Precision Engineering 46 (2016) 11–33

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Precision Engineering
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/precision

Review article

State of the art in powder mixed dielectric for EDM applications

Houriyeh Marashi a,b,∗ , Davoud M. Jafarlou a,b , Ahmed A.D. Sarhan a,b,c,∗ , Mohd Hamdi a,b
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
b
Center of Advanced Manufacturing and Materials Processing (AMMP), 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
c
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Assiut University, 71516 Assiut, Egypt

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Electrical discharge machining (EDM) is a non-conventional machining technique for removing material
Received 17 January 2016 based on the thermal impact of a series of repetitive sparks occurring between the tool and workpiece in
Received in revised form 14 April 2016 the presence of dielectric fluid. Since the machining characteristics are highly dependent on the dielec-
Accepted 21 May 2016
tric’s performance, significant attention has been directed to modifying the hydrocarbon oil properties or
Available online 24 May 2016
introducing alternative dielectrics to achieve higher productivity. This article provides a review of dielec-
tric modifications through adding powder to dielectric. Utilizing powder mixed dielectric in the process
Keywords:
is called powder mixed EDM (PMEDM). In order to select an appropriate host dielectric for enhancing
PMEDM
Dielectric
machining characteristics by adding powder, a brief background is initially provided on the performance
Powder material of pure dielectrics and their selection criteria for PMEDM application follow by powder mixed dielectric
Powder size thoroughly review. Research shows that PMEDM facilitates producing parts with predominantly high
Powder concentration surface quality. Additionally, some studies indicate that appropriate powder selection increases machin-
ing efficiency in terms of material removal rate. Therefore, the role of powder addition in the discharge
characteristics and its influence on machining output parameters are explained in detail. Furthermore, by
considering the influence of the main thermo-physical properties and concentration of powder particles,
the performance of various powder materials is discussed extensively. Since suitable powder selection
depends on many factors, such as variations in EDM, machining scale and electrical and non-electrical
parameter settings, a thorough comparative review of powder materials is presented to facilitate a deeper
insight into powder selection parameters for future studies. Finally, PMEDM research trends, findings,
gaps and industrialization difficulties are discussed extensively.
© 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2. Electrical discharge machining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3. Various dielectric categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.1. Hydrocarbon oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.2. Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.2.1. Deionized water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.2.2. Low resistivity deionized water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.2.3. Tap water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.3. Gas dielectric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.3.1. Oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.3.2. Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.4. Liquid and gas mixture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.5. Dielectric selection criteria for PMEDM application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

∗ Corresponding authors at: Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
E-mail addresses: houriyeh@marashi.co (H. Marashi), ah sarhan@yahoo.com (A.A.D. Sarhan).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.precisioneng.2016.05.010
0141-6359/© 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
12 H. Marashi et al. / Precision Engineering 46 (2016) 11–33

4. Influence of powder addition on the EDM process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

5. Powder parameters and PMEDM performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5.1. Powder material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5.2. Particle size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.3. Particle concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
6. Investigations of various powder materials in PMEDM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
6.1. Graphite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
6.2. Aluminum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
6.3. Silicon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
6.4. Silicon carbide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.5. Titanium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.6. Copper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.7. Chromium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.8. Tungsten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.9. Molybdenum disulfide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.10. Boron carbide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.11. Titanium carbide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.12. Titanium dioxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6.13. Manganese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
7. Research trends, findings and gaps in PMEDM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
8. Challenges of PMEDM industrialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
9. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Nomenclature
Greek symbols
A Plate area of capacitor ε0 Permittivity in free space
C Capacitance εr Relative permittivity
d distance between the conductors k Dielectric constant
E Electrical field in capacitor
Eb Dielectric breakdown strength
Ed Discharge energy 1. Introduction
FP Pulse signal frequency
I Current Electrical discharge machining (EDM) was established over sixty
Ia Average current years ago by Doctors B. R. and N. I. Lazarenko as a rudimen-
Id Discharge current tary die-sinking machine initially employed for stock removal [1].
Q Charge stored in capacitor Nowadays, EDM is implemented in various industrial fields, such as
Ra Average surface roughness die and mold, aerospace and biomedicine. The outstanding capabil-
Rz Peak-to-valley surface roughness ities of this technique include the ability to machine high-hardness
td Discharge duration conductive materials and produce complex geometrical shapes, it
tdelay Ignition delay time involves a simple tool-making process and eliminates the mechan-
toff Pulse off time ical stress and chatter phenomena [2]. Despite the advantages, tool
ton Pulse on time wear, relatively low material removal rate (MRR) and its adverse
tp Pulse duration effects on surface quality limit EDM application. Adding powder
Uo Open gap voltage to dielectric, namely powder mixed electrical discharge machining
Ub Breakdown voltage (PMEDM), is an effective means of enhancing EDM performance
Ud Discharge voltage owing to different spark attributes.
V Voltage Since PMEDM was introduced in 1980 [3], researchers have
focused on improving the machining performance or introducing
Abbreviations new PMEDM capabilities like surface modification to ultimately
AJM Abrasive jet machining facilitate unique development for commercialization. Although
ECM Electrochemical machining several studies evaluate the PMEDM advancements over the years
EDM Electrical discharge machining [2,3], no review article emphasizes material, size and powder con-
Gr Graphite centration. To fill this gap, an organized review of PMEDM is
MQL Minimum quantity lubrication provided. First, the spark formation mechanism in conventional
MRR Material removal rate EDM as well as important input and performance parameters are
PMEDM Powder mixed electrical discharge machining reviewed. Second, the significance of dielectric for EDM machining
SQ Surface quality characteristics is discussed. A detailed review of various dielec-
SR Surface roughness tric categories for PMEDM applications is presented, since the base
TWR Tool wear rate medium (for hosting the powder) needs to be selected initially.
Third, the role of powder addition in spark characteristics followed
by the influence of various powder particles, materials, sizes and
concentrations is comprehensively reviewed followed by a sys-
tematic study of powder materials to ease appropriate selection of
 H. Marashi et al. / Precision Engineering 46 (2016) 11–33
Fig. 1. Schematic illustration of electrical discharge phases according to Refs. [4–6].
powder parameters for further research studies. At last, the PMEDM
research trends, findings, gaps and technology industrialization are
discussed extensively.
2. Electrical discharge machining
In order to understand the PMEDM spark characteristics, the
material removal mechanism in conventional EDM is described.
Conventional EDM undergoes continuous charging and discharging
between the tool and workpiece while immersed in dielectric fluid.
Electrical discharge consists of three phases: (i) preparation, (ii) dis-
charge and (iii) interval phases, which are described schematically
in Fig. 1 according to Refs. [4–6].
EDM performance is evaluated considering key performance
parameters, i.e., MRR, surface quality and TWR. These parameters
are significantly influenced by the input machining parameters,
which are generally categorized as electrical and non-electrical
parameters [7]. Electrical parameters are related to measurable
electrical values that are regulated by the power supply unit [8],
such as discharge current, pulse on time, pulse off time, discharge
voltage and polarity [9], and non-electrical parameters including
but not limited to electrode lift time, reciprocating speed, work-
ing time, gain and nozzle flushing, and tool and workpiece rotation
[10]. The time spent on electrode lifting movements for jump oper-
13
ation (up and down electrode movement during the EDM process
to increase and decrease the discharge gap) is called electrode lift
time [11]. Jump operation is performed to enhance machining gap
flushing. Electrode working time denotes the time until the jump
operation takes place to control the opening/closing of the dis-
charge gap [12]. The electrode’s reciprocating speed is considered
when the electrode performs machining with reciprocating motion
(back-and-forth).
MRR in EDM is directly related to the economic aspect of pro-
duction and is considered the highest priority [5]. MRR reflects the
process operational speed and is defined in two ways, as the vol-
ume [13] or weight [14] of material removed from the workpiece
over the machining time.
The machined surface quality is evaluated according to rough-
ness, waviness and flaws. Among these, surface roughness
measurement is the most widely employed technique and is com-
monly expressed as the average surface roughness (Ra). Ra is
the average deviation from the mean surface by calculating the
arithmetic average deviation of the ordinates of profile height
increments from the centerline of that surface [15].
Tool wear rate (TWR) is another performance measure that
decreases EDM efficiency by increasing tool production cost and
deteriorating produced component accuracy due to end, side and
corner wear [16]. TWR is defined as the material weight [17] or
14 H. Marashi et al. / Precision Engineering 46 (2016) 11–33
Fig. 2. Characteristic values of (a) voltage and (b) current impulses according to Ref.
[19].
volume [18] removed from the tool over the machining time. More-
over, to assess the simultaneous effect of MRR and TWR, tool wear
ratio is introduced as TWR/MRR [3].
Fig. 2 schematically shows the current and voltage waveform
for a single spark during the EDM process. Most electrical parame-
ters affect the MRR mainly through discharge energy (Ed ) and pulse
signal frequency (Fp ). Ed is the mean value of electrical energy per
one impulse, which is converted into heat and is expressed as [19]:
 td
Ed = u (t) i (t) dt ∼
= U × Id × td
0 of liquid, gas or a mixture of liquid and gas. Therefore, a variety of
where td , U and Id are discharge duration, voltage and current,
and variables u(t) and i(t) indicate the instantaneous voltage and
current, respectively.
Selecting proper machining conditions leads to instantaneous
electrical discharge and is independent from other electrical values.
In this case, the ignition delay time (tdelay ) can be neglected, thus
the discharge duration td is equal to the pulse duration or pulse on
time (ton ) and Ed expressed as [19]:
Ed = U × Id × ton
Eq. (2) indicates higher spark energy with the increase of either
U, Id or ton , which subsequently leads to higher MRR, TWR and sur-
face roughness due to higher energy impacting both the tool and
workpiece.
Besides Ed , the pulse frequency, Fp , is another factor repre-
senting the contribution of electrical parameters and is defined as
follows:
1 1
Fp = = (3)
tp ton + toff
where tp is pulse duration and toff is the off time (charging time).
Shorter toff leads to higher pulse frequency and therefore higher
MRR. However, at less than the optimized toff , the debris flushing
efficiency and cutting stability decrease, prolonging the machining
time due to spark instability and erratic cycling [20]. Polarity is
another important parameter that is selected as positive or negative
depending on the tool and workpiece material, current density and
pulse length combinations [21].
Fig. 3. Alternatives for hydrocarbon oil dielectric.
3. Various dielectric categories
The dielectric medium fills the machining gap and acts as a spark
conductor to maintain the machining gap, ensure stable operation,
cool and quench the workpiece and electrode surface, and flush
debris particles from the gap [22]. To accomplish these duties, the
dielectric should have certain specifications, such as adequate elec-
trical discharge efficiency and viscosity, suitable oxidation stability,
high flash point, minimum odor and low cost [23]. In order to select
a suitable combination of powder and dielectric, a background of
plain dielectrics that initially need to be selected is provided in this
(1) section. The dielectric that will host the powder can be in the form
dielectric categories and their performance are concisely described
in this section. At last, the dielectric selection criteria for PMEDM
application is considered in Section 3.5.
3.1. Hydrocarbon oil
Hydrocarbon oil dielectrics, such as mineral oils, kerosene, min-
eral seal and transformer oil as the basic dielectric types are still
the most common die-sinking EDM dielectrics [24]. There is exten-
(2)
sive evidence that hydrocarbon oils are generally more efficient
than deionized/distilled water in die-sink applications [25], since
they offer smaller spark gaps, facilitating machining of more sen-
sitive shapes [26]. In addition, hydrocarbon oils offer no corrosion,
an easier purifying process and higher aging resistance compared
with water dielectric [26]. However, oil-based dielectric poses fire
hazards and a variety of substances are released by their ther-
mal decomposition including benzene (C6 H6 ) and benzopyrene
(C20 H12 ), which are carcinogenic [25]. These problems and the
significant influence of dielectric on performance parameters high-
light the necessity to use alternative dielectrics. In this regard,
various alternatives have been proposed and are summarized in
Fig. 3.
The decomposition of hydrocarbon oil dielectrics through
machining releases carbon-based compositions that cause gap pol-
lution and spark instability. Nonetheless, increasing carbon content
in the gap is not always a drawback. Mohri et al. [59] took advantage
of this phenomenon and introduced a new method for EDM of insu-
lating ceramics using kerosene as dielectric by placing a metal plate
 H. Marashi et al. / Precision Engineering 46 (2016) 11–33 15

