Computer Networks: A Systems Approach, 5e

Larry L. Peterson and Bruce S. Davie

Chapter 1
Foundation

Copyright © 2010, Elsevier Inc. All rights Reserved 1

 Chapter 1
Problems
 What is a computer network?
 How to build a scalable network that will support
different applications?
 How is a computer network different from other
types of networks?
 What is a computer network architecture?

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 Chapter 1
Chapter Outline
 Applications
 Requirements
 Network Architecture
 Implementing Network Software
 Performance

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 Chapter 1
Chapter Goal
 Exploring the requirements that different
applications and different communities place on
the computer network
 Introducing the idea of network architecture
 Introducing some key elements in implementing
Network Software
 Define key metrics that will be used to evaluate
the performance of computer network

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 Chapter 1
Applications
 Most people know about the Internet (a
computer network) through applications
 World Wide Web
 Just a single application of the Internet
 Email
 Online Social Network
 Streaming Audio Video
 File Sharing
 Instant Messaging
 …

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 Chapter 1
Application Protocol (WWW)
 URL
 Uniform resource locater
 http://www.just.edu.jo/~misaleh/Teaching/cs342spring2011/main
page.html
 www.just.edu.jo is the name of the machine that serves the page
 IP: 87.236.232.169
 nslookup
 whois
 /~misaleh/Teaching/cs342/mainpage.html uniquely identifies the
required page

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 Chapter 1
Application Protocol (Cont.)
 HTTP
 Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
 TCP
 Transmission Control Protocol
 17 messages for one URL request
 6 to find the IP (Internet Protocol) address
 3 for connection establishment of TCP
 4 for HTTP (GET) request and acknowledgement (Response)
 Request: I got your request and I will send the data
 Reply: Here is the data you requested; I got the data
 4 messages for tearing down TCP connection

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 Chapter 1
Example of an application

A multimedia application including video-conferencing

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 Chapter 1
Expectations!!
 HTML requests:
 A couple of seconds delay is acceptable
 Pages are complete
 Images can be delivered out of order
 Etc…
 Emails:
 No missing parts (i.e., the email is identical to what you sent)
 A minute or two delay is acceptable
 Etc…
 Video conferencing:
 Video and sound MUST be continuous and on a timely matter
 Some missing parts are acceptable

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 Chapter 1
Requirements
 Application Programmer
 List the services that his application needs: delay
bounded delivery of data
 Network Designer
 Design a cost-effective network with sharable
resources
 Network Provider (usually called Service
Provider, for the Inernet, it ISP)
 List the characteristics of a system that is easy to
administer and manage.
 Add new clients and remove/isolate faulty nodes

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 Chapter 1
Requirements
 Connectivity
 Cost-Effective Resource Sharing
 Support for Common Services
 Reliability
 Manageability

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 Chapter 1
Connectivity
 Need to understand the following terminologies
 Scale: A system that is designed to support growth to an
arbitrarily large size
 Link: Physical medium that connects nodes
 Node: a device (could be a computer, switch, etc) on the network
 Point-to-point: direct link between two nodes
 Multiple access: multiple nodes share the same link

(a) Point-to-point
(b) Multiple access

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 Chapter 1
Connectivity
 Switched Network: a network that uses switches for
forwarding
 Circuit Switched
 Telephone companies
 Dedicated/reserved when connection is established
 Less utilization of the resources
 Packet Switched
 Overwhelming majority of computer networks
 Messages are divided into pieces (discrete blocks) called packets
 No dedication is required
 More sharing, thus more utilization
 Store-and-forward: a switch stores the incoming traffic
(packets) in its own buffers then forwards them.

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 Chapter 1
Connectivity
 Cloud: used to represent any kind of network technology
 Point-to-point, multiple-access, or switched network

 Hosts: nodes outside the cloud (usually computer or end

users devices and use the network)

 Switches: nodes inside the cloud and implement the

network (store and forward packets)

 Internetwork (or internet with small ―i‖): a set of

independent interconnected networks (clouds)
 Internet (with big ―I‖): is the globally known network

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 Chapter 1
Connectivity
 Router/gateway: connects two or more networks (plays
much the same role as a switch—stores and forwards)

 Host-to-host connectivity: hosts can talk to hosts

 Address: the way to find nodes. It is a byte string that

identifies a node.

