Ee esi! CHAPTER 4 Highway Materials . 2AM P OEY VOL TENASHSeyt + Soil is an accumulation or deposit of earth material, derived naturally from the disintegration of rocks or decay of vegetation, that can be excavated readily with power equipment in the field or disintegrated by gentle mechanical means in the laboratory. he suppor th pavement and its spec ‘coursea d ad -, + Compacted sub grade is the soil compacted by controlled movement of heavy compactora. Desirable properties of sub grade soil The desirable properties of sub grade (1) Stability @)_Incompressibility (3) Permanency of strength : (4) Minimum changes in volume and stability urider adverse conditions of weather and grofind water (8) Good drainage, and © Ease of compaction e il sampl i ratory. In order gth properties of soil, & er of representative samples from different locations are tested. Some of the commonly known shear teata are direct shear test, triaxial compression test, and unconfined compression test. ie bearing tests are influenced by variations in the soil properties within the stressed soil mass underneath and hence the overall stability of the part of the soil mass stressed coi studied. e penetration tests are carried out in the field or in the laboratory. + California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test was developed by the California Division of Highway as a method of classifvine and evaluating anilenh arede and bane anenn mm ntaninla fon ‘Scanned wih CamScannerHIGHWAY MATERIALS: Test Procedure The CBR is a measure of resistance of a material to penetration of controlled density and moisture ‘condition. The test may be condi undisturbed specimen in laboratory. It is extensively used for ficld eptrel thickness requirements. “ fittd plunger under {nitye-moulded or Hekible pavement fs ‘The laboratory CBR apparatus’consists of a mould’ 150 mintdia witli r loading frame & dial gauges for measuring the penetrition:yitues and the expansion on soaking. ‘The specimen in the mould is soaked in water for four die and the swelling and water . absorption values are noted. + ge . Load is applied on the sample by # standard‘pliinger with dia of 50 mm at the rate of 125 mifmin. A load penetration curve,fs drawn. CBR. value is expressed as n percefitage of the actual load causing the penetrations of 2.6 mm or 5.0 mm to the standard Joiids kdbatibned above. Therefore, ‘Two values of CBR, will be obtained. If the value of 2.5 mm is greater than that of 5.0 mm fc adopted. from test at 5.0 mm penetration is higher than that at 2.5 mm, then Hie checking. Fea similar results, then higher valve obtained at 5.0 mm penetration ‘Scanned wih CamScannerPlate bearing test is used to evaluate th: i i ae oe .¢ support capability of eub-grades, bases and in some a. . ‘ibe:pplicable for the. design of both flexible and rigid pavements. test{ it Sompreesve stres is applied to the sol or pavement layer through rigid ély large size and the deflections are measured for various stress values. civendorr pte «The tost sifé is prepared and loose material is removed so that the 7 cm diameter plate reste horizontally in full contact with the soil gub-grade. The plate is seated accurately an: ‘aseating load equivalent to a pressure of 0.07 kg/cm? (820 kg for 75 cm diameter plate) is applied and released after a few seconds, The settlement dial gauge is now set corresponding to zero load. jack, sufficient to cause an average settlement of about 0.25 cm. ‘or when the rate of settlement is less than e in settlement f soils with high moisture content or in clayey soils) the Test Procedure ‘A load is applied by meansof When there is no perceptible increas 0.025 mm per minute (in the case of toad dial reading and the settlement dial readings are noted, Deflection of the plate is measured by means of deflection dials; placed usually at one-third points of the plate near it's outer edge. TT ‘Scanned wih CamScanner202 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING + To minimise bending, a series of atacked plates should be used. + Average of three or four settlement dial readings is taken as the settlement of the plate correspouding to the applied load. Load ia then increased till the average settlement increase toa further amount of about 0.25 mm, and the load and average sottlement readings are noted ‘The procedure is repeated till the settlement