PAVEMENT DETERIORATION:
The pavement
Rigid Pavement & Flexible
Pavement
Introduction
• Pavements are designed in
many different types of
texture and pattern. The
differences between
pavements determine the
different location of
implementation such as road,
street, walkway, pathway
rural area and urban area.
Some pavements are
designed to cater human
need but some of it designed
as an art and attraction. The
role of pavement is to be
known as the convenient
hardscape of the users for
walking and provide spaces
for human outdoor activities.
• There are different types of
pavements designed
according to the factors and
function of the place itself.
Each of it obtains the
material’s quality that is
needed to be considered in
construction which is
physical, mechanical,
thermal and electrical of
materials. It is essential as it
contribute to the legibility
and durability of the
pavement.
TYPES OF PAVEMENT
• Rigid pavement consists
essentially of a concrete slab
resting on thin granular base.
The loads and the stress are
distributed over a wide area
of subgrade by the rigidity
and strength of the
pavement.
may be reinforced or
unreinforced, depending on
the designed traffic load.
• Flexible pavement consists
of a layer system of materials
which distribute the wheel-
loads to the sub-grade. The
thickness of individual layer
must be such as to distribute
the loads without permanent
deformation of the material,
thereby presenting an
uneven running surface.
FOUR BASIC PHASES OF
STRUCTURAL DETERIORATION
FOR FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
1. When a new/strengthened
pavement is reaching
stability, at which point its
load spreading ability is still
improving.
2. Load spreading ability is
quite even and the rate of
structural deterioration can
be calculated with some
confidence.
3. This is the investigatory
phase. A pavement entering
this phase should be
monitored in order to
ascertain what if any
remedial action is required to
be carried out on it.
4. In this phase the pavement
has deteriorated to failure.
Strengthening can only be
achieved by total
reconstruction.
MATERIALS WITHIN FLEXIBLE
PAVEMENTS

 Bitumen
It is produced artificially from
crude oil within the petroleum
refining process. It is a basic
constituent of the upper layer in
pavement construction. It can
resist both deformation and
changes in temperature. Two basic
types:
a.) Tar
b.) Bitumen
Tests to Ensure Correct Binder
Properties
 Penetration Test- involves
a standard steel needle
applying a vertical load of
100 to the top of a standard
sample of bitumen at
temperature of 25°C. The
depth to which the needle
penetrates into the sample
within 5 seconds is
measured. The answer is
recorded in units of 0.1 mm.
The lower the penetration the
more viscous and therefore
the harder the sample.
 Softening test- The
softening point test involves
taking a sample of bitumen
which has been cast inside a
15 mm diameter metal ring
and placing it inside a water
bath with an initial
temperature of 5°C. As the
temperature is raised the
sample softens and therefore
sags under the weight of the
steel ball. The temperature at
which the weakening binder
reaches the bottom of the 25
mm below its initial point is
known as its softening point.
Surface Dressing and Modified
Binders
It involves the application of a thin
layer of bituminous binder to the
surface of the pavement slab
followed by the spreading and
rolling into it of single sized stone
chippings.
Two such binder modification
used during surface dressing are:
a.) Cutback Bitumen
b.)Bitumen Emulsion
Cutback Bitumen
• Bitumen is ‘cutback’ by
adding controlled amounts of
petroleum distillates such as
kerosene. This is done to
reduce the viscosity of the
bitumen temporarily so it can
penetrate pavements more
effectively or to allow
spraying at temperatures
that are too cold for
successful sprayed sealing
with neat bitumen. The
materials used to cutback
bitumen will evaporate after
application to leave the
remaining material similar in
hardness to the original
bitumen.
Bitumen Emulsifier
• Bitumen Emulsions have
being developed and
exponentially increased sinned
they were created in
1900. Estimated presently at 20%
of the global bitumen
use, bitumen emulsions are
basically an O/W – Oil on
Water solution – A dispersion of
bitumen particles on
water, stabilized with the addiction
of surfactants –
Surface active agents – or most
commonly known as
emulsifiers, that will permit the
bitumen to de diluted in
water. They are primarily used for
tack coats for use in
between hot mix asphalt layers and
prime coats for thin
hot mix surfacing layers or a chip
seal pavements.