 Routing: the process of determining systematically how

to forward messages toward the destination node based
on its address

 Unicast: send to single destination

 Broadcast: send to all nodes on the network
 Multicast: send to subset of nodes
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 Chapter 1
Connectivity

(a) (b)

(a) A switched network

(b) Interconnection of networks

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 Chapter 1
Cost-Effective Resource Sharing
 Resource: links and
nodes
 How to share a link?
 Multiplexing
 Analogy to a timesharing
computer system
 De-multiplexing
 Synchronous Time-division
Multiplexing (STDM)
 Equal-sized quanta
Multiplexing multiple logical flows
 Round-robin fashion
over a single physical link
 Time slots/data
transmitted in
predetermined slots

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 Chapter 1
Cost-Effective Resource Sharing
 FDM: Frequency Division Multiplexing
 Diff. TV stations with diff. frequencies.
 Both STDM and FDM waste resources and hard to
accommodate changes (fixed time slots and frequencies)

 Statistical Multiplexing
 Like STDM: sharing over time but data is
transmitted based on demand rather than
during a predetermined time slot

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 Chapter 1
Statistical Multiplexing
 Packets vs. Messages
 Fair decision: FIFO,
Round-Robin, Priorities
(Quality-of-Service (QoS)
allocate bandwidth for a
particular flows)

 A switch might run out of A switch multiplexing packets

buffers because it receives from multiple sources onto
data much faster than it can one shared link
send on the shared link
 Congestion
 Start to drop packets

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 Chapter 1
LAN, MAN, WAN, and SAN
 Characterize networks according to their
size (they usually use diff. technologies):
 LAN: Local Area Network, typically less than
1km
 WAN: Wide Area Network, worldwide
 MAN: Metropolitan Area Network, tens of
kilometers
 SAN: Systems/Storage Area Network, single
room that has high-performance components
(like leading-edge storage devices) connected
together
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 Chapter 1
Support for Common Services
 Overly simplistic to think about network as
simple delivering packets among a collection of
computers
 But rather a means for application processes to
communicate

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 Chapter 1
Support for Common Services
 One option would be for the app designers
to build all that complicated functionality
into each application.
 However, since many applications need
common services, it is much more logical
to build those common services once and
let the app designers to use the services.

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 Chapter 1
Support for Common Services

Process communicating over an

abstract/logical channel

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 Chapter 1
Support for Common Services
 The challenge then is recognize what
functionality the channel should provide to
application programs:
 Reliable delivery?!
 Same order?!
 Eavesdropping parties?!
 In general, a network provides a variety of
different types of channels
 An applications can choose the best that
meets its needs
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 Chapter 1
Common Communication Patterns
 Designing abstract channels involve
 Understanding representative collection of apps
 Extract the common needs
 Client/Server
 FTP (file transfer protocol), NFS (network file system),
digital libraries like ACM
 Video conferencing
 Two-way traffic (or one-way with video on demand)
 No need to guarantee the delivery of ALL messages.
 Same order is required
 Might need multicast

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 Chapter 1
Common Communication Patterns
 Two types of common communication channels
 Request/Reply Channels
 Message Stream Channels
 It is dangerous to have too much abstractions
 Every application has to choose between the provided channels
 If you have a hammer then you might see everything looks like a
nail, 
 Independent of exactly what functionality a given
channel should provide is where this functionality should
be implemented.
 On switches => dump hosts, like the telephone handsets
 On hosts => keep switches as simple as possible

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 Chapter 1
Reliability
 Network should hide the errors
 Bits are lost
 Bit errors (1 to a 0, and vice versa)
 Burst errors – several consecutive errors
 Outside forces like: lightning strikes, microwave
ovens, etc.
 Packets are lost (Congestion)
 Links and Node failures (crashes and misconfig.)
 Messages are delayed
 Messages are delivered out-of-order
 Third parties eavesdrop

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 Chapter 1
Manageability
 Last requirement that is usually neglected
 Making changes as the network grows to
carry more traffic or reach more users
 Troubleshooting when something goes wrong
or performance is not as desired
 Related to scalability
 Configuring new devices/routers is always
problematic
 Needs more automation
 Great if it becomes plug-and-play (like home
routers)

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 Chapter 1
Requirements Summary
 A computer network must provide general,
cost-effective, fair and robust connectivity
among large number of computers.
 The network must be manageable by
number of varying levels of skills

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 Chapter 1
Network Architecture

Example of a layered network system

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 Chapter 1
Network Architecture