Fig. 4. Popularity of various dielectric fluids for hosting powder additive among the PMEDM studies considered in this article from 1981 to 2015.

Fig. 5. Polar molecules (a) without and (b) in electric field; non-polar molecules (c) without and (d) in electric field [26].

Fig. 6. Typical waveforms of voltage and current for (a) kerosene and (b) kerosene with Al powder [70].
16 H. Marashi et al. / Precision Engineering 46 (2016) 11–33

Fig. 7. (a–g) Effect of suspended Al powder on the sparking mechanism and (h) voltage waveform [70].

on the top surface of the insulator ceramic workpiece as an assisting
electrode. Electrical conductive compounds involving decomposed
carbon from the dielectric generated on ceramic surfaces maintain
the workpiece surface electrical conductivity during machining. In
the past decades, this method has gained popularity for machining
insulator ceramics which was reviewed in detail by Schubert et al.
[60].
3.2. Water
3.2.1. Deionized water
Deionized water is commonly selected as dielectric in wire-
EDM, micro-hole fabrication in EDM and hole drilling [25]. Jeswani
[30] revealed that machining in deionized water enhances the MRR
and surface quality, and reduces the electrode wear ratio compared
to kerosene at high-pulse energy ranges, but diminishes machining
accuracy. Lin et al. [32] specified that in micro-slit EDM of Ti-6Al-
4V, deionized water produces noticeably lower carbon adhesion
to the electrode surface without a drop in discharge energy or
abnormal discharge compared to kerosene. However, a single spark
forms a relatively smaller crater with deionized water due to the
re-solidification of most molten material [31].
Kruth et al. [33] found that in deionized water dielectric, the
carbon element forms Fe3 C (iron carbides) in columnar and den-
dritic structures on the surface, resulting in de-carbonization,
whereas increasing carbon content was detected when employ-
ing oil dielectric. Moreover, the retained austenite phase quantity
and micro-crack intensity substantially decreased within the white
layer when using deionized water [34]. Surface cracks primarily
form due to thermal stress from drastic quenching and non-
 H. Marashi et al. / Precision Engineering 46 (2016) 11–33 17

EDM

Conventional EDM (69%) Micro-EDM (13%)

Gr, Si, Al, crushed glass, SiC, MoS2 [68]; Gr nano-fibre[110];
Gr [81], [92] ,[93]; Gr and surfactant [94]; Gr [82];
Al [95], [96], [97], [98]; Al and surfactant [71]; Gr [91];
Al and Si [80]; Al, SiC, Cr, Cu [78], [79]; B4C [61] [89];
Al and Gr [99] [100]; Si [10], [101], [102] [103]; Ti [87];
SiC [62]; Ti [85] ,[77], [86];
Cu and Gr [104]; Cr [105];
W [88]; Si, Gr and W [106];
Al and SiC [70]; MoS2 [107];
Si and Mn [108]; TiO2 [109];

Near-dry EDM (4%) Ultrasonic vibration Micro-slit Vibration assisted

Si [64]; assisted EDM (2%) EDM (4%) micro-EDM (7%)
Si [63]; TiC (EDM with tool SiC [65]; Gr (Micro-EDM with
ultrasonic vibration) [90]; Al [70]; workpiece vibration)
[83];
Gr nano-fibre (micro-
EDM with dielectric
ultrasonic vibration)
[111];
MoS2 (Tank ultrasonic
vibration) [84];

Fig. 8. Popularity of powder addition in various EDM techniques.

