocurrent heat Clinker cooling air T (°C) 1050–1130 1140–1150 1200–1220 1100
exchange of the raw feed with the Kiln inlet T (°C) 995–1050 950–990 950–980 980
Cyclone tower flue
finer tire fragments entrained by the gas discharge T (°C) 330–335 320–330 320–325 325
upward flue gas flow. These obser- Raw feed temperature difference
vations have suggested the impor- across precalciner (°C) 100–105 100–112 110–115 100
tance of investigating the fragment
trajectories. Preliminary results ob- Table 5. Comparison of clinker characteristics obtained during baseline and shredded tire trial burn tests.
tained with a simplified kinetic
Compression Strength (kg/cm2) Free CaO SO3
model are reported later in the text.
Index (% by weight)

Atmospheric Emissions 1 day 2 days 28 days

The influence of shredded tire utilization Baseline tests 20 30.5 54.5 1.1 1.8
Shredded tire tests 19.8 30.5 54.4 0.9 1.9
on atmospheric emissions was evaluated
with two different stack measurement
campaigns. In order to obtain indications Table 6. Stack concentration of conventional pollutants (data referred to 0 °C, 1 atm, 11% O2).
of the maximum potential effect of alter-
Pollutant Baseline Test Shredded Tire Trial Burn Test
native fuel addition, measurements were (36% heat replacement)
conducted during the process with both
Total particulates (mg/m3) 2.1 2.2
conventional petroleum coke fuel
SO2 (ppm) 15 not detected
(baseline test) and with the highest fuel NOx (ppm) 360 210
replacement rate tested (36% in terms of CO (ppm) 138 168
total heat input). Emissions were analyzed VOCs (ppm as C) 2.2 < 0.1
O2 (%) 15.4 15.5
for conventional pollutants typical of

Volume 49 December 1999 Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 1409
Giugliano, Cernuschi, Ghezzi, and Grosso

NOX at kiln flue gas exit

2350 ppm
2200 ppm
1800 ppm
1500 ppm
1100 ppm

Figure 3. NOx concentrations downstream of the tire feeding section versus fuel replacement rates at different NOx levels in the kiln flue gas exit (all
the values corrected to 0% oxygen concentration).

to the lower nitrogen content of tires (0.7% by weight) preheated crude feed. Finally, no significant variations
with respect to conventional fuel (2% by weight of outside the normal range of values for the operating
typical petroleum coke), a further factor for this re- conditions of the plant are observed for total particu-
duction might be attributed to the greater effective- lates and VOCs, while for CO the slight increase, as
ness of tire chips, if compared with petroleum coke, already outlined, is practically negligible.
to perform as a reburn fuel in the precalciner. Here,
the addition of significant amounts of alternative fuel
Table 7. Stack concentrations of trace pollutants (data referred to 0 °C, 1 atm,
with higher volatile carbon content could meet the
11% O2).
requirements for enhancing the reduction of NO, con-
tained in the exhaust gas stream from the primary kiln Pollutant Baseline Test Shredded Tire Trial Burn Test
burner, with respect to the reduction levels observed (36% heat replacement)
during baseline tests (Figure 3). The effectiveness of
tire-derived fuel in reburning applications for NO emis- Antimonium (µg/m3) < 0.2 < 0.2
sions control has indeed been recently demonstrated Arsenic (µg/m3) < 0.2 < 0.2
in a laboratory scale combustor,5 where NO reductions Cadmium (µg/m3) < 0.1 < 0.1
between 20 and 63% were obtained for reburn fuel in- Chromium (µg/m3) 0.2 0.7
Copper (µg/m3) 8.8 2.1
jection rates included in the 8–20% range of the total
Manganese (µg/m3) 0.1 1.5
heat input.
Mercury (µg/m3) 4 4
With respect to stack emissions, another point of
Lead (µg/m3) < 0.2 < 0.2
particular interest is the reduction in SO2 concentra-
Nickel (µg/m3) 0.4 0.4
tions, obviously related to the lower sulfur content of Selenium (µg/m3) < 0.2 < 0.2
the alternative fuel (over 30% reduction in input for Vanadium (µg/m3) 0.2 0.2
36% heat replacement experimented). However, it must Zinc (µg/m3) 10 10
be pointed out that the value observed during con- PAHs (µg/m3) 0.5 0.3
ventional fuel utilization is already rather low because PCDD/F (ng/m3 as I-TEQ) < 0.1 < 0.1
of the very efficient neutralizing capacities of the

