TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF KOŠICE

FACULTY OF AERONAUTICS

AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION

2020 Hande EMIRLI

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 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1-Tension.........................................................................................................................5
Figure 2-Compression.................................................................................................................5
Figure 3-Torsion.........................................................................................................................6
Figure 4- Shear............................................................................................................................6
Figure 5- Bending.......................................................................................................................7
Figure 6-Truss Type....................................................................................................................8
Figure 7-Monocoque Type.........................................................................................................8
Figure 8-Semimonocoque...........................................................................................................9
Figure 9-Wing Types Of Aircrafts..............................................................................................9
Figure 10-Wing Spars...............................................................................................................10
Figure 11-Wing Ribs.................................................................................................................10

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Aircraft Definition
An aircraft is a vehicle that is able to fly by gaining support from the air. It counters the force of
gravity by using either static lift or by using the dynamic lift of an airfoil, or in a few cases the
downward thrust from jet engines. Common examples of aircraft include airplanes, helicopters,
airships, gliders, paramotors and hot air balloons.[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft

1.1 A Brief History of Aircraft Structures

The Wright brothers invented the plane and printed their names in gold letters in history. The
brothers, who made the first motorized and steerable plane in 1903, made their first flights shortly
thereafter with a fully functional plane. Wright Flyer flew for 12 seconds on the first attempt. In the
last attempt of that day, it flew 59 seconds.
Driven heavier-than-air aviation developed out of existence by Wright. Inventors and budding
aviators also begun to create their own jets. Some were early similar to those designed by the
Wrights using wood and fabric with wires and struts to support the wing construction. Frenchman
Louis Bleriot designed a plane with significant variations in style in 1909. He designed a popular
single-wing aircraft. More powerful engines were produced and airframe designs modified to take
advantage of the advantages.
Stronger engines have also required designers to build thicker wings with stronger spars, leading up
to World War I (WWI). It no longer required wire wing bracing. More lift was provided by the
flatter, lower wing surfaces on high-camber wings. WWI broadened the need for reliable aircraft in
large quantities. The wartime sky was dominated by stacked-wing tail draggers with wood and metal
truss frames and skin often made of fabric.This was characteristic of Red Baron Fokker DR-1.Metal
use in aircraft construction increased in the 1920s. Established fuselages capable of carrying freight,
and passengers. The early flying boats from the shipbuilding industry, with their hull-type design,
received the blueprints for semimonocoque fuselage design.Modeling of trusses faded. A trend was
prevailing towards cleaner monowing designs.All-metal planes followed new lighter and more
powerful engines into the 1930s. Larger semimonocoque fuselages have been complimented by
prototypes for the stress-skin wing. They designed fewer trusses and fabric aircraft. The Second
World War (WWII) created a multitude of aircraft designs using all the metal technology. Deep
fuel-bearing wings were the standard, but the need for higher flight speeds led to the production of
thin-winged aircraft that carried fuel in the fuselage. The De Havilland Mosquito, the first composite
structure aircraft, used a sandwich material from balsa wood in the fuselage construction. During
this time also the fiberglass radome was created.

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 Following WWII, turbine engine technology led to higher flight altitude. Aviation was pervaded by
the need for pressurized aircraft. As a result, the semimonocoque structure had to be made even
heavier. Refinements were made to the all-metal semimonocoque fuselage structure to improve the
strength and to counter metal fatigue induced by the process of pressure-depressurization. To avoid
weak areas where cracks could emerge, rounded windows and door openings were created.
Aluminum skin with integrally machined copper alloy resisted cracking and permitted thicker skin
and managed tapering. Chemical milling of wing skin structures provided superior strength and
smooth surfaces with high efficiency. Wings with variable contours became simpler to design.
Increases in flight speed which accompany jet travel resulted in the need for thinner wings. Wing
loading also significantly increased. In response, designs for the multispar and box beam wings were
produced.
Ever larger planes were designed in the 1960s to carry passengers. The jumbo jet was designed and
produced as engine technology improved. Though predominantly aluminum with a semimonocoque
fuselage, the sheer scale of the day's airliners sparked a hunt for lighter and stronger materials to
build them out of. The use of constructed panels of honeycomb in Boeing's airline series saved
weight while not losing energy. Used initially on wing panels, flight control surfaces, cabin floor
boards, and other applications, aluminum core with aluminum or fiberglass skin sandwich panels.
2. MAJOR STRUCTURAL STRESS
The term "stress" is often used interchangeably with the word "strain." While connected, they
are not the same thing. Stress is the internal resistance of a material, or counterforce, which
prevents deformation. The degree of material deformation is strain. This material is deformed
when a material is subjected to a load or force, irrespective of how heavy the material is or
how light the load is.Airplanes have unique structural requirements. Planes should be light
and at the same time, planes must withstand the flight loads, landing loads and a wide range
of vibrations.

There are five major stresses to which all aircraft are subjected:
• Tension
• Compression
• Torsion
• Shear
• Bending

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2.1. TENSION

Tension is a force that attempts to distance an

object. In the block and tackle system discussed
earlier in this chapter, an overhead beam was
secured to the upper block which housed the two
fixed pulleys. The lower mobile block and its
two pulleys were hanging by ropes, and the
weight was hanging beneath the whole assembly.
The weight being lifted would cause tension
between the ropes and the blocks. Literally, the
weight is trying to pull the rope apart, and would
ultimately cause the rope to break if the weight
were too large.