Recipe Specifications

Some of the most important

bituminous materials used in
highway pavements in UK are:
 Coated Macadam
(dense, high density,
pervious)
 Asphalt (mastic, hot-
rolled)
 Bituminous Material
Dense Bitumen
Macadam
High Density Macadam
Pervious Macadam
Mastic Asphalt
Hot-rolled Asphalt
Coated Macadams
 Dense Bitumen
Macadams- It is well graded
and is the most common
material used in the
roadbase and basecourse of
major roadways (truck roads/
motorways) within the UK.
 Heavy Duty Macadams- It
is used in roadbases and
bascourses for major
highways with high traffic
loadings. It contains more of
the finer material and uses a
harder bitumen grading than
DBM. The result is a stiffer
mixture that will provide
greater protection against
cracking and deformation
over the life of the pavement.
 Porous Macadam- Known
as porous asphalt, unlike
conventional bituminous
materials which provide an
impermeable layer and
protect the underlying layers
from ingress of rainwater,
Location in Pavement
Roadbase, Basecourse, wearing
course
Roadbase, Basecourse
Wearing course
Wearing course
Roadbase, Basecourse, wearing
course
porous macadam is an open
graded material containing a
high proportion of voids
whose primary function is to
allow the rapid drainage of
water.
Asphalts
 Hot Rolled Asphalts- It is
similar to a coated macadam.
It is a dense material with
low air voids content,
consisting of a mixture of
aggregate, fines, binder and
a filler material, but in this
case the grading is far less
continuous with a higher
proportion of both fines and
binder present in the mix.
 Mastic Asphalt- Is a very
durable, heavy duty, weather
proof wearing course
 material. It contains a
mixture of asphaltic cement,
fine aggregate, and filler in
proportions which result in a
low-void impermeable mass.
Aggregates
The maximum nominal aggregate
size is determined from both the
required thickness of the material
when put in place and the surface
texture called for.
• Wearing Course
– 14 mm dense wearing
course macadam
– 10mm or 6mm
pervious macadam
• Base Course
– 40, 28 or 20mm dense
macadam
• Roadbase
– 40, 28mm dense
macadam
Construction of Bituminous
Road Surfacing
The production of a successful
bituminous road surfacings
depends not just on the design of
the individual constituent layers
but also on the correctness of the
construction procedure employed
to put them in place. These steps
are:
– Transporting and
placing
– Compaction of the
mixture
– If required,The
spreading and rollingof
coated chippingsinto
the surface of the
material.
RIGID PAVEMENT
Failure is defined as having
occurred in an unreinforced
concrete pavement if one of the
following defects is present:
• A medium or wide crack
crossing the bay of the
concrete slab longitudinally
or transversely
• A medium longitudinal and
medium transverse crack
intersecting, both exceeding
200mm in length and starting
from the edge of the
pavement.
• A wide corner crack, more
than 200mm in radius,
centered on the corner.
MATERIALS WITHIN RIGID
PAVEMENTS
 General
A rigid pavement consists of
a subgrade/subbase foundation
covered by a slab constructed of
pavement quality concrete. The
concrete must be of sufficient
depth so as to prevent the traffic
load causing premature failure. The
portions within the concrete will
determine should be taken to
prevent damage due to other
causes.
Concrete Slab and Joint Details
Pavement quality concrete
generally has a 28-day
characteristic strength of 40
N/mm², termed C40 concrete. The
cement content for C40 concrete
should be a minimum of 320 kg/m³.
Air content of up to 5% may be
acceptable with a typical maximum
water cement ratio of 0.5 for C40
concrete.
 Types of concrete slab
– CRC(continuous
reinforced concrete)
– JRC(jointed reinforced
concrete)
– URC(unreinforced
concrete)
 Joints in concrete
pavements
Joints are provided in a
pavement slab in order to
allow movement caused by
changes in moisture content
and slab temperature. Types
include:
 A. Transverse joints-
permit the release of
shrinkage and temperature
stresses. Types of transverse
joints are:
a. Contraction joints- allow
induced stresses to be released by
permitting the adjacent slab to
contract.
b. Expansion joints- permit
the adjacent concrete to expand.
c. Warping joints-
permits small angular
movements to occur between
adjacent concrete slabs.
d. Construction joints-
no relative movements is
permitted across the joint.
 B. Longitudinal joints- deal
with induced stresses most
evident across evident across
the width of the pavement.
Reinforcement
Reinforcement can be in form of a
prefabricated mes or a bar-mat.
The function of the reinforcement is
to limit the extent of surface
cracking in order to maintain the
particle interlock within the
aggregate.
Construction of Concrete Road
Surfacings
There are number of key issues
that must be addressed in order to
properly construct a concrete
pavement. These include the
positioning of reinforcement in the
concrete, the correct forming of
both joints and slabs and the
chosen method of construction.
Curing and Skid Resistance
Concrete curing is an
essential step in achieving a good
quality finished product. It requires
that both the temperature and the
moisture content of the mix be
maintained so that it can continue
to gain strength with time.
Immediately after curing, the
surface should be textured in order
to give it adequate wet-road
skidding resistance. Good skid
resistance requires sufficient
microtexture and macrotexture.

• Macrotexture- permits most
of rainwater caught between
the tires and the surface of
the highway to drain rapidly
and depends on grooves
being developed on the
surface of the mix in order to
texture it.
• Microtexture- depends on
the use of fine aggregate
within the mix. it must have
abrasion-resistance
properties such that the
particles of sand stand proud
of the matrix of the hardened
cement paste while subject
to traffic loading.