ia about mm or morc. eer ‘orst moisutre condition of subgrade an unsoaked & other soaked sample of soil is taken and pressure required to cause settlement of 0.125 cm is noted in both. Hence k Ka = Ao Faas Kysstei = Modulus of subgrade reaction for soaked condition. » Rusmated = Modulus of subgrade reaction for unsoaked conditign. Calculation : A graph is plotted with the mean settlement versus bearing pressure (load per unit ‘Scanned wih CamScannerHIGHWAY MATERIALS 203 + (The load-rettlement curve figure should theoretically ba a straight line, and ita should _, five the value of k. hut it is usual to get n curved relationship, in which cane ke wae r 4 by drawing a straight line through the origin and a point on the curve correspondi ( rettlement of 1.25 mm Then, k = loading pressure corresponding to a rettlement of For the conditions given in Figure BMN/m? 125x107 + A theoretical relationship can also be detived:to:denl with:problems of the above nature. When a rigid circular plate is losded on'a toil:of elastic propérty, the settlement ia given by = K= = 6100 MN Ime Since, E 1ib.a It thus follows that : oa a> comes where, the subscripts 1 and 2 refér to values with tests with plates of different diameter. | E being Modulus of elasticity, of the plate and.a being the diameter of the plate. Then, 8 ‘Scanned wih CamScanner204 HIGHWAY. ENGINEERING Aggregate is a collective term for the mineral materials auch a that.are used with a binding medium (uch as wator, Portland cos int, lime, ete.) to form and tear, crushing. For a hich quality pavement, the aggregates ahould posse ‘o withstand the stresses due to traffie wheel lee, : + The aggregates chould be hard enough, to reli movement, «The abrasive action is severe wh the top surface, 2 5. Toughness!) + Resistance of the aggregates * Atgregates used in the pavement should be able to resist th the steel tyred wi the aggregates, e effect caused by the jumping of is from one particle to another at different levels caucaa cevere impact an « He ‘too fldky and too much elongated ‘aggregates should be avoided as far as possible, * The aggregates used in bituminous pavements should have lese affinity. with water when Compared with bituminous materials, otherwise the bituminous coating on the aggregate will be stripped off in presence of water, 7 . m_—¢ + The aggregates are subjected to the phys impurities there-in and that of atmosphere, in the conctenotinn ahautd ha annd a=. desirable that the road aggrogates used hence it is ‘Scanned wih CamScanner compound snatarints = 5 bituminous vet and Portland coment concrets).HIGHWAY MATERIALS nk + Aggregates used in bituminous mixes or portland coment concrete mixes usually require the aggregates to be clean, tough and durable in nature and free from excess amount of flat or elongated pieces, dust, clay balls and other objectionable material, In orier to decide the suitability of the aggregate for use in pavement construction, following testa are carried out: (1) Crushing test @) Abrasion test () impact test (4) Soundness test = @ Shape test . ots (©) Specific gravity and water absorptis gb Bitumen adhesion test 4. ‘ — One of the mode in which povement material can fail is by. crushing tinder compressive stress, ‘The aggregate crushing value provides a relative measureipf resistance to erushing under gradually applied crushing load. = * «Tho test consists of subjecting the specimen of te in standard mould to a compression under standard load conditions. : tampered again. ‘The specimen is subjected toa gradually applied at the rate of 4 tones per minute. + \Aete: The @ apraiontest) — Hardness prope cee vate w Abrasion test is carried out and to decide they are suitable for different pavement construction works. ‘Scanned wih CamScanner206 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING net are of following type : (1) Los Angelos abrasion tast Los Angeles abrasion test ia a preferred ono far ca been standardized in India (I8:2886 partlV), + The principle of Loa Any @) Devel abrasion test (3) Dorry abrasion test eying out tho Nardeeaa property and has is of cast iron apherical balla of 48 mm diameters and weight 940: ‘49¢ is plicod in the cylinder along with the ayerogota, + The auantity of aggregates to be used depends upon the sradation and usually ranges from 5-10 kg. + Tbe celinder is\tuet Ike ana volated ae’ ‘the’ speed or 30. 