1410 Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association Volume 49 December 1999

Concentration values measured for trace pollut-
ants are reported in Table 7. Metal emissions do not
appear to have any relationship with the fuel substi-
tution practice, confirming the potential of state-of-
the-art cement plants in developing significant
trapping capacities during clinker formation. For the
most volatile elements of concern present in tire-de-
rived fuel (lead and zinc), typically enriched in the finer
particulate fractions following combustion,9 the results
observed can also be attributed to the high removal
efficiencies developed by the FF over the particle size
range of interest. They must be considered significant
when compared to the observations of other authors,10
who report significant emission increases for these two
elements during tire utilization.
Emissions measured for trace organics of interest
are, likewise, essentially unchanged for the operation
with tire chips, confirming the potential of cement
plants in developing highly efficient combustion con-
ditions. The results obtained for PAHs, generally re-
ported to increase significantly when burning tires
with respect to conventional fuels,11,4 are of particular in-
terest. Finally, the emission of PCDD/F, expressed in terms
of I-TEQ (toxicity equivalents of concentrations, weighted
according to the International Toxicity Equivalence
Combustion Time (sec)
Figure 4. Percentage loss in weight and maximum surface with time for the average particle.
Volume 49 December 1999
Giugliano, Cernuschi, Ghezzi, and Grosso
Factors), results in very low values not influenced by the
tire utilization practice.
Combustion Tests and Kinetics
of Particles in the Furnace
The trajectories followed by tire fragments after their in-
jection within the precalciner are of particular signifi-
cance, as outlined previously, in determining the furnace
zone where combustion takes place and, consequently,
the corresponding combustion behavior of alternative
fuel. The theoretical evaluation of single particle trajec-
tories within the precalciner duct might be conducted
through the application of the general motion equation.
However, all the main forces acting on the particle (grav-
ity, drag, and inertia) vary with time, due to the progres-
sive reduction in particle mass and dimensions during
combustion. The description of particle motion thus re-
quires a preliminary evaluation of burnout times and of
their mass and size variations.
Concerning times required for particle combustion,
the prevailing conditions near the injection point (high
heat exchange velocities between gas and particles, slightly
low oxygen), together with the characteristics of the tire
fragments (high volatile component content), provide
for a thermal destruction of particles, primarily through
Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 1411
Giugliano, Cernuschi, Ghezzi, and Grosso
a pyrolytic process. With this underlying assumption,
burnout time can thus be evaluated theoretically12,13 as the
time required for particle pyrolysis: by considering the py-
rolytic process essentially complete when the tempera-
tures of the particle center and of the gas stream are within
a 10% difference, times calculated for the fragment sizes of
interest vary between 40 and 100 sec.
The previous theoretical evaluation was supported
with experimental tests conducted through the determi-
nation of weight and size losses, at different time inter-
vals, of single fragments manually introduced and
maintained in the precalciner duct section near the injec-
tion point, where the flue gas has temperatures between
1050–1150 °C, oxygen between 5 and 9%, and mean ve-
locity of 20 to 22 m/sec. It should be pointed out that, by
holding particles at a fixed location, relative velocity be-
tween the particles and flue gas is higher than if particles
travel along flue gas as they combust: therefore, the burn-
out rate estimates obtained might be overestimated. How-