uniform temperature distribution over the machined surface [35].
In investigating the susceptibility to cracks of a nickel-based super
alloy, the surface machined in deionized water oxidized after heat
treatment and no crack propagation occurred, unlike kerosene
dielectric [36]. Another study indicated that nitrogen from urea
solution added water dielectric, migrate to workpiece during EDM
and result in surface modification by forming a high wear resistance
TiN layer [37]. Furthermore, water-in-oil emulsion as dielectric
resulted in recast layer formation with higher hardness than
machining in kerosene or deionized water [38].
3.2.2. Low resistivity deionized water
Deionized water as dielectric always results in electrochem-
ical dissolution due to the slight water conductivity [27]. To
benefit from this effect, Masuzawa et al. [42] reduced the resis-
tivity of deionized water to the maximum allowable resistivity
(5 × 104  cm) to attain the requirements of both dielectric and
electrolyte in order to enable EDM and ECM simultaneously and
achieve lower surface roughness. Kurita and Hattori [43] reduced
the Ra value of a machined hole from 1 ␮m to 0.07 ␮m using
2 min of EDM-ECM complex lapping. Nguyen et al. [44] also uti-
lized low-resistivity deionized water, which improved the finishing
and machining accuracy through the transition from EDM to ECM,
which dissolved the heat-affected zone. Besides, covering the elec-
trode walls with a thin insulating film allowed for tool wear
compensation during blind hole drilling with EDM-ECM due to the
electrodeposition effect during the process [27].
3.2.3. Tap water
A comparison of the machining characteristics of tap water,
deionized water and a combination of tap water (25%) and distilled
water (75%) indicated that zero electrode wear is achievable when
using a copper tool with negative polarity [39]. Casanueva et al. [41]
developed a new power supply for spark erosion based on a series-
parallel resonant converter that significantly reduced the machine
weight and size, making it especially appropriate for portable oper-
ations in tap water dielectric. Furthermore, it was revealed that
under optimum conditions in machining Ti-6Al-4V, employing tap
water increased the MRR by 87.3% and decreased the TWR by 25.7%
and surface roughness by 18.9% [40].
3.3. Gas dielectric
In 1985, NASA publicized that a “dry EDM process” is possible
if argon and helium are involved as dielectric [25], which led to
employing oxygen or air gas dielectric. Dry EDM with gas dielectric
has the advantages explained in Fig. 3 [28].
3.3.1. Oxygen
In 1991, Kunieda et al. [48] proposed a new approach of sup-
plying oxygen gas to the gap when using a water-based dielectric.
However, the concept of completely dry EDM was not introduced
until 1997, when Kunieda et al. [45] proved that dry EDM is achiev-
able. They revealed that MRR increased with increasing the oxygen
concentration in air and the tool wear ratio was nearly zero for any
pulse duration. In addition, high-speed EDM milling of 3D cavities
benefits from remarkably low tool wear and substantially increased
MRR, specifically if oxygen gas is used [49]. Furthermore, dry EDM
milling is more advantageous than oil EDM milling and oil die-
sinking EDM in terms of time and cost during 3D machining of
cemented carbide (G5) [50].
Despite the advantages of EDM in gas, instability and arcing are
substantial problems of dry EDM [29]. Kunieda et al. [51] proposed
a piezoelectric actuator with high frequency response to control the
EDM gap length and prevent frequent short-circuiting in dry EDM,
which occurs due to shorter discharge gaps than conventional EDM.
18 H. Marashi et al. / Precision Engineering 46 (2016) 11–33
Another study [52] proposed deploying a pulsating magnetic field
tangential to the electric field to enhance electron movement and
the degree of ionization in plasma. This led to 130% productivity
improvement and zero tool wear in contrast to dry EDM without a
magnetic field. The performance of oxygen gas as dielectric was also
evaluated by Roth et al. [53] that compared the efficiency of oxygen
with less oxidizing gas dielectrics (air, CO2 and N2) considering
MRR.
3.3.2. Air
Kunieda et al. [45] stated that precise 3D machining is pos-
sible with an NC tool path that supplies uniform high-velocity
air flow over the working gap. Furthermore, Curodeau et al. [46]
observed that a thermoplastic composite electrode accompanied
by air rather than water or oil as dielectric was efficient, since a
rough-machined tool steel part was iteratively flattened by 30 ␮m
over three thermoplastic composite electrode forming and EDM
process cycle. Moreover, an abrasive jet machine (AJM) with inte-
grated dry EDM achieved higher MRR and lower surface roughness
at 6 and 9 A current than dry EDM [47].
3.4. Liquid and gas mixture
Near-dry EDM entails using a mixture of liquid and gas as dielec-
tric by means of a minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) dispenser.
Kao et al. [54] used a mixture of water and air with MQL and attained
higher MRR, a sharper cutting edge, and less debris deposition
than dry EDM. Additionally, mixing water and nitrogen and using a
graphite (Gr) electrode resulted in fine surface finish and high sta-
bility under low discharge energy input [55]. Tao et al. [56] observed
that among kerosene + air, kerosene + nitrogen, water + air and
water + nitrogen dielectrics, employing kerosene + air and a copper-
infiltrated Gr tool produced the best overall surface finish. In
near-dry EDM milling, Fujiki et al. [57] considered the effects of
electrode lead and tilt angles, and dielectric fluid flow rate. Fur-
thermore, a new gap control strategy for five-axis near-dry milling
was applied that increased the MRR by 30% while the TWR and Ra
were not affected [58].
3.5. Dielectric selection criteria for PMEDM application
Regarding the selection of a suitable dielectric to host the pow-
der, the performance of various plain dielectrics was discussed
in Sections 3.1–3.4. Obviously, adding impurities does not affect
the performance of all dielectric types equally. A limited number
of studies have concentrated on the performance of various pure
dielectrics after powder addition. Kibria et al. [61] and Ekmekci
and Ersöz [62] indicated the different influence of powder addi-
tion to oil vs. water as base dielectric in PMEDM. Investigating the
performance of water and kerosene after the addition of powder
showed that boron carbide (B4 C) mixed in deionized water signif-
icantly improved the MRR during micro-EDM due to the efficient
discharge distribution and increasing machining efficiency, while
B4 C mixed in kerosene did not considerably affect the MRR [61].
Furthermore, adding powder to kerosene and water showed higher
values of overcut compared to pure dielectric. The addition of sili-
con carbide (SiC) powder to tap water and hydrocarbon oil revealed
that unlike SiC mixed in hydrocarbon oil, SiC particles were evenly
distributed on the machined surface when SiC mixed in tap water
was employed as dielectric. This was attributed to the boiling of
the molten pool after discharge, especially during machining with
hydrocarbon oil [62]. The carbon in dielectric liquid initiated the
violent boiling process [34] that altered the paths of suspended
particles rushing to the melted cavity with the dielectric liquid
[62].
Regarding the financial aspect, according to the review article
by Leão and Pashby [25] on the use of environmentally-friendly
dielectric fluids, machining with commercial water-based dielec-
tric (Elbolub) increased the total operating cost by ∼36% compared
with hydrocarbon oil (BP180) due to the costs of equipment depre-
ciation (21%), electrical energy (15%), dielectric losses (78%) and
filtering aids (57%). However, the operating cost per part was ∼42%
lower, since the MRR achieved with Elbolub was 2.33 times higher
than oil dielectric.
Lin et al. [47] used gas dielectric to carry the powder parti-
cles in AJM integrated with EDM. Gas as dielectric imposes lower
tool cost than hydrocarbon oil dielectrics due to extremely lower
TWR, which enables attaining zero electrode wear under specific
machining conditions. Yet the occurrence of arcing and debris reat-
tachment on the machined surface are still problematic [28,29].
Therefore, mixing liquid and gas has been practiced in the past
decades in a few studies, indicating that near-dry EDM can increase
the MRR compared to dry EDM. Adding powder to the mixture of air
and mineral oil (near-dry EDM) has been considered to investigate
the performance of different electrode and workpiece materials
[63,64]. However, there remains a chance for considering the role
of powder addition to mixtures of liquid and gas to a great extent.
Fig. 4 indicates the popularity of various types of dielectric fluid
use in PMEDM studies considered in this article. More than 80% of
the studies have applied hydrocarbon-based dielectrics in PMEDM
with around 50% kerosene. The main dielectric for die-sinking EDM
is hydrocarbon-based, which has shown higher efficiency than
deionized/distilled water [25] due to the appropriate combination
of properties, including small spark gap, a corrosion-free environ-
ment, easier purification, higher aging resistance and lower thermal
conductivity than water [26]. The second most popular dielectric is
water with around 12% of the studies have employed water dielec-
tric for PMEDM, since water results in higher MRR levels according
to some situations [25]. In addition, water as dielectric exhibits
lower viscosity, less gap contamination, and a safer and health-
ier operational environment than hydrocarbon oil dielectric [25].
Deionized water in EDM results in low carbon content and smaller
heat-affected zone. The low resistivity of deionized water facili-
tates achieving a simultaneous EDM-ECM process, which reduces
recast layer thickness. However, it is stated that electro-chemical
dissolution always occurs [27], which can be unfavorable.
There are very few investigations that consider the role of
base dielectric in the PMEDM process, yet available studies indi-
cate diverse influence of powder addition in various dielectrics on
machining performance. A range of factors should be taken into
consideration in the selection of base dielectric in PMEDM applica-
tions in future studies, such as the density of powder compared to
the dielectric. For instance, Chow et al. [65] observed that owing to
the lower density of aluminum (Al) than water, the stirring effect
was not sufficiently good for mixing pure water with Al powder.
Another important property of dielectric that affects the role
of added powder in the process is polarity. All different types of
dielectrics used in EDM can be categorized as polar and non-polar
[66]. From a molecular point of view, polar dielectrics such as
water consist of randomly distributed permanent electric moments
(Fig. 5(a)), which get aligned according to the electric field imposed
(Fig. 5(b)). On the other hand, non-polar dielectrics such as kerosene
exhibit random distribution in the absence of an electrical field
without demonstrating permanent pole-pole interaction (Fig. 5(c)).
By inducing an external electrical field, the non-polar dipoles are
temporarily aligned (Fig. 5(d)) [26].
Therefore, the density, polarity and other dielectric fluid prop-
erties such as thermal conductivity and viscosity may be effective
parameters that should be thoroughly studied further to reveal the
behavior of various dielectrics after adding impurities.
 H. Marashi et al. / Precision Engineering 46 (2016) 11–33 19

Fig. 9. Influence of additive Gr powder on (a) spark gap, (b) MRR, (c) electrode wear ratio, (d) Ra, and typical images of surface in (e) sinking and (f) milling [91].