38 rpm for a total of 500-1000 revolutions depending, upon the gradation of aggregates, ' see After specified revolutions, the material is Sig through 1:7). ‘mmi/SieV@ and passed fraction is expressed. total weight of the sample. a t * This valueis called Loo Angeles abrasion value A rhasinuma value of dOpersentisalloived far WBM base course i itn conditions. For bituminous conorete, «< maximum valus'bt'85 is gpecificd | 5. Tnpactitest)y__ “Toughness I + The Aggregate impact test isicati toughness of aggregate. *(s to evaluate the resistance to impact. of aggregates or + Absregates passing 12.6 mia eievé and retained on 10 mim sieve ie filled ins cylindrical staal cup : offetemal dia 102 mm and depth Sem which iatiached toa metalbaoe ofinpacttoctoe nate i ‘ led Sri.8 layers where each layer is tamped for 25 number of blows, Es Metal kamuier of weight 13.5 to 14 kg is arranged to jj drop with a free fall’f 28,0 cm by vertical guides and 1A est'énecimen is subjected to 15 number of blows, ve"crushed ‘sigregate is allowed to pass through 2S6'niin TS sieve. And the impact value ix measured aa percentage of aggregates passing sieve (W,) to the total weight of the’ sample (W,). W, “fon impact value= 7p *100 1 Aggregates to bo used for wearing course, the impact vallean bituminous macadam the maximum permissible value defined s jouldn't exceed 30 percent. For by IRC is 40 percent, “Wott: Tie abrasion chic of sacl eggregates for high quality pa base course in WEM it may be 50%, shoudl be less than 30%, however far Caffe of heniness = 20-testoftingan ‘Scanned wih CamScannerHIGHWAY MATERIALS aor he — 1 Realstomee Po usec arte Action, Soundness test is intended to study the _esistanes of negates weathering ton, by. conducting accelerated weathering test cycles. . + The porous aggregates subjected to freezing and thawing are likely to disintograte prematurely, ‘To ascertain the i ee aggregates, they are subjected to an accelerated soundness test as specified in ‘The particle shape of the aggregate mass is determined by:the percentidye of flaky and elongated particles init. Aggregates which are Daky or elongated a detfimental to higher workability and stability of mixes. 8 ‘Scanned wih CamScanner208 * HIGHWAY ENGINEERING + The epecifie gravity of a solid is the ratio of maas of solid to that of an equal volume of diatilled water at a spceified temperature. + Because the aggregates may contain water-permeable voids, s0 two meusfite of specific gravity of aggregates are used: apparent specific gravity and bulk opecific, 3 j Apparent Specific Gravity (G,,,): It io computed on the banis of i ‘ine of aggregates af ie. the volume exeluding water-permeable voids, Thus a os . My/V, ay ‘ - ie L Gy, = SR es | where, Mp is the dry mass of the aggregate, V,, ia thé'et volume’ i the aggregates excluding the volume of the absorbed matter, W is the density of ‘water. Bulk Specific Gravity (G,...) : It is computed including water permeable voids. Tus ‘the basis ‘of the total volume.of aggregatis ference between thesappi permeable voids of the aggfeg | | + We can measure the volume of auch voids by weighing the aggregates dry and in a saturated, i i] surface dry condition, with all pérmeable voids filled with water. + The difference of iki above two is M, © -M, isthe woightofdry + Further, the presence of water causes stripping of binder from the coated aggregates. This Problem occurs when bitumen mixture is permeable to water. ‘Scanned wih CamScannerHIGHWAY MATERIALS Several laboratory te ts are conducted to arbitrnei to an aggregate in the presence of ce bitrarily dotormine the ndhonio 209 of bitumen biniler Bituminous materials are widely used in road: terials are, fagtruction nnd moinlenance. After gaining experience from their use in abtaining smooth riding surfdte, bituminous mixtures are being used a ‘tract layers, These materials are considered,to be Mexible from etructural point of view. In road contig () e) © @) © o ‘Tacks for the following desirable properties in bitumen, Bitumen ahpilldthave particles of the aggrogates ina premix proces. Thia Bitumen shoilld be fe bitumen and the aggregates 100. is achievéd' by heating th In spraying work, bitumen should be usceptible of being Sprayed to a thin Glm. ‘Thin in oe aaraaher by heating i or by Soxing it or by emuleifng When the binder cools down to