Layered system with alternative abstractions available at a given layer

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 Chapter 1
Abstraction and Layering
 Abstraction
 The hiding of details behind a well-defined interface
 Define a model
 Capture important aspects of the system
 Abstractions naturally leads to layering
 The general idea
 Start from services offered by the underlying
hardware
 Add a sequence of layers, each providing a
higher (i.e., more abstract) level of service.
 Manageability and Mudularity
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 Chapter 1
Protocoals
 The abstract objects the make up the layers of a
network system are called protocols
 Building blocks of a network architecture
 Each protocol object has two different interfaces
 service interface: operations on this protocol
 peer-to-peer interface: messages exchanged with
peer (indirect communication, except for the
hardware)

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 Chapter 1
Interfaces

Service and Peer Interfaces

34
 Chapter 1
Protocols
 Protocol Specification:
 Written description (prose)
 pseudo-code
 state transition diagram
 Packet format
 RFCs: Request For Comments
 IETF: Internet Engineering Task Force
 Standardization body
 Ex. RFC 2616 for HTTP protocol
 Interoperable: when two or more protocols that
implement the specification accurately
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 Chapter 1
Protocol Graph

Example of a protocol graph

nodes are the protocols and links the ―depends-on‖ relation

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 Chapter 1
Encapsulation

High-level messages are encapsulated inside of low-level messages

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 Chapter 1
Packets General Format

Header Payload Trailer

Peers talk to each other

through Headers and
Trailers

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 Chapter 1
OSI Architecture

The OSI 7-layer Model

OSI – Open Systems Interconnection

39
 Chapter 1
Description of Layers
 Physical Layer
 Handles the transmission of raw bits over a communication link
 Data Link Layer
 Collects a stream of bits into a larger aggregate called a frame
 Network adaptor along with device driver in OS implement the
protocol in this layer
 Frames are actually delivered to hosts
 Network Layer
 Handles routing among nodes within a packet-switched network
 Provides Host-to-Host connectivity

 Unit of data exchanged between nodes in this layer is called a

packet
The lower three layers are implemented on all network nodes

40
 Chapter 1
Description of Layers
 Transport Layer
 Implements a process-to-process channel
 Unit of data exchanges in this layer is called a
message
 There is a disagreement on the top three
 Session, Presentation, and Application
 Mainly because the are not always present

41
 Chapter 1
Description of Layers
 Session Layer
 Provides a name space that is used to tie together the potentially
different transport streams that are part of a single application
 Ex., tie the audio and video together in videoconference
 Presentation Layer
 Concerned about the format of data exchanged between peers
 Ex., integer formats, audio/video format, most/least significant
 Application Layer
 Include things like the Hypertext Transfer Protocol
 Basis the world wide web
 Used by web browsers

The transport layer and the higher layers typically run only on end-
hosts and not on the intermediate switches and routers

42
 Chapter 1
Internet Architecture
 Sometimes called TCP/IP
 Evolved from an earlier packet-switched
network called ARPANET
 Internet and ARPANET were funded by ARPA
(Advanced Research Projects Agency)
 Both existed before the OSI architecture
 Both affected the OSI model

43
 Chapter 1
Internet Architecture

Alternative view of the

Internet architecture. The
Internet Protocol Graph ―Network‖ layer shown here
is sometimes referred to as
the ―sub-network‖ or ―link‖
layer.

44
 Chapter 1
Internet Architecture
 Defined by IETF
 Three main features
 Does not imply strict layering. The application is free to bypass
the defined transport layers and to directly use IP or other
underlying networks
 An hour-glass shape – wide at the top, narrow in the middle and
wide at the bottom. IP serves as the focal point for the
architecture (host-to-host connectivity is separate from all
channel types)

 In order for a new protocol to be officially included in the

architecture, there needs to be both a protocol specification and
at least one (and preferably two) representative implementations
of the specification

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 Chapter 1
Internet Architecture
 NET1, NET2, …
 Could be Ethernet, Wireless, etc.
 Encapsulate both hardware and data link layers from OSI model

 IP (Internet Protocol)
 Supports the interconnection of multiple networking technologies
into a single logical internetwork
 Analogy to the network layer in the OSI
 The routing protocol

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 Chapter 1
Internet Architecture
 TCP provides reliable, byte-stream channel (connection
oriented protocol)

 UDP provides unreliable, datagram (message) delivery

channel.