ever, the overestimation might be partially compensated
for by the increase in relative velocity for the time par-
ticles spend, immediately after their injection, in travel-
ing countercurrent to the flue gas flow.
The tests were performed with fragments selected as
representative, on average, of either the entire distribu-
tion or of every single class determined through the weight
distribution analysis previously reported (Table 2). The
primary results are illustrated in Figure 4, where, for the
whole average particle, the percentage loss of weight and
projected surface over time are reported. Data obtained
substantially confirm theoretical indications, providing
for a devolatilization of the average particle nearly com-
pleted in 30 sec, with a percentage weight and surface
loss of almost 70 and 50%, respectively. The analysis for
single weight classes gives essentially the same results, with
slightly lower combustion times for particles with lower
weight/surface ratios (i.e., flatter and longer). The depen-
dence of weight and maximum exposed surface losses with
time are reasonably well fitted by quadratic equations,
obtained through least squares regression techniques and
reported in Figure 4 as continuous curves. The assumed
thermal destruction through an initial pyrolytic process
was also confirmed by the visual observation of the burn-
ing behavior of the particles during the tests, with flame
combustion starting beyond a critical time (dependent
on the fragment type) and following an apparently pyro-
lytic or gasification phase.
Mass and surface variations with time were finally uti-
lized for evaluating the kinetics of particles, aimed at ob-
taining information on the trajectories followed after
their injection in the precalciner, and the consequent
effects on combustion-related issues. Shredded tire chips
were introduced downward in the precalciner through a
1412 Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association
pneumatic feeding device, with a velocity of about 10 m/
sec. Depending on their mass, at the point of injection they
could follow two opposite trajectories: one directed upward
in the calciner duct, through their entrainment by the coun-
tercurrent flue gas stream, and the other downward, to-
ward the kiln entrance with the raw feed. The trajectories
were evaluated by a numerical integration of the following
simplified version of the general equation of motion,14 de-
rived from the balance of the main forces acting on the
particles in the range of gas velocities of interest:
dv p
− Fp (t) + Fa (t ) = m p (t ) (1)
dt
where Fp and Fa are, respectively, the gravity and drag force
acting on the particle; mp is the particle mass; and vp is the
particle velocity. Drag force is given by:
Fa = 05
. ⋅ ρf ⋅ C r ⋅ A ⋅ v r
2
(2)
where ρf is flue gas density, A is the particle surface ex-
posed to flue gas stream, vr is the particle relative velocity
with respect to the gas stream, and Cr is a drag coefficient,
dependent on the particle Reynolds number Res:
ρf ⋅ v r ⋅ d p
Res = (3)
η
with dp the aerodynamic diameter of the particle and η
the dynamic viscosity of the gas stream.
The time dependence of particle mass and flow
projected surface due to combustion losses, required
for numerically solving eq 1, was described through
the quadratic relationships obtained by best-fitting of
experimental results previously outlined. In order to
reasonably approximate the variations of projected
surface due to random rotational movements of the
particle in the gas stream, the latter was evaluated as
the average between the minimum and maximum
measured surface. The relationships utilized for the
dependence of the drag force shape correction factor
with Reynolds number (Table 8) were derived from the
Table 8. Relationships of drag coefficient Cr with particle Reynolds number Res
used in the numerical integration of eq 1.
R C
24 
1 + Re s 
3
Res ≤ 1
Re s  16 
26
1 < Res ≤ 10
4
0.4 + 0.8
Res
−6
10 < Res ≤ 2 ⋅10
4 4
0.35 + 5 ⋅ 10 Res
2 ⋅ 10 < Re s ≤ 10
4 5
0.47
Volume 49 December 1999