atmospheric temperature cout dente eae together. Its susceptibility ge as ae ERENT ON portieulat, sre wrpoaity characterises should be reasonably coneiant the range of temperature it should be a the road experiences. ; The bitumen should retain its properties over & long period. Tn other words, inder and should not Lose its properties to son ‘Scanned wih CamScannerHIGHWAY ENGINEERING (It has water-proofing propertios : ; Ge) Itis thermoplastic, ic. it becomes oafton heating und in the reverse process becomes hard cn cooling. (h) It oxidies slowh © ee ae EROY ‘Dynamicviscosity’ Density + The liguid is kept at a constant temperature and is made to pass through an orifice; the time required to pass a mecsured quantity through the orice is noted and is an indirect measure of the viseosity (chown in figure). TRE ‘Scanned wih CamScannerHIGHWAY MATERIALS 2 ‘The methods used are STV Standard Tar Viacometer), Saybolt Purol, Redwood and Engler «The diameter of orifice varies in the range of 3 ta 10 mm nod the volume of Mud i : of 50 to 200 ml, a ‘urol Visoosity in standardized tort The distance in cm thet the briquette ean be stretched before breaking is the ductility. : Aigner atari bitumen is indirectly cbtained by the penetration test. Tt meacures the distance a standard bluit- pointed needle will vertically penitrate sample of material at 27°C, th 100 g and time of application 5 secs (in Sgure). a ‘The unit of penetration is 1/10 mm. «The temperature at which a stand steel ball placed on a layer of bitumen tandard ring passes throug! ‘the bottom & softening point. — ‘Scanned wih CamScannerHIGHWAY ENGINEERING . 0 liquid ia water/glyeerine ‘The significance of the softening point ig that it indicates the temperature at which bitumen passes from colid to liquid consistency... + For satisfactory performance ‘and avoidanco of “bleeding”, bitumen chowld have a softening Point 5 to 10°C ubove the maximum atmospheric temperature. + At high temperature, bitumen becomes volatile, and thus catchea fire which is very hazardous. Thus it is necessary that we quantify this temperature for cach grado of bitumen. * Specific gravity of bitumen is deletminéd by the jivetcwelOr mulled The measurements are taken: at 27°C The epeciic gravity ia generally around i000) + Specific gravity of pure bitumen, ig in ‘the range of 0.97 to 1.02 where as ‘Tars have specific. . ezavity ranging from 1.10 t3°.26° The solubility &f bi wlio ured either’ by penetration test or by viscosity test. But for certain range of consistencies, these tests are not applicable and float tes: is used, ‘Scanned wih CamScannerHIGHWAY MATERIALS: ai 3 Loss on eating + When a bituminous material is heated, it losea its volatile and therefore hardness, «The lesa the Lose on heating, the better is the bitumen. + The test ia conducted by an Aesth % It is desirable that the bitumen contains minimum water cont when it is heated above the boiling point of water ae ‘Scanned wih CamScanner214 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Cut back bitumena are availablain three types, + The cutbacks aro desi For crample RC-2 * RCO and SC-0 may 15% solvent and 85% bitumen, + RC-Cutback: They have penetration valu + MC-Cutback: They have guod welting 10 of 80 to 120 eg., potroleum such as naptha or Basoline, Properties, eg., kerosene and light diesel oil, SC-cutbock: These can be obtained by blending bitusen with high boil controlling the rate of flow and tom perature of crude during the The average diameter of globules of b; + Emulsion are used especially in maintenance an emulsion is that is ean be used in wet weathe for soil stabilization in deserts, ‘Tar-can- be: produced“in-3 ‘stages nge frox itumen portion” Yepair works. The main advantage of raining. Emulsions can be used The free carbon content is snore in tar as seen from the There are four popular methods of mix design: L 2.) Hubbard-Field meted 3. - Smith traxial method ‘Scanned wih CamScannerHIGHWAY MATERIALS 215 h of the above methodn in arsocis odn in associated with n ent of design eritorin for th erin for the propertion of the \ On jeetvER OER desis The objective of the mix desi mix dosign is to produce a bituminous mix by proportion: oportioning various components no na ta have ufficient bitumen to enmure n avement, shen deformation Soniezete has good proportion of all constituents and offere good