 TCP and UDP are called (besides Transport) end-to-end

protocols

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 Chapter 1
Internet Architecture
 Application Protocols
 HTTP, FTP, Telnet (remote login), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
(SMTP), and much more

 Enables the interoperation of popular applications

 Many different web browsers interoperate with web servers because they all
conform/use the HTTP protocol

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 Chapter 1
The Success of the Internet
 1.8 billion Internet users
 Much of its functionality is provided by
software running in general-purpose
computers
 Small matter of programming
 Massive increase in computing power

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 Chapter 1
Application Programming Interface
 Interface exported by the network
 Since most network protocols are implemented (those in
the high protocol stack) in software and nearly all
computer systems implement their network protocols as
part of the operating system, when we refer to the
interface ―exported by the network‖, we are generally
referring to the interface that the OS provides to its
networking subsystem
 The interface is called the network Application
Programming Interface (API)

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 Chapter 1
Application Programming Interface (Sockets)

 Socket Interface was originally provided by the

Berkeley distribution of Unix
- Now supported in virtually all operating systems

 Each protocol provides a certain set of services,

and the API provides a syntax by which those
services can be invoked in this particular OS

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 Chapter 1
Socket
 What is a socket?
 The point where a local application process attaches
to the network
 An interface between an application and the network
 An application creates the socket
 The interface defines operations for
 Creating a socket
 Attaching a socket to the network
 Sending and receiving messages through the socket
 Closing the socket

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 Chapter 1
Socket

int sockfd = socket(protocol_family, type, protocol);

 Protocol Family
 PF_INET denotes the Internet family

 PF_PACKET denotes direct access to the network

interface (i.e., it bypasses the TCP/IP protocol stack)

 The socket number returned is the socket descriptor for

the newly created socket

53
 Chapter 1
Creating a Socket
int sockfd = socket(protocol_family, type, protocol);

 Socket Type
 SOCK_STREAM is used to denote a byte stream (TCP)
 SOCK_DGRAM is an alternative that denotes a message
oriented service, such as that provided by UDP

 int sockfd = socket (PF_INET, SOCK_STREAM, 0);

 int sockfd = socket (PF_INET, SOCK_DGRAM, 0);

The combination of PF_INET and SOCK_STREAM implies TCP

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 Chapter 1
Client-Serve Model with TCP
Server
 Passive open
 Prepares to accept connection, does not actually establish a
connection

Server invokes
int bind (int socket, struct sockaddr *address,
int addr_len)
int listen (int socket, int backlog)
int accept (int socket, struct sockaddr *address,
int *addr_len)

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 Chapter 1
Client-Serve Model with TCP
Bind
 Binds the newly created socket to the specified address i.e. the
network address of the local participant (the server)
 Address is a data structure which combines IP and port

Listen
 Defines how many connections can be pending on the specified
socket

56
 Chapter 1
Client-Serve Model with TCP
Accept
 Carries out the passive open
 Blocking operation
 Does not return until a remote participant has established a
connection
 When it does, it returns a new socket that corresponds to the
new established connection and the address argument
contains the remote participant’s address

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 Chapter 1
Client-Serve Model with TCP
Client
 Application performs active open
 It says who it wants to communicate with

Client invokes
int connect (int socket, struct sockaddr *address,
int addr_len)

Connect
 Does not return until TCP has successfully established a
connection at which application is free to begin sending data
 Address contains remote machine’s address

58
 Chapter 1
Client-Serve Model with TCP

In practice
 The client usually specifies only remote participant’s
address and let’s the system fill in the local
information
 Whereas a server usually listens for messages on a
well-known port
 A client does not care which port it uses for itself, the
OS simply selects an unused one

59
 Chapter 1
Client-Serve Model with TCP

Once a connection is established, the application

process invokes two operation

int send (int socket, char *msg, int msg_len,

int flags)

int recv (int socket, char *buff, int buff_len,

int flags)

60
 Chapter 1
Example Application: Client
#include <stdio.h>
#include <sys/types.h>
#include <sys/socket.h>
#include <netinet/in.h>
#include <netdb.h>

#define SERVER_PORT 5432

#define MAX_LINE 256

int main(int argc, char * argv[])

{
FILE *fp;
struct hostent *hp;
struct sockaddr_in sin;
char *host;
char buf[MAX_LINE];
int s;
int len;
if (argc==2) {
host = argv[1];
}
else {
fprintf(stderr, "usage: simplex-talk host\n");
exit(1);
}