Figure 1-Tension

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2.2 COMPRESSION

Compression is a force aimed at crushing an

object. An excellent example of compression
is when the fastener known as a rivet is used
to assemble a sheet metal airplane. The rivet
passes through a hole that is drilled in the
aluminum pieces, and then a rivet gun on
one side and a bucking bar on the other
applies force. This applied force attempts to
crush the rivet and makes it expand to fill
the hole and hold the aluminum parts
together securely.

Figure 2-Compression

2.3. TORSION

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 When twisted, torsion is the stress
an object experiences, which is
what happens when torque is
applied to a shaft. In fact, torsion
consists of two further stresses:
tension and compression. Tension
is experienced at a diagonal to the
shaft when a shaft is twisted, and
compression acts to the tension by
90 degrees. Figure 3-Torsion

2.4. SHEAR

Shear is the stress that resists the force

tending to cause one layer of a material to
slide over an adjacent layer. Two riveted
plates in tension subject the rivets to a
shearing force. Usually, the shear strength
of a material is either equal to or less than
its tensile or compressive strength. Shear
stress concerns the aviation technician
Figure 4- Shear
chiefly from the standpoint of the rivet and
bolt applications, particularly when
attaching sheet metal, because if a rivet
used in a shear application gives way, the
riveted or bolted parts are pushed sideways.

2.5. BENDING

Bending is a mixture of compression

and tension. For example, the upper
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portion stretches (tension) when
Figure 5- Bending

3. FIXED-WING AIRCRAFT

3.1 FUSELAGE
The fuselage is the main structure, or body, of the aircraft. It provides space for personnel,
cargo, controls, and most of the accessories. The power plant, wings, stabilizers, and landing
gear are attached to it. There are two general types of fuselage construction—welded steel
truss and monocoque designs. The welded steel truss was used in smaller Navy aircraft, and it
is still being used in some helicopters.

3.1.1. TRUSS TYPE

A truss is a rigid framework made up of members, such as beams, struts, and bars to resist
deformation by applied loads. The truss-framed fuselage is generally covered with fabric. The
truss-type fuselage frame is usually constructed of steel tubing welded together in such a
manner that all members of the truss can carry both tension and compression loads. In some
aircraft, principally the light, singleengine models, truss fuselage frames may be constructed
of aluminum alloy and may be riveted or bolted into one piece, with cross-bracing achieved
by using solid rods or tubes.

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 Figure 6-Truss Type

3.1.2. MONOCOQUE TYPE

For carrying various loads, the monocoque design relies largely on skin strength, or coverage.
One can divide the monocoque concept into two classes:

 Monocoque

The true monocoque construction uses fuselage formers,frame assemblies, and bulkheads
to give shape. The skin carries the main stresses though.Because there are no bracing muscles,
the skin needs to be solid enough to hold the fuselage rigid. For monocoque construction the
biggest challenge is retaining enough strength while holding the weight within limits.

Figure 7-Monocoque Type

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  Semimonocoque

Semimonocoque concept overcomes the monocoque construction strength to weight problem.
Aside from having formers, frame assemblies, and bulkheads, the semimonocoque structure h
as longitudinal members supporting the skin.

Figure 8-Semimonocoque

3.2. WINGS
The wings are airfoils that are attached to each side of the fuselage and are the main lifting
surfaces that support in flight the airplane. The various manufacturers employ different wing
styles, sizes, and shapes. With respect to the planned performance for the specific aircraft,
each satisfies a certain need.
Wings may be mounted at the top, middle, or lower fuselage section. Such designs are
respectively called high-, mid-, and low-wing designs. The number of wings can vary, as well.
Aircraft with a single set of wings are called monoplanes and those with two sets are called

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biplanes.

Figure 9-Wing Types Of Aircrafts

3.2.1. WING SPARS

The Spars are the wing's principal structural members. They range from the fuselage up to the
wing tip. The spars take up all of the load carried by the wing. The spars are built to
demonstrate great strength in bending. Ribs give shape to the wing section, and transmit air
load to the spars from the wing cover. Ribs stretch from the leading edge to the wing's trailing
edge. Spars can be made of metal, wood, or composite materials depending on a particular
aircraft's design requirements. Usually wood spars are made from spruce. By their cross-
sectional structure, they can typically be categorized into four different groups.

Figure 10-Wing Spars

3.2.2. WING RIBS

Ribs are the structural cross-pieces which combine with spars and stringers to form the wing
frame. These usually run from the leading edge of the wing to the rear spar or to the wing's

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trailing edge. The ribs give the wing its cambered form and transfer the charge to the spars
from the skin and stringers. Different ribs are also used in ailerons, elevators, rudders, and
stabilizers. Wing ribs are usually either made of wood or metal. Aircraft with wood wing
spars may have ribs of wood or metal while most aircraft with metal spars may have ribs of
metal. Wood ribs are usually made from spruce. Plywood web, the lightened plywood web
and the truss forms are the three most common types of wooden ribs.

Figure 11-Wing Ribs

3.2.3. WING SKIN

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