compressive strength and sume tensile and has good fatigue and tensile and behaves under loads ac if its components were not linked ragth and needs kerb protection. gh good interlocking exeta, Very low tensile ste and used as a fou! a) together, Different layers in 2 pavement Consist of mineral aggregate such woe ah cn el ndation upon which to pl yinder or i ‘used as an intermediate course r aa the first biturainous yer in a tworlayer bituminous surface course. between the base al resurfacing. It is sometimes called a levelling course. ‘Scanned wih CamScannerHIGHWAY ENGINEERING Stability is defined as the resistance of the paving mix to deformation under traffic load. + Two examples of failure are @) shoving - a transverse rigid deformation which occurs at areas subject to cevere acceleration and (i) grooving - longitudinal ridging duc to channelization of + trafic. Stability depend on the inter-particle friction, primarily of the aggregates and the echesion offered by the bitumen. Sulficiont binder must be available to coat all the particles, at the sanie‘time should offer enough Liquid friction i + However, the stability dee-eases when the binder content ia kept apart ‘ Durability is defined as the resistance of the mix against Weathering and abrasive’actions. Weathenng causes heardening due to loss of volatiles in the bitumen, Abrasion is due to wheel Loads which causes tensile strains. > Typical examples of failure are () pot-holés - deterioration of pavernenta locally and (ji) stripping lost of Linder from the agcregates and "agerdgates are exposed Distingration is minimized by high binder content since they cause the mix ta be air and waterproof and the bitumea film ip morg resitant to hardening, Flexibility is a measure of the level of bending strength needed to counteract traffic load and prevent cracking of surface. Practure is the:erpcks formed on the eurface (hairline-cracks, alligator cracks), main reasons are chrinkage and bnitlences of the binder. + Shrinkage cracks are due to volume change in the binder due to aging. Brittleness is due to repested bending of the surface due to traific loads. Higher bitumen content will give be:ter flexibility and less fracture aSbidiBesiareres ? + tis resistance ofthe fished pavement aguinst siding which depends onthe surface texture and bitumen content. + Tt is an important factor in high speed traffic + Normally, an open gradedd coarse surface texture is desirable. + Worksbility is the ease with which the mix can be laid and compacted, and formed to the requried condition and thape. ‘Scanned wih CamScannerHIGHWAY MATERIALS 247 ‘This depends on the at on the gradation of nggregates,thei rie ion of nggregates,their shape and texture, bitumen content and ite « Angular, flaky, and elongated a elon aggregates reduces workabilit aggreentes improve workstility SS nents a Uissese aah enced Desirable properties From the above discussion, the desirable i it summarized, sion, properties of a bituminous mix can be + Stability to mect traffic demand “ “eine «Bitumen content to ensure proper binding and water proofing + Voids to accommodate compaction due to traffic = Flexibility to meet traffic loads, esp. in cold season + Sufficient workability for construction Economical mi + The objective of dry mix design is to determine tho. angint off to use to get a mix of maximum density. f°" « Thedry mix design involves three important step’, ¥ i) proportion of aggregates. . «The desirable qualities of a bitumij on the nature of the ageregal «Aggregates are classified 057 and fillet: . «The function of the coarse aggrigites in contributing to the stability of ‘ituminous paving ie ire is Langely due to intarlocking and frictional resistance of adjacent particles. =~ Similarly, fines of sand:contributes to stability failure function in filling the voids between «Mineral filler is largely visualized a9 0 void filling agent. Crushed aggregates and sharp sands produce higher stability of the mix when compared with gravel and rounded sands, tes ana their gradation, proportioning of aggregates has to be done and After selecting the aggregates thods of proportioning of egeregates: following are the common met (Trial and error procedure , @) Graphical Methods Gii) Analytical Method MIX DESIG! ‘Scanned wih CamScannerNGINEERING Sie HIGHWAY EI + The Marshall stability and flow tost