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 Chapter 1
Example Application: Client
/* translate host name into peer’s IP address */
hp = gethostbyname(host);
if (!hp) {
fprintf(stderr, "simplex-talk: unknown host: %s\n", host);
exit(1);
}
/* build address data structure */
bzero((char *)&sin, sizeof(sin));
sin.sin_family = AF_INET;
bcopy(hp->h_addr, (char *)&sin.sin_addr, hp->h_length);
sin.sin_port = htons(SERVER_PORT);
/* active open */
if ((s = socket(PF_INET, SOCK_STREAM, 0)) < 0) {
perror("simplex-talk: socket");
exit(1);
}
if (connect(s, (struct sockaddr *)&sin, sizeof(sin)) < 0) {
perror("simplex-talk: connect");
close(s);
exit(1);
}
/* main loop: get and send lines of text */
while (fgets(buf, sizeof(buf), stdin)) {
buf[MAX_LINE-1] = ’\0’;
len = strlen(buf) + 1;
send(s, buf, len, 0);
}
}

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 Chapter 1
Example Application: Server
#include <stdio.h>
#include <sys/types.h>
#include <sys/socket.h>
#include <netinet/in.h>
#include <netdb.h>
#define SERVER_PORT 5432
#define MAX_PENDING 5
#define MAX_LINE 256

int main()
{
struct sockaddr_in sin;
char buf[MAX_LINE];
int len;
int s, new_s;
/* build address data structure */
bzero((char *)&sin, sizeof(sin));
sin.sin_family = AF_INET;
sin.sin_addr.s_addr = INADDR_ANY;
sin.sin_port = htons(SERVER_PORT);

/* setup passive open */

if ((s = socket(PF_INET, SOCK_STREAM, 0)) < 0) {
perror("simplex-talk: socket");
exit(1);
}

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 Chapter 1
Example Application: Server
if ((bind(s, (struct sockaddr *)&sin, sizeof(sin))) < 0) {
perror("simplex-talk: bind");
exit(1);
}
listen(s, MAX_PENDING);
/* wait for connection, then receive and print text */
while(1) {
if ((new_s = accept(s, (struct sockaddr *)&sin, &len)) < 0) {
perror("simplex-talk: accept");
exit(1);
}
while (len = recv(new_s, buf, sizeof(buf), 0))
fputs(buf, stdout);
close(new_s);
}
}

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 Chapter 1
Performance
 Old programming adage: ―first get it right and then make
it fast‖.
 In networking: necessary to ―design for performance‖

 Two fundamental ways to measure the performance

 Bandwidth
 Latency

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 Chapter 1
Bandwidth
 Frequency band (measured in Hertz): we don’t mean that
 Number of bits per second that can be transmitted over a
communication link
 Throughput vs. bandwidth (from the most confusing
terms in computer networks.
 Bandwidth: the maximum data rate (bits per second)
 Throughput: number of bits per second that we actually transmit
over the link in practice
 1 Mbps: 1 x 106 bits/second = 1x220 bits/sec
 1 x 10-6 seconds to transmit each bit or imagine that a
timeline, now each bit occupies 1 micro second space.
 On a 2 Mbps link the width is 0.5 micro second.
 Smaller the width more will be transmission per unit time.
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 Chapter 1
Bandwidth

Bits transmitted at a particular bandwidth can be regarded as

having some width:
(a) bits transmitted at 1Mbps (each bit 1 μs wide);
(b) bits transmitted at 2Mbps (each bit 0.5 μs wide).

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 Chapter 1
Units Confusion
 MB, Mbps, KB, Kbps
 Mbps is always 106. Kbps is always 103
 MB you can use 220 or 106
 KB you can use 210 or 103
 5% error
 Bits and bytes
 b (small letter) for bits
 B (capital letter) for bytes (each byte is 8 bits,
you can use 10 sometimes, but with 20%
errors)
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 Chapter 1
Latency
 How long it takes a message to travel from
one end of a network to the other.
 Measured in time

69
 Chapter 1
Latency
 Three components
 Speed-of-light propagation delay
 Different media at different speeds
 3.0 × 108 m/s in a vacuum
 2.3 × 108 m/s in copper cable
 2.0 × 108 m/s in optical fiber
 Amount of time to transmit a unit of data
 Queuing delays (switches store packets)

70
 Chapter 1
Performance
 Latency = Propagation + transmit + queue
 Propagation = distance/speed of light
 Distance: the length of the wire
 Transmit = size/bandwidth
 Size: the size of the packet