4. Influence of powder addition on the EDM process
In conventional EDM, normal pulse discharges regularly cause
arcing due to insufficient pure dielectric deionization and exces-
sive local debris [67]. However, adding sufficient powder to the
dielectric decreases the electrical resistivity and expands the gap,
subsequently stabilizing the process through better flushing and
servo-hunting [68]. A wider discharge gap also decreases the heat
flux [69], which reduces the material removal of a single spark and
enhances the surface quality. However, such gap expansion is not
possible with all powder materials, since powder density, electri-
cal resistivity, and thermal conductivity along with particle size and
concentration are highly determinative.
Upon addition of conductive powder, the reduced electrical
resistivity of the dielectric enhances the ionization and spark fre-
quency between the tool and workpiece (Fig. 6). The increased
spark frequency appears to overcome the lower MRR of a single
spark resulting from gap expansion. Therefore, multiple discharge
patterns are evident from a single input pulse due to multiple
discharge paths created, leading to discharge energy dispersion
[70,71] in contrast to pure dielectric that produces a consistent
waveform pattern (Fig. 7). Moreover, discharge dispersion reduces
the emergence of surface ridges due to the formation of shallower
craters with lower borders [72]. Subsequently, smaller discharge
craters and debris particles ease gap exhaust and accelerate the
MRR [65].
Therefore, as a result of using powder added dielectric, the heat
flux magnitude incident on the workpiece by a single spark reduces
accordingly. Consequently, a smaller crater forms on the surface
from a single spark, which is compensated by higher spark fre-
quency.
To describe the effect of powder addition on the dielectric’s
breakdown voltage, the electrode and workpiece resemble a capac-
itor with potential difference of V between them. V is correlated to
20 H. Marashi et al. / Precision Engineering 46 (2016) 11–33
the system charge through the surrounding medium properties and
is expressed as:
1 discharge gap. Besides, optimum powder concentration selection
V= Q (4)
C
where Q refers to the charge separation of the system and the capac-
itance C depends on the geometry of the electrode and workpiece
as well as the properties of the medium between them (dielec-
tric). The value of C for two parallel plates with surface area A and
separation distance d is expressed as [73]:
ε0 εr A
C= (5)
d Powder thermo-physical properties, mainly particle density,
where d is the distance between the two plates, ε0 is the permittiv-
ity in free space (flux density of the field in vacuum) and εr is the
relative permittivity, which is equal to dielectric constant (K) and
is defined as the flux density of the field in dielectric εd over ε0 .
Assuming that the field line between the plates is straight, the
magnitude of the potential difference between the plates is [66]:
|V | = Ed (6)
where E is the electric field in capacitor.
Above a critical magnitude of the electric field at which dielec-
tric breakdown takes place is called the breakdown strength, where
the dielectric in capacitor becomes conductive. In case of a homoge-
neous electric field, the field intensity is the same at full breakdown
trajectory length; therefore, electric breakdown strength is defined
as [74]:
Ub
Eb = (7)
d highest micro-slit expansion.
where Eb is the breakdown strength and Ub is the breakdown volt-
age.
Breakdown voltage limits the maximum energy that can be
stored in capacitor, which is particularly depends on the dielectric
material. It was shown that adding impurities (in our case powder
particles) alter the magnitude of electrical field [75] and subse-
quently according to Eq. (7) reduces the breakdown voltage as a
result of bridge formation.
In order to explain the formation of bridge in discharge gap in
detail, assume that the additive particles are spheres with higher
permittivity than dielectric. The powder particles in the gap get
polarized in an electric field and experience force equal to toward
the place of maximum stress, and in a uniform electric field that
can usually be developed by a small sphere gap, the field is the
strongest in the uniform field region [76]. Thus, the force on the
particle is zero and the particle remains in equilibrium. There-
fore, the particles will be dragged into the uniform field region.
Since the permittivity of the particles is higher than that of the
liquid, the presence of particles in the uniform field region will
cause flux concentration at its surface. Other particles also tend
to move towards the higher flux concentration. If the present par-
ticles are large, they become aligned due to these forces and form
a highly conductive bridge across the gap. The electric field in the
liquid in the gap will increase and if it reaches a critical value Eb
breakdown will take place. If the number of particles is not suf-
ficient to bridge the gap, the particles will give rise to local field
enhancement; if the field exceeds the dielectric strength of the
liquid, local breakdown will occur near the particles and conse-
quently, gas bubbles will form, which have much lower dielectric
strength. Hence, this will ultimately lead to easier liquid breakdown
[75,76].
5. Powder parameters and PMEDM performance
The powder parameters, including particle material, size and
concentration have a decisive role in PMEDM performance. Furuta-
nia, Saneto [77] observed that the combination of particle size and
material results in dissimilar particle movement patterns in the
is important to assure the efficiency of performance parameters
and avoid discharge instability. This section explicitly describes
the powder parameters’ effects. Note that the influence of pow-
der parameters is highly dependent on EDM derivation, dielectric
type and machining scale.
5.1. Powder material
and electrical and thermal conductivity highly influence the
PMEDM discharge mechanism. Wong et al. [68] examined the
effect of Gr, silicon (Si), Al, SiC, molybdenum disulfide (MoS2 ) and
crushed glass on PMEDM performance parameters and observed
that excluding crushed glass, all powders at least doubled the gap
width. Among the powders, Al was found to generate a mirror fin-
ish in machining SKH-51 by forming a surface with well-formed
and small overlapping craters. The largest gap was associated with
Al powder, which was expanded by a factor of almost 12 due to its
high electrical and thermal conductivity. The gap expansion value
is in agreement with the measurements obtained by Chow et al.
[70], proving that increasing ton leads to an even wider gap when
Al powder is added to dielectric; however, this is not the case for SiC
powder additive due to its extremely high electrical resistivity. To
clarify, when adding SiC and Al powder to kerosene dielectric dur-
ing micro-slit EDM, the SiC powder enhances the MRR and increases
TWR, whereas Al powder provides the best surface quality with the
Tzeng and Lee [78] indicated that among Al, SiC and chromium
(Cr) powders, using Cr leads to the highest MRR followed by Al and
SiC; the most deteriorative effect on tool wear was observed for
SiC, Al and Cr, respectively. The discrepancy between this research
and Chow et al. [70] regarding the performance of Al and SiC pow-
ders is correlated to the machining scale, powder concentration or
prescribed process parameters. Furthermore, among Al, Cr, SiC and
Cu, Al powder generated the best SKD-11 surface finish and the
thinnest recast layer [79]. However, copper (Cu) powder did not
contribute in the process due to high density, which caused this
powder to deposit at the bottom of the tank [78,79].
A comparative study on micro-sinking PMEDM by Klocke et al.
[80] revealed that for various I values, adding either Al or Si pow-
der led to optimized performance parameters. They found that
particular combinations of powder and workpiece and appropri-
ate electrode polarity and pulse parameter settings can produce
mirror-finish surfaces [68]. Another powder material for PMEDM
applications is Cr, which appeared to generate the second highest
surface quality following Al. This is due to the higher Cr density than
Al, which increases the particle impact on the melted zone, causing
slightly higher surface roughness [79]. Furthermore, Cr addition
was found to cause a thicker recast layer compared to Al pow-
der, which is attributed to the lower thermal conductivity of Cr;
Cr took less heat and applied more thermal input to the workpiece,
which also resulted in higher MRR, because Al powder suspended
dielectric absorbed more energy [78].
Gr powder is another widely used additive powder that
increases the electrical conductivity of dielectric and provides
excellent lubricity. Gr powder addition resulted in increasing MRR
and decreasing TWR [81]. Furthermore, Gr has shown to have a
promising application in micro-PMEDM [82,83]. Adding Gr, MoS2
and Si to dielectric seemed to provide glossy and mirror-like sur-
faces to varying degrees in PMEDM of SKH-54 [68]. MoS2 , which
is normally used as a commercial solid-state lubricant is another
material used to produce high surface quality by increasing the
wetting effect [84].
 H. Marashi et al. / Precision Engineering 46 (2016) 11–33
Fig. 10. Influence of adding Gr nanofiber to dielectric on (a) spark gap, (b) MRR, (c) surface roughness, (d) electrode wear rate and (e) profile of cross section under
time-controlled and depth-controlled regimes for variable powder concentration in micro-EDM [110].
Titanium (Ti) and tungsten (W) are other metallic powders
employed as additives in PMEDM. Addition of Ti powder to dielec-
tric appeared to increase the MRR [85], micro-hardness [86] and
machined surface hydrophilicity and also increase the surface qual-
ity by reducing the Ra and surface crack density [87]. Additionally,
W powder mixed dielectric was shown to increase the machined
surface micro-hardness by 100% [88].
Beside SiC, ceramic powders such as titanium dioxide (TiO2 ),
titanium carbide (TiC) and B4 C have been utilized in PMEDM.
Adding B4 C to deionized water was found to significantly increase
the MRR and fabricate accurate micro-holes in machining Ti-6Al-
4V [61,89]. Chen and Lin [90] applied TiC powder mixed kerosene
dielectric in machining Al–Zn–Mg. The results indicated that the
decomposed Ti migrates to the machined surface and forms a TiC