literature,15 assuming an average sphericity coefficient
for the particles of about 0.8, as suggested by direct
measurements of the bulk fragments.
Results obtained for the average particle are reported
in Figure 5, in terms of the variation of its position and
velocity with time (vertical position is measured with re-
spect to the scale distance as in Figure 2). According to
the calculations performed, average particles should be
entrained upward by the flue gas in the precalciner duct
shortly after their injection: consequently, the pyrolysis
process of the particle and the subsequent combustion of
the volatile material take place in suspension within the
gas stream. Similar considerations obviously apply to par-
ticles smaller than the average (Figure 6, class A) and also
to stretched shaped particles, characterized by higher sur-
face/mass ratio (class E in Figure 6). Due to their higher
mass/surface ratio, only the larger-size class (class D in
Figure 6), representing roughly 15–20% by weight of the
tire fragments utilized, falls onto the raw material enter-
ing the kiln as a result of the calculation.
Even if the trajectory results obtained are considered
qualitative in nature, given that some simplifications are
adopted (and mainly related to the potential overestima-
tion of the burnout rates and to the neglect of the interac-
tions between lime feed and tire particles), the results can
still be used to address the optimal utilization of the alter-
native tire fuel. The combustion of the fragments in sus-
pension within the gas stream should be the preferred
method. Operating this way, potential interactions of the
alternative fuel with raw feed at the kiln entrance are kept
to a minimum while simultaneously achieving an optimum
Figure 5. Vertical position and velocity of the average particle following injection in the precalciner duct (vertical position measured with reference
to the vertical scale reported in Figure 1; velocity considered positive if directed upward).
Volume 49 December 1999
Giugliano, Cernuschi, Ghezzi, and Grosso
heat transfer of the fuel energy content to the feed, due
to the highly turbulent conditions prevailing in the
precalciner duct. The efficiency of the process might
consequently be maximized with the utilization of tire
chips shredded to a size ensuring their upward entrain-
ment in the precalciner, thus making available the re-
quired residence time for the complete destruction of the
particles, until their entrance into the kiln.
CONCLUSIONS
The full-scale tests conducted for the evaluation of con-
ventional fuel substitution with shredded tires in ce-
ment plants have demonstrated the technical
feasibility of the proposed waste reutilization practice.
The type of plant evaluated (rotary kiln with in-line
calciner and cyclone preheater), the pneumatic feed-
ing system, and the injection point selected for the
alternative fuel permitted to achieve significant re-
placement rates, with values as high as almost 40% in
terms of total heat input, and still not reported else-
where, while maintaining stable process operating con-
ditions. Significant improvements in the atmospheric
emissions of NOx and SO 2 were observed during alter-
native fuel burning, due to its lower content of pre-
cursors and its potentially enhanced capabilities with
respect to reburning effects. All other emissions of con-
ventional and trace pollutants of interest, as well as
the main qualitative characteristics of clinker pro-
duced, were not significantly influenced by the waste
utilization practice. Shredding modes selected, coupled
with a pneumatic system for injection of chips, were
Velocity (m sec-1)
Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 1413
Giugliano, Cernuschi, Ghezzi, and Grosso
Figure 6. Vertical position of particles of different weight classes following injection in the precalciner duct (vertical position measured with reference
to the vertical scale reported in Figure 1; velocity considered positive if directed upward).
extremely effective in terms of proportioning accuracy,
plant operation flexibility, optimal combustion con-
ditions, and feeding capacities.
The application of a simplified qualitative kinetic
model in combination with combustion mass and size
losses, estimated by proper trial burn tests conducted
with single characterized particles, provided useful in-
sights on particle trajectories and on combustion mo-
dalities. The results obtained suggest a prevailing
burnout of fragments in suspension within the
precalciner duct, with a consequent optimum recovery
of the energy content for raw feed preheating. Results
were also derived regarding the dimensions of shred-
ded chips required for their flue gas entrainment, thus
ensuring this optimal energetic utilization.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors recognize the support given by the Unicem
Group for conducting the experimental activities at the
Barletta plant. All the comments and suggestions of the
reviewers are greatly appreciated.
REFERENCES
1. Ecopneus (association for the disposal and reuse of used car tires),
Milan, Italy, Personal communication, 1998.
2. Decreto Legislativo (legislative decree) 5/2/1997, n°22, “Attuazione delle
direttive CEE 91/156/CEE sui rifiuti, 91/689/CEE sui rifiuti pericolosi e
94/62/CE sugli imballaggi (Application of EEC Directives 91/156/CEE
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age materials).” G. Ufficiale 38, February 15, 1997, pp 1-119.
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kilns: environmental implications),” Stazione Sperimentale per i
Combustibili, Milan, Italy, 1995, pp 1-26.
7. Decreto Ministeriale (minstry decree) 3/6/68, “Nuove norme sui
requisiti di accettazione e modalità di prova dei cementi (New crite-
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and analysis from fixed point sources); Milano, Italy, 1989.
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11. Levendis, Y.A.; Atal, A.; Carlson, J.B. Environ. Sci. Technol. 1998, 32,
3767-3777.
12. Ghezzi, U. “La combustione negli inceneritori: comportamento delle
particelle solide in sospensione (The combustion in incineration kilns:
behaviour of suspended solid particles),” Ingegneria Ambientale 1987,
15, 131-139.
13. Adams, W.H. Heat Transmission; McGraw-Hill, 1954.
14. Friedlander, S.K. Smoke, Dust, and Haze: Fundamentals of Aerosol Be-
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About the Authors
Stefano Cernuschi (corresponding author) is associate pro-
fessor, Michele Giugliano and Umberto Ghezzi are full pro-
fessors, and Mario Grosso is a Ph.D. candidate at Politecnico
di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133, Milan, Italy.
Volume 49 December 1999