provides the performance prediction measure for the Mershall mix design mothod, The stability portion of the tat measures the maximum load supported by the test epecimen ata loading rate of 60,8 rxm/minute, + Flav is measured ae deformation in units of 0.25 mm botween as load & maximum load during stability test. Thus if deformation is 4mm, flow value is 16. Specimen preparation . of 175-190°C, + Bitumen is heated to a tersperature of 121-125°C with thi trial! percentage of bitumen Gay 3.6 or 4% by weight of the mineral aggregaies), « The heated aggregates. and bitumen are thoroughly’ iixed at a temperature of 154-160°C. + The mix is placed in a preleated mould and compacted t'iixammer with 60 blows on either side at temperature of 188°C to 149°C, ; . + ‘The weight of mixed aggregates taken for thilrsparation of the specimen may be suitably altered to obtain a compacted thickneséof 63: $£3 mm. + Vary the bitumen content in the next tejal by #4 8% bitumenous. na :5% and repeat the above procedure upto about Tp besten Quart ete! 1, Theoretical: specific gravity of the mix G) ‘Theoretical specific Bravity (G)) is the specific gravity without considering air voids, and is given by ‘Scanned wih CamScannerHIGHWAY MATERIALS 219 where, W, ia the weight of the coarse nggre inthe w coarse nrgregate in the total mix, W, i the wei — the total mix, W, isthe weight of filer in the total in, Wy inthe watthvot tliat oe ieee eee isthe apparent epecific gravity of coaree aggregate, 0. he apparent meciiegravity tine verge Gy is the apparent epecific gravity of filler and G, ia Uo mpparent mpacifiegrnvity ofhitumen ee 2 Bulk specific gravity of mix (G,,) The bulk specific gravity or the netual specific gravit i specific fic gravity of the mix (G,) i exvity considering air voids and is found out by: es ¥, G, = va mo Wa We + Va lTe, is the weight of mix in air (actual wt), W, is the weight of, Where, W, weight). Air voids (V,) is the percent of air.goida,by volume in the specimen and is given by: Neti x100 "Mgt, =o S26. apoptnce Hae few tee - Toate = 1o0]1-—-Vese | = Veer00 Waster) ~ Vater 4, Percent vol i the’ volume of bitumen to the total volume and is given by: The percent volume of bitumen (V,) Ms sien 100 = a a Gv .e weight of fine aggregatein the total where, W, is the weight of coarse aggregate in the total mix, Wis th i einthe mix, Wis the weight of filler in the total mix, W, ia the weight of bitumen in the total nix, | G, a apparent epecific gravity of bitumen, and G,, is the bulk specific gravity of mix given by ‘equation (i). sum of sir (WMA) is the volum 5. Voids in mineral aggregate (VMA) e of voids in the aggregates and is the and is calculated from . Voids in mineral aggregate voids and volume of bitumen ‘Scanned wih CamScanner220 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING MANSY) 09 where, V, is the percent air voids in the mix, given by equation Gii) and V, is percent bitumen content in the mix, given by equation (iv) = Yon Yaanen «YoYo, OAS Tie Vina Vow 6 Voids filled with bitumen (VEB) Voids filled with bitumen (VFB) bitumen, and is caleulated as: where, Vis percent bitumen content.in the.mix,.given-by eq voids in the mineral aggregate, given by equation (). Determine Marshall stability and flow + Marchall stability of a test specimen is the maxim specimen is preheated,to a prescribed temper is applied at a constant strain (5 em/min) + While the stability test is in progress dial of the specimen. Prepare graphical plots The average ofthe above probertiis the following graphical plots aréipr aré‘determined for each mix with different bitumen content and eats: - Binder content versus correctod Marshall stability. Binder content versus Marshall flow 2. 3. Binder content: Véfsuspercentage of void (V,) in. the total mix. 4. Binder content ¥etous ida filled with bitumen (VFB) 5. sis unit weight or bulk specific gravity (G..) Binder, efittent v ‘Scanned wih CamScannerHIGHWAY MATERIALS 2 + Determine the optimum binder content for the mix design by taking average value of the _, following three bitumen contents found from the geapha obtained in the previous step. + The stability value, flow value, and VFB are cheeked with Marshall mix design specification chart given in Table below. os + Mixes with very high stability value and low flow value are not desiriblé'ne the pavements ‘Scanned wih CamScanner