external layer with higher hardness than the base material.
5.2. Particle size
Powder particle size is emphasized as an important powder
parameter to obtain desirable results in the PMEDM process. It
is observed that larger particles result in greater gap expansion;
this effect is more pronounced for higher ton values, probably
owing to greater contamination and lower deionization between
the workpiece and tool [78]. According to Tzeng and Lee [78], the
smallest particles (70–80 nm) generated the smallest discharge gap
increase, the highest MRR and the least TWR. In another study,
Yih-fong and Fu-chen [79] claimed that additive particle size is
determinative in machined surface quality. The smallest particles
(70–80 nm) produced the best surface finish while simultaneously
increasing the recast layer thickness.
5.3. Particle concentration
The appropriate particle concentration leads to process effi-
ciency and stability. Note that the optimum concentration for
maximizing performance is dependent on powder characteristics.
Increasing the concentration beyond the optimum value causes
21
short circuiting, arcing and unstable machining due to the exis-
tence of excessive particles similar to debris particles, whereby too
much debris is generally deemed the dominant cause of spark con-
centration [78]. Furthermore, the presence of excessive particles
in the discharge gap causes a settling problem and bridging effect,
which lead to surface deterioration [91].
6. Investigations of various powder materials in PMEDM
A wide range of materials are addressed in available PMEDM
research articles. The main question raised in this regard pertains
to what powder material would maximize the machining perfor-
mance parameters. Since the performance of powder in PMEDM
varies depending on EDM derivation, machining scale, electrical
parameter settings, workpiece material and many other factors,
answering this question becomes difficult. Accordingly, in this
section significant attention is directed to presenting a thorough
review of powder materials used in PMEDM investigations and
their influence on machining performance parameters. The pop-
ularity of PMEDM among different variations is presented in Fig. 8.
Evidently, powder addition has been most often implemented in
conventional EDM followed by micro-EDM.
6.1. Graphite
Among the earliest investigations on PMEDM, Jeswani [81]
introduced the addition of 4 g/l of Gr powder (10 ␮m) to dielec-
tric, which enhanced the MRR by 60% and decreased TWR by 15%.
Furthermore, Wong et al. [68] revealed that addition of Gr powder
(38 ± 3 ␮m) leads to mirror-finish surfaces for SKH-54 workpieces
up to peak current of 2 A. Kumar et al. [92] employed cryogenically-
treated copper tools in PMEDM of Inconel 718 in the presence of
Gr powder in dielectric, which appeared effective in reducing both
TWR and tool wear ratio during machining. Singh et al. [93] inves-
tigated the addition of Gr powder to dielectric for improving the
micro-hardness characteristics of superalloy Co 605 during EDM.
They specified that a significant amount of powder becomes alloyed
22 H. Marashi et al. / Precision Engineering 46 (2016) 11–33
Fig. 11. Influence of adding (a–e) Al powder on EDM performance [78], (f–i) various powders on Ra and recast layer [79].
with the machined surface. Micro-hardness is influenced by peak
current, polarity and pulse on time for EDM and PMEDM.
Other than the investigation conducted by Wu et al. [71] in
which they used Al and surfactant added to dielectric, Kolli and
Kumar [94] investigated the influence of surfactant and Gr (aver-
age size of 20 ␮m) in PMEDM of Ti-6Al-4V. The MRR was found
to be at a maximum with 6 g/l surfactant, 13.5 g/l Gr powder con-
centration and 20 A current. However, the surface roughness was
achieved at 4 g/l surfactant and 4.5 g/l Gr powder concentration and
10 A current.
The addition of nano-size Gr powder to dielectric for enhanc-
ing micro-EDM was studied by Jahan et al. [91], Prihandana et al.
[82] and Prihandana et al. [83]. Jahan et al. [91] studied Gr powder
(55 nm) addition to dielectric oil for micro-EDM sinking and milling
of cemented tungsten carbide (WC-Co), which was found to provide
smooth and defect-free nano-surfaces. PMEDM milling showed a
wider gap (Fig. 9(a)) and lower MRR (Fig. 9(b)), tool wear ratio
(Fig. 9(c)) and surface roughness (Fig. 9(d)). The spark gap in both
milling and sinking demonstrated an increasing trend with increas-
ing powder concentration, but MRR in PMEDM sinking appeared
to have a peak at around 0.8 g/l and the optimum surface rough-
ness value in both sinking and milling was at 0.2 g/l concentration
(Fig. 9(e) and (f)). For concentrations over 0.2 g/l, Ra decreased due
to settling and bridging. In order to increase the accuracy of micro-
scale PMEDM, Prihandana et al. [82] proposed ultrasonic vibration
of dielectric (43 kHz frequency and 0.4 ␮m amplitude) and found
that machining time reduced up to 35% by introducing 2 g/l of Gr
powder (55 nm) to kerosene dielectric and micro-crack appearance
on the machined surface diminished. Nano-Gr powder addition also
improved the Ra from 1.37 to 1.17 ␮m at 15 g/l concentration com-
pared to pure dielectric in micro-EDM of a Ti workpiece, and the
machining time reduced by a factor of 20 at 10 g/l concentration
[83]. Furthermore, the combination of added Gr nanopowder and
workpiece vibration (1 kHz frequency, 1.5 ␮m amplitude) reduced
the machining time from ∼72 to ∼3 min. This enhancement was
greater than when using either one separately.
 H. Marashi et al. / Precision Engineering 46 (2016) 11–33
Fig. 12. Micrograph of micro-slits machined with (a) kerosene and (b) Al powder mixed kerosene dielectric [70].
Compared to the abovementioned investigations, Liew et al.
[110] employed lower Gr nanofiber concentrations (up to 0.3 g/l)
in micro-EDM of reaction-bonded SiC ceramic workpieces in
time-controlled (10 min) and depth-controlled (20 ␮m) meth-
ods. Apparently, the electrical resistivity concern of this ceramic
was resolved better during micro-EDM. A wider discharge gap
(Fig. 10(a)), higher MRR (Fig. 10(b)), and lower surface rough-
ness (Fig. 10(c)) and tool wear ratio (Fig. 10(d)) were observed
at optimum powder concentration. Furthermore, the shape of the
machined profile improved significantly (Fig. 10(e)).
6.2. Aluminum
Zhao et al. [95] reported that adding 40 g/l Al powder (10 ␮m)
to dielectric during machining of steel workpieces optimized the
MRR at ton = 10 ␮s and Ra at I = 19 A. Fig. 11(a)–(i) shows the influ-
ence of adding powder to kerosene dielectric on MRR, TWR, Ra and
recast layer thickness at various ton , particle concentration and size
ranges. Tzeng and Lee [78] and Yih-fong and Fu-chen [79] revealed
that among various Al powder sizes, adding 70–80 nm (the small-
est) to kerosene dielectric provided the highest MRR at 0.5 cm3 /l
powder concentration and ton = 25 ␮s (Fig. 11(a–c)). Additionally,
increasing the powder concentration or ton led to reduced tool
wear ratio (Fig. 11(d) and (e)). Moreover, the lowest Ra and thick-
est recast layer were observed for the smallest Al powder particles
(Fig. 11(f)–(i)).
Addition of Al powder (1 ␮m) to dielectric through micro-slit
EDM of Ti-6Al-4V was found to increase the discharge gap and
improve the material removal depth by around 30% at 5 g/l powder
concentration [70]. However, Al powder mixed dielectric deteri-
orated the machined slit accuracy as a consequence of excessive
overcut (Fig. 12). Introducing surfactant (Polyoxythylene-20-
sorbitan monooleate) to dielectric with Al powder increased the
homogeneity of Al particles in dielectric [71]. Adding surfactant
(0.25 g/l) and Al powder (0.1 g/l) led to increased gap distance
(Fig. 13(a)), mirror-like surface in machining SKD-61, increased
material removal depth by 60% (Fig. 13(b)) and a thinner recast
layer (Fig. 13(c)). Wong et al. [68] found that adding 2 g/l of Al
powder (45 ± 3 ␮m) to dielectric also produced a mirror finish of
SKH-51—a finishing quality not evident for SKH-54.
23
Al powder was added to mineral oil dielectric to improve the
machining efficiency of a WC-Co workpiece [96], and the optimal
powder concentration to maximize MRR was 17.5 g/l. The electrode
wear ratio tended to decrease with reduced Al powder concen-
tration to a minimum of 15 g/l, after which it tended to increase.
Another study carried out by Hu et al. [97] indicated that adding
Al powder (<2 ␮m) to kerosene dielectric in machining A1 matrix
composites improved the Ra by approximately 31.5% in 10 mea-
surement trials. Additionally, this composite’s microhardness and
wear resistance improved by 40 and 100% respectively, as a result
of using Al powder. Kansal et al. [98] studied the optimum machin-
ing condition for PMEDM of Al-10%SiCp metal matrix composites
using response surface methodology in experimental investigation
and found that the maximum MRR is obtainable at 3 g/l of Al pow-
der mixed with dielectric. The appropriate parameters for rough
and finishing of EN31, H11, and high-carbon high-chromium die
steel materials in Gr- and Al-powder mixed dielectric were also
further investigated in terms of MRR, surface roughness, TWR [99]
and powder material migration to surface [100].
6.3. Silicon
Kansal et al. [101] specified the important parameters and their
effects on PMEDM of AISI D2 with Si powder in kerosene dielectric.
The optimum machining condition to obtain the highest MRR found
was: I = 16 A, ton = 100 ␮s, toff = 15 ␮s, feed rate = 0.83 mm/s and par-
ticle concentration = 4 g/l. Si powder concentration and I were the
most influential parameters on MRR. Molinetti et al. [108] observed
that addition of Si powder to dielectric (average size of less than
5 ␮m) reduces the surface roughness by a factor of 5 at peak cur-
rent of 2 A compared to pure dielectric (Fig. 14). The presence of Si
powder in dielectric resulted in the adherence of Si particles to the
surface, and in the case of negative polarity at low discharge cur-
rent the machined surface properties could be modified through
the formation of silicon carbides.
In PMEDM parametric optimization using response surface
methodology, adding up to 2 g/l of Si powder to dielectric improved
both MRR and Ra [10]. However, these performance parameters
were still expected to increase for higher particle concentrations
in dielectric according to the response surface. Confirmation tests
showed that the error between experimental and predicted MRR
24 H. Marashi et al. / Precision Engineering 46 (2016) 11–33