 One bit transmission => propagation is important

 Large bytes transmission => bandwidth is important

71
 Chapter 1
Performance (ex1)
 A client sends1-byte message to a server
and receives a 1-byte message
 Suppose RTT = 100ms
 RTT = propagation delay X 2
 Case 1: bandwidth 1 Mbps
 => Transmit = 8 bits / 1Mbps = 8 micro seconds
 Case 2: bandwidth 100 Mbps
 => Transmit = 8 bits / 100Mbps = 0.08 micro
seconds
 Insignificant difference between Case 1 and 2

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 Chapter 1
Performance (ex2)
 A client wants to download a 25MB image
 Bandwidth 10Mbps
 =>Transmit = 25 × 106 × 8 bits / 10 × 106
bits/sec = 20 seconds
 Case 1: RTT = 100ms
 Latency = 20.1 sec
 Case 2: RTT = 1ms
 Latency = 20.001 sec
 Propagation delay is insignificant in this case

73
 Chapter 1
FIGURE 1.17 Perceived latency (response time) versus round-trip time for
various object sizes and link speeds.

Copyright © 2012, Elsevier Inc. All rights Reserved 74

 Chapter 1
Delay X Bandwidth
 We think the channel between a pair of processes as a
hollow pipe
 Latency is the length of the pipe and bandwidth is the
width of the pipe
 Delay of 50 ms and bandwidth of 45 Mbps
 50 x 10-3 seconds x 45 x 106 bits/second
 2.25 x 106 bits ≈ 280 KB data.

Network as a pipe

75
 Chapter 1
Delay X Bandwidth
 Relative importance of bandwidth and latency
depends on application
 For large file transfer, bandwidth is critical
 For small messages (HTTP, NFS, etc.), latency is
critical

76
 Chapter 1
Delay X Bandwidth
 The max number of bits that could be in transit
through the pipe at any given instant
 How many bits the sender must transmit
before the first bit arrives at the receiver if the
sender keeps the pipe full
 Takes another one-way latency to receive a
response from the receiver
 If the sender does not fill the pipe (i.e., send a
whole delay × bandwidth product’s worth of
data before it stops to wait for a signal), then
the sender will not fully utilize the network
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Delay X Bandwidth
 One-way latency of 50ms and a bandwidth
of 45 Mbps is able to hold
 50 × 10-3s × 45 × 106 bits/s = 2.25 × 106 bits
 This number is doubled if we consider the
RTT time instead of the one-way
 Until the send hears the first bit from the
receiver to stop sending or something
 Most of the time, we will be interested in
the RTT × Bandwidth

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High-Speed Networks
 Bandwidths are increasing dramatically
 What is the impact network design of having infinite
bandwidth available??!!
 RTT dominates
 What does not change as bandwidth increases: the
speed of light
 You can not change the laws of physics

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 Chapter 1
Relationship between bandwidth and latency

A 1-MB file would fill the 1-Mbps link 80 times,

but only fill the 1-Gbps link 1/12 of one time

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 Chapter 1
High-Speed Networks
 Delay is 100 x 10-3 sec
 File is 1MB
 Bandwidth1 = 1Mbps
 Bandwidth2 = 1Gbps
 Delay x Bandwidth1 = 100 x 10-3 sec x 106 bits/sec = 105
bits
 1MB / 105bits = 8 x 106 / 105 = 80
 => the file is 80 times larger than the channel
 Delay x Bandwidth2 = 100 x 10-3 sec x 109 bits/sec = 108
bits
 1MB / 108 bits = 8 x 106 / 108 = 1 / 12.5
 => the channel is 12.5 times larger than the file

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 Chapter 1
Throughput and TransferTime
 The effective end-to-end throughput
 Throughput = TransferSize / Latency
 Latency= RTT + Size / Bandwidth
 Insert the two-way, RTT to the formula instead of Prop. Delay
 Ex., a user wants to fetch 1MB file across 1Gbps network
with a round-trip time of 100ms.
 Transmit time = 1MB / 1Gbps = 8ms
 Latency = RTT + transmit = 108ms
 Effective throughput = 1MB/108ms = 74.1 Mbps
 Much less than the available bandwidth
 Transferring a larger amount of data will help improve the effective
throughput
 large transfer size => throughput approaches the bandwidth

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Summary
 We have identified what we expect from a computer
network
 We have defined a layered architecture for computer
network that will serve as a blueprint for our design
 We have discussed the socket interface which will be
used by applications for invoking the services of the
network subsystem
 We have discussed two performance metrics using
which we can analyze the performance of computer
networks

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