Fig. 13. Effect of Al powder and surfactant addition on (a) gap distance, (b) Ra, and (c) recast layer [71].

Fig. 14. Ra for surface machined by EDM and PMEDM [108].

and surface roughness values was within ±8% and −7.85% to 3.15%,
respectively. Peças and Henriques [102] added Si powder (10 ␮m)
to dielectric at a concentration of 2 g/l. This method provided the
lowest peak to valley surface roughness (Rz) (Fig. 15(a)) and crater
depth (Fig. 15(b)). Moreover, increasing the powder concentration
decreased the crater width and white-layer thickness (Fig. 15(c)
and (d)). Fig. 15(e) and (f) shows that the roughness increased for
larger tool areas, but had a different trend after adding 2 g/l of
Si powder to dielectric. In accordance to the above study findings
[102], Peças and Henriques [103] showed that although Si powder
in dielectric noticeably decreased the surface roughness, in larger
areas the surface quality slightly dropped due to the capacitive
effect. The capacitive effect implies higher peak current than the
one set on the discharge generator, causing the formation of deeper
and more irregular craters.
Si powder has also been used in powder mixed near-dry EDM.
Bai et al. [63] considered the influence of I, ton , toff , flow rate, Si
powder concentration, air pressure and tool rotational speed on
MRR. They showed that under all machining conditions, a W18Cr4V
workpiece and brass electrode resulted in higher MRR, whereas
the addition of 9 g/l of Si powder to the three-phase dielectric was
necessary to obtain the highest MRR with around 40% enhancement
compared to pure dielectric. An additional study on powder mixed
near-dry EDM using Si powder was reported by Bai et al. [64]. The
results indicated that I, ton , toff , flow rate and powder concentration
are more influential on the MRR of powder mixed near-dry EDM
than tool rotational speed and air pressure.
6.4. Silicon carbide
Tzeng and Lee [78] observed that SiC powder mixed kerosene
dielectric leads to a very small machining gap increase and about
30% increase in MRR at I = 4 A and ton = 25 ␮s with 2⁄3 duty cycle.
However, the MRR did not notably change at lower I (1.5 A).
Additionally, larger SiC particles (2.36 ± 0.08 mm) failed to form a
mirror-finish surface due to the formation of very distinct and deep
craters with high density of global appendage [68]. In micro-slit
EDM of Ti-6Al-4V with a copper diskette tool, adding 25 g/l of SiC
powder to kerosene resulted in the greatest material removal depth
at ton = 10 ␮s [70]. Nevertheless, electrode wear and slit expansion
increased at all pulse durations and particle concentrations, respec-
tively. Similar to the optimum concentration obtained by Chow
 H. Marashi et al. / Precision Engineering 46 (2016) 11–33 25

Fig. 15. Effect of Si powder concentration on EDM performance including (a) surface roughness, (b) crater depth, (c) crater width (d) white layer thickness, and effect of
dielectric flow rate on surface roughness of surface machined in (d) pure dielectric, (e) Si powder mixed dielectric [102].

et al. [70], 25 g/l of SiC mixed deionized water dielectric resulted in
the greatest material removal depth for both average particle sizes
of 3 and 5 ␮m in micro-slit EDM [65]. Moreover, the SiC particles
reduced the gap distance, increased the electrode wear and mate-
rial removal depth, and enhanced the surface roughness compared
to pure water dielectric.
According to Yih-fong and Fu-chen [79], SiC powder produced
greater explosion force for normal pulse discharge, leading to the
formation of deeper craters owing to the high electrical resistivity
and low thermal conductivity. Although SiC did not considerably
change the Ra, it reduced the recast layer thickness. Conversely,
Ekmekci and Ersöz [62] studied the effects of SiC powder mixed in
tap water and oil dielectric on the surface topology and structure of
interstitial free steel. They found that suspended particles around
the discharge column accelerated and gained sufficient velocity
to penetrate to the molten pool before solidification, producing a
surface embedded with suspended particles. SiC powder in both
water and hydrocarbon oil also increased the recast layer thick-
ness, but this was more pronounced when the powder was mixed
with water.
6.5. Titanium
Ti is another metallic powder used in PMEDM for performance
measure enhancement as well as surface modification. Marashi
et al. [85] observed that Ti particles (40–60 nm) added to dielectric
in machining AIDI D2 improved MRR and Ra by ∼69% and ∼35%
at 6 and 12 A peak current, respectively. Furthermore, the AISI D2
surface morphology was enhanced as a result of shallower craters
and the formation of low ridges. Furutania et al. [77], Janmanee
and Muttamara [86] and Chen et al. [87] considered Ti powder
suspended in dielectric fluid for machined surface modification.
Furutania et al. [77] studied the accretion of Ti on a carbon steel
surface machined by EDM with 50 g/l of Ti powder (<36 ␮m) sus-
pended in oil dielectric. A good condition specified for accretion
was 2 ≤ ton ≤ 5 ␮s, toff = 1024 ␮s and 1 ≤ I ≤ 7 A with negative polar-
ity. Ti powder suspended in oil dielectric produced a TiC layer with
150 ␮m thickness and 1600 Hv hardness. Janmanee and Mutta-
mara [86] enhanced the machined surface hardness by 76.76% from
990 Hv to 1750 Hv with improved surface quality and TiC surface
completeness using PMEDM. At 20 A current and 50% duty factor, a
26 H. Marashi et al. / Precision Engineering 46 (2016) 11–33
Fig. 16. Distribution of collected research studies on PMEDM from 1981 to 2015.
5 ␮m coated layer of Ti and C with lower Ra and less surface cracks
was achieved. Additionally, fewer micro-cracks were observed on
the surface, since the micro-cracks were filled and substituted by
Ti particles and C that decomposed from the dielectric and acted as
a combiner (TiC). Chen et al. [87] added Ti powder at various input
parameters to deionized water in micro-current EDM of a Ti work-
piece, which led to the formation of a recast layer containing TiO.
A concentration of 6 g/l of powder demonstrated no micro-crack
formation on the modified surface at I = 0.1 A for short-pulse dura-
tions (≤50 s), and a thinner recast layer 4–11 ␮m thick was attained.
Machining a Ti workpiece at I = 0.1 A for 30 and 50 ␮s in dielectric
with 6 g/l Ti powder concentration generated a hydrophilic surface.
Hence, an appropriate Ti powder concentration not only prevents
surface crack formation but can also promote machined surface
wettability.
6.6. Copper
Cu powder added to dielectric is ineffective in terms of MRR,
TWR, Ra and recast layer thickness due to its high density, which
causes settling [78,79]. However, Sidhu et al. [104] employed Cu
powder mixed dielectric and copper electrolyte for surface modifi-
cation of a metal matrix composite, which increased the machined
surface micro-hardness.
6.7. Chromium
Cr powder mixed dielectric significantly reduced the tool wear
ratio and increased the MRR by about 50% at 0.5 cm3 /l concentra-
tion, ton = 25 ␮s and 2/3 duty factor [78]. Furthermore, addition of
Cr to dielectric also enhanced the Ra and recast layer thickness
(Fig. 15(g) and (i)) [79]. Ojha et al. [105] used response surface
methodology for parametric optimization of MRR and TWR. They
employed Cr powder mixed dielectric for machining EN-8. The
results indicated that increasing the powder concentration to 6 g/l
and I to 8 A significantly increased the MRR, while TWR slightly
varied with increasing concentration.
6.8. Tungsten
W powder has been mainly applied for surface modification pur-
poses. Kumar and Batra [88] investigated the influence of W powder
mixed dielectric in machining OHNS, D2 and H13. The effect of
W particles and rising amount of carbon on the machined surface
indicated that suspended powder particles can react with carbon
(from the hydrocarbon dielectric breakdown) at high plasma chan-
nel temperatures to form WC, increasing the microhardness of all
three workpiece materials by over 100%. The rise in surface hard-
ness directly influences abrasion resistance, which increases the
life of dies and other press tools. Bhattacharya et al. [106] stated
that employing brass and W-Cu electrodes with W powder mixed
dielectric results in good surface finish and higher microhardness,
respectively.
6.9. Molybdenum disulfide
Prihandana et al. [84] studied the addition of MoS2 powder
(2 ␮m) mixed dielectric and ultrasonic vibration of the machining
tank with 43 kHz frequency in micro-PMEDM. They reported supe-
rior surface quality and increased MRR by ∼85%. Furthermore, the
profile depth and machined surface quality substantially improved.
Wong et al. [68] claimed that adding MoS2 to dielectric led to a
mirror-finish SKH-54 surface. Furutani and Shiraki [107] observed
that under friction testing, a surface machined with MoS2 pow-
der mixed dielectric had a smaller friction coefficient than one
machined in pure dielectric.
6.10. Boron carbide
B4 C is an extremely hard ceramic, which Kibria and Bhat-
tacharyya [89] used as an additive powder. They mixed 4 g/l of
B4 C powder (∼13–16 ␮m) with kerosene and deionized water
dielectrics. The results indicated that B4 C mixed in deionized water
dielectric generated more accurate micro-holes in Ti-6Al-4V with
respect to taperness and circularity compared to deionized water.
Although B4 C mixed in kerosene did not significantly increase the
MRR, B4 C mixed in deionized water increased the MRR remark-
ably owing to the efficient discharge distribution and increased
machining efficiency [61].
6.11. Titanium carbide
TiC powder mixed kerosene with ultrasonic tool vibration
appeared to be a significant factor in improving the Al–Zn–Mg
machining characteristics [90]. Substantial MRR increase along
with surface roughness and TWR decrease were noticed at high cur-
rent values. Decomposed Ti element from the TiC mixed dielectric
medium migrated to the Al–Zn–Mg surface, producing fine grain
 H. Marashi et al. / Precision Engineering 46 (2016) 11–33
consolidation during solidification. Furthermore, some Ti particles
penetrating the machined surface during the process enhanced the
hardness and wear resistance through alloying of the workpiece’s
external layer.
6.12. Titanium dioxide
Baseri and Sadeghian [109] investigated the addition of TiO2
powder (average particle size of 20 nm) to kerosene in machining
H13 steel with a rotary copper tool. It was found that increasing
the rotational speed up to 200 rpm caused the centrifugal force to
remove debris from the machining gap and the MRR to increase.
Increasing the speed to over 200 rpm created bubbles which affect
plasma channel and subsequently decrease the MRR. Adding up
to 1 g/l of TiO2 powder to dielectric escalated the MRR due to
increasing the gap and facilitating the expulsion of debris from the
machining gap.
6.13. Manganese
Molinetti et al. [108] used manganese (Mn) powder with parti-
cles smaller than 10 ␮m to enhance the machined surface quality of
AIDI H13 steel. They found that adding Mn to dielectric reduced the
surface roughness by a factor of two and enhanced the machined
surface hardness by about 40% compared with pure dielectric.
7. Research trends, findings and gaps in PMEDM
The trend of the key research studies on PMEDM from the past
years is indicated in Fig. 16. Thirty-five years ago, Jeswani [81]
introduced the addition of impurities (Gr powder) to dielectric
to enhance machining performance. In 1995, Ming and He [112]
observed that adding conductive and inorganic oxide particles to
dielectric led to higher MRR, lower TWR and superior surface qual-
ity. The indistinct stage of this technology continued until 1998
when Wong et al. [68] compared the utilization of various pow-
der materials in dielectric. They explicitly disclosed the influence
of powder properties on the performance parameters of EDM. Their
research revealed the great potential of adding powder to dielec-
tric for machining performance improvement, which led to an
increase in the number of research works on PMEDM in subsequent
years. The cognition phase of PMEDM technology can be consid-
ered from 1998 to 2008. In this period, Gr, Al, Si or SiC were used as
additives to improve EDM performance. Since 2008, PMEDM inves-
tigations have become even more attractive, because the cognition
phase indicated that adding suitable powder to dielectric increases
the dielectric’s electrical conductivity and subsequently the spark
frequency, which leads to superior machining characteristic. The
increasing trend of PMEDM studies since 2008 is evident with a
higher variety of powder materials employed and is expected to
continue in the coming years. In addition, utilizing nano-size pow-
der has recently become popular, since smaller particles seem to
yield better performance in terms of higher MRR, lower TWR [78]
and better surface finish [79].
The variety and popularity of powder materials used in PMEDM
studies are demonstrated in Fig. 17. Among the considered addi-
tives, Gr and Al powders, which were also among the earlier
research studies, have captured the most research attention.
Although there is a large number of publications on PMEDM studies,
the unique answer to the question of what the most effective pow-
der material for enhancing machining characteristics is remains
disputed still. Incoherency in the selection of machining input
parameters, machining scale, tool or workpiece material among the
available research studies impedes an appropriate comparison of
findings.
27
Fig. 17. Popularity of powder materials in collected PMEDM studies from 1981 to
2015.
Under different machining conditions, adding Gr, Al, Ti, W, TiC, Si
or SiC powders to dielectric results in surface modification. Through
external surface alloying, the existence of Al, Ti, W or TiC increases
the surface hardness and wear resistance. These powder materi-
als find substantial application in surface modification, which was
investigated in detail by Kumar et al. [21]. It is recommended in
future investigations to consider both metallurgical surface com-
pounds and the influence of powder addition on EDM performance
parameters to realize the effect of powder addition on the process
and machined surface properties. This will clarify whether adding
powder to dielectric always results in surface modifications and
what the contributing factors of powder in the occurrence of surface
modification are. For instance, adding Cu powder particles makes
no difference to the process [113], because Cu powder deposits at
the bottom of the tank and does not contribute to the discharge
process. However, in another research study, Cu powder was mixed
with dielectric to attain surface modification [104].
Based on the collected literature, Fig. 18(a) and (b) are displayed
in order to demonstrate the concentration, size, and powder mate-
rial ranges used in PMEDM investigations. The figures indicate that
up to 75 g/l powder concentration in dielectric has been investi-
gated, and the majority of concentrations applied and investigated
were less than 20 g/l. Also for nano-size powders, the maximum
concentration employed was found to be 20 g/l. Furthermore, the
graphs show that the 1–55 ␮m and 20–150 nm particle size ranges
have been used in PMEDM investigations. Nano powders were used
in a few studies that showed great potential and the need to investi-
gate them to a greater extent. Besides the material properties stated
in this research, such as powder material, size and concentration,
shape has been addressed as an influential property of powder
material [101]. According to Ref. [114] as well, very little or no
investigation has been undertaken to realize the effect of particle
shape on performance parameters. Moreover, it is recommended
for future studies to establish comparisons using various powder
materials, sizes and concentrations to clearly reveal a piece of the
puzzle from the big picture of PMEDM performance. In addition,
findings to date indicate that the smallest particles cause less gap
expansion, higher MRR, lower TWR [78], better surface finish and a
thicker recast layer [79], which overall increase EDM performance
and surface finish. However, the influence of particle size of differ-
ent materials on EDM performance and the relationship between
particle size and optimum concentration necessitate further atten-
tion.
Fig. 19 shows the improvement in performance parameters of
EDM according to ton , I, powder material and concentration. Based
on the machining condition (ton and I), a suitable powder can be
28 H. Marashi et al. / Precision Engineering 46 (2016) 11–33

Fig. 18. Additive particle material, size and concentration used in collected PMEDM studies for (a) micro- and (b) nano particle sizes from 1981 to 2015.

selected depending on the most important performance param-
eters which are considered for designed machining outputs. Al
powder is found to enhance the MRR and SR in wide range of
0.01 ≤ I ≤ 4 A and ton ≤ 50 ␮s which also at concentration of 15 g/l
enhances the SR. Comparing the performance of Al, Si and SiC at
Fig. 19(a) points out that lower concentration of Al is required
to improve the performance parameters compared to SiC and Si,
which can be attributed to higher thermal and electrical conduc-
tivity of Al. In addition, Al concentration of higher than 35 g/l leads
to higher micro-hardness and wear resistance of machined sur-
face. Adding Ti powder to dielectric specifies the surface with less
micro-cracks and higher hydrophilicity. At high discharge energy
(through increasing ton or I), Ti powder improved MRR and sur-
face roughness, where no significant deposition of Ti occurred on
the machined surface. It worth mentioning that the influence of toff
should be considered, especially for surface modification.
Employing ultrasonic vibration to the tool, machining area
or machining tank in PMEDM has been investigated in order
 H. Marashi et al. / Precision Engineering 46 (2016) 11–33 29

Fig. 19. Effectiveness of powder materials and concentration on improvement of machining characteristics (MRR, surface roughness, surface quality, micro-hardness, wear
resistance, micro-cracks, hydrophilicity) under various ton, (a) I ≤ 0.5A and (b) 0.5 < I ≤ 20A from 1998 to 2015.

to improve powder addition effectiveness. Ultrasonic vibration
induces stirring and cloud cavitation effects, resulting in better
debris ejection from the gap and preventing tool material depo-
sition on the surface [111]. Similarly, workpiece vibration with low
frequency of 1 kHz has shown to boost the effect of powder addi-
tion to dielectric [83]. The difference between the effect of applying
ultrasonic vibration or vibration at low frequencies on PMEDM
performance and the relationship between powder size and con-
centration with the influence of vibration frequency and amplitude
on PMEDM performance is still indistinct.
Powder particle deposition at the bottom of the tank reduces
powder participation in the process. Using ultrasonic vibration of
the machining tank can be a key solution to constantly prevent
powder suspension and agglomeration throughout the process.
In order to present EDM as a viable machining technique, it is
necessary to investigate the performance parameters under more
realistic machining conditions such as fabricating cavities for longer
30 H. Marashi et al. / Precision Engineering 46 (2016) 11–33
Fig. 20. Schematic illustration of PMEDM circulation system [79].
machining time. Unlike available studies that mainly consider
shorter machining times, it is recommended to consider this point
in prospect studies.
8. Challenges of PMEDM industrialization
The advantages of PMEDM have been presented in numer-
ous research studies, but there are still problems challenging the
industrialization of this technique. The problems start with cost
effectiveness and unclear lifetime of a powder mixed dielectric [3].
Fig. 20 schematically illustrates a basic PMEDM circulation sys-
tem that contains a machining tank, including a workpiece holder,
pump, stirrer, magnetic filter, pipes, nozzle, etc. This system is
equipped with a magnetic filter that enables the constant reuse
of powder mixed dielectric.
The first question regarding PMEDM is how to effectively supply
the powder particles to the dielectric. Injecting the powder particles
through the tool electrode is possible, but maintaining a constant
powder concentration in dielectric is problematic with this method.
Other main concerns are the circulation of dielectric fluid contain-
ing powder considering the deposition of particles of the elements
and the filtration of debris particles from the suspended powder. In
order to address the filtration issue, a magnetic filter is either placed
in the machining tank or the secondary dielectric reservoir and the
distance between the dielectric suction point and nozzle outlet is
kept as short as possible to ensure the complete suspension of pow-
der in the discharge gap [3]. Assessing the powder concentration
uniformity and amount of debris after filtration and through the
process is a problem that was investigated using environmental
scanning electron microscopy [85]. Furthermore, powder agglom-
eration and deposition in the machining tank is costly and varies the
powder concentration during machining. In order to avoid powder
aggregation and deposition, and to ensure homogeneous suspen-
sion of particles in the dielectric fluid, the powder is usually mixed
with dielectric by conventional methods like implementing a stirrer
in the machining tank [90] or blending the powder with dielectric in
advance [110]. The addition of surfactant to powder mixed dielec-
tric was proposed to increase powder homogeneity in the liquid
[71] and ultrasonic vibration of the tank to prevent powder depo-
sition at the bottom of the tank [84]. In some cases, both the pump
and stirrer are located in the machining tank (closed system) [115],
which considerably increases pump abrasion.
Other than the abovementioned points regarding equipment,
the selection of suitable powder material, size and concentration
considering optimum machining condition is a crucial point for
commercializing this process. Furthermore, if PMEDM is not com-
mercialized to perform surface modification, powder deposition on
the machined surface and the formation of unfavorable compounds
on the machined surface need to be taken into account. Addition-
ally, powder deposition on the tool declines the tool’s electrical
conductivity, which reduces the machining performance over long
machining hours. Plus, the change in dielectric color after adding
powder averts workpiece visualization during machining, which
needs to be considered. Another serious concern regards health,
safety and environmental aspects, such as the exposure of operators
to powder added dielectric, the explosibiliy of some powder mate-
rials like Al, and dielectric disposal [3]. In addition, producing micro
and nano powder itself is challenging and costly besides being
harmful to the environment. Therefore, in order to put this tech-
nology into operation, a variety of complications primarily require
further attention.
9. Conclusion
With recent progress in material science, such as the introduc-
tion of high hardness alloys, nano-structured materials, ceramics
and composites, machining processes face increasing demand to
attain high productivity, high-dimensional and geometrical accu-
racy and environmental safety. EDM, which was introduced 60
years ago, is found to be one the most successful non-traditional
techniques for stock removal of high-hardness conductive materi-
als. However, low MRR and the requisite for post-surface treatment
due to low surface quality limit the vast application of this tech-
nique. Among various solutions to overcome such limitations is
PMEDM, which appears to predominantly attain high surface qual-
ity over a short time. Since the introduction of PMEDM, high
numbers of powder materials in combinations of various dielectrics
have been used by researchers. Nevertheless, selecting appropriate
additive powder materials remains disputed due to the inter-
mingled effect of machining scale, electrical and non-electrical
parameters, and tool and workpiece material, with the effect of
additive powder. Accordingly, this article provided a thorough
review of the influence of powder addition on the EDM mechanism,
the most influential powder parameters, comprehensive insight
into available powder materials and future trends in this technol-
ogy. The following conclusions are drawn based on the presented
literature:
1. Among various types of dielectric used in PMEDM, hydrocarbon
dielectric is still the most efficient one; however, water and gas
have found increasing application in recent years due to:
i. Healthier and safer operational environment, which limits
the production of cariogenic components such as benzene
(C6H6) and benzopyrene (C20H12).
ii. Deionized water can be a favorable choice in some EDM appli-
cations owing to lower viscosity, higher thermal conductivity
and higher flow rate compared with hydrocarbon dielectrics.
However, only few investigations have considered the addi-
tion of powder to water dielectric.
iii. Deionized water results in low carbon content in the gap and
smaller heat-affected zone. In addition, low-resistivity deion-
ized water as dielectric facilitates achieving a simultaneous
EDM-ECM process, which reduces the recast layer thickness
and prevents the necessity for post-processing.
2. The discharge characteristics in the presence of suitable additive
powder remarkably vary from pure dielectric in terms of induced
energy intensity, spark frequency, discharge gap and spark size
as:
i. Lower amounts of energy are induced to the workpiece by a
single spark in powder added dielectric than with pure dielec-
 H. Marashi et al. / Precision Engineering 46 (2016) 11–33
tric; however, higher spark frequency overcomes this effect
and leads to higher material removal.
ii. Wider discharge gap and smaller spark size decrease the
crater size, which remarkably enhances the surface rough-
ness.
3. Powder properties, including type, size, shape and concentration
in dielectric remarkably influence the efficiency of machining as
follows:
i. Gr and Al powders are the most widely used materials, which
improve the machining efficiency in terms of MRR and sur-
face quality.
ii. Gr, Al, Ti, W, TiC, Si or SiC powders have shown to result in
surface modification during machining.
iii. MoS2 and Gr powders are introduced as materials that
improve lubricity.
iv. Ceramic powders, such as SiC and B4 C produce smaller gap
expansion due to their lower conductivity than metallic pow-
ders.
v. Some powder materials such as Cu and crushed glass have
no influence on machining efficiency, while Cu powder is
effective in surface modification.
vi. Most researchers have used powder concentrations below
20 g/l and micro-size powders ranging from 1 to 55 ␮m or
nano-size powders ranging from 20 to 150 nm.
4. By considering PMEDM over the past 35 years, the main trends
and suggestions for future research are summarized below con-
sidering the data collected in this review:
i. The spark characteristics in the presence of additive powder
are heavily affected by machining scale, input parameters
(electrical and non-electrical) and tool and workpiece mate-
rials. Therefore, a comprehensive study that considers the
same machining conditions is suggested for the selection of
appropriate powder for a unique manufacturing process.
ii. Available studies mostly consider short machining times
in evaluating PMEDM performance. PMEDM will, how-
ever, prove to be viable for industrialization if performance
parameters enhancements are achieved under more realis-
tic machining conditions, like the fabrication of cavities over
longer machining time.
iii. Among powder-related properties, such as powder mate-
rial, size and concentration, shape has not been investigated
although it is known as an influential property of powder.
However, there is insufficient evidence on the influence of
powder shape on performance parameters.
iv. Findings to date indicate that the smallest particles cause less
gap expansion, higher MRR, lower TWR and a thicker recast
layer, which overall increase EDM performance. However,
the influence of particle size of different materials on EDM
performance and the relationship between particle size and
optimum concentration necessitate further attention.
v. Powder particle deposition at the bottom of the tank is a
problem that significantly restricts PMEDM application for
mass production. Ultrasonic vibration of the machining tank
may be a key solution to constantly prevent powder deposi-
tion and agglomeration throughout the process. Studies on
the vibrating unit in the PMEDM setup can be considered
in the future to simplify PMEDM for industrialization. Fur-
thermore, the integration of the ultrasonic vibration effect
with EDM has shown to improve powder addition effec-
tiveness due to the stirring and cloud cavitation effects. The
influence of vibration frequency and amplitude on PMEDM
performance and the link between powder size and concen-
tration, and the vibration effect on PMEDM performance are
still indistinct.
vi. Under different machining conditions, adding Al, Ti, W, TiC, Si
or SiC to dielectric results in surface modifications. Through
31
external surface alloying, the existence of Al, Ti, W and TiC
increases surface hardness and wear resistance. It is rec-
ommended to consider investigating surface metallurgical
properties after PMEDM to realize the contributing factors
to the incidence of surface modification.
vii. Although findings to date have shown that the smallest
particles appear to exhibit the highest overall performance
improvement, the influence of the particle size of differ-
ent materials on EDM performance and the relationship
between particle size and optimum concentration has not
been considered.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the University of Malaya
for providing the necessary facilities and resources for this research.
This research was fully funded by the Ministry of Higher Education,
Malaysia with the high impact research (HIR) grant No. HIR-MOHE-
16001-00-D000001 and University of Malaya, Malaysia with the
University of Malaya Research Grant (UMRG) Program No. RP039B-
15AET.
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