Bio-Based Polymer

Bio-based polymers can be formed by processes including injection molding, ther-

moforming, and melt spinning into various forms and with diverse appearances.

From: Start-Up Creation, 2016

Related terms:

Polylactide, Resin, Biodegradable Polymer, Polyethylene, Adhesive, Biopolymers,

Protein

View all Topics

Introduction to Bio-Based Polymers

Antonio Meraldo, in Multilayer Flexible Packaging (Second Edition), 2016

Abstract
Bio-based polymers are defined as polymers made from biological sources. Some
of these polymers are formed directly in the polymeric form within the producing
organisms (eg, microorganisms, algae, or plants), while others are manufactured ex
vivo from bio-based monomers. The simplest bio-based polymers, such as cellulose
and starch, have been known and widely used for centuries. However, the use of
these pioneering compounds was restricted to a few applications such as packaging,
textiles, and construction. In the past few decades, advances in chemical process-
ing and biotechnology have allowed the production of novel bio-based polymers
such as polylactic acid and polyhydroxyalkanoate that have received much attention
from many industrial players. Many people have opined that these new bio-based
polymers have the potential to replace petroleum-based polymers and help solve
some of the most urgent problems caused by the overuse of petroleum-based
polymers, such as water and soil pollution, deleterious influence to human health,
and overdependence on petroleum. Yet others believe that the shortcomings of
bio-based polymers, both in the economic and technical aspects, preclude their rapid
adoption at least in the near future.
> Read full chapter

Composites and hybrid structures

Vladan Koncar, in Smart Textiles for In Situ Monitoring of Composites, 2019

2.5.2.5 Bio-based resins

Bio-based polymers also called bio-based resins are obtained from renewable re-
sources (algae, bacteria, microorganisms, plants, etc.). They can be synthetized
either directly or through the monomers synthesis that have to be followed by the
polymerization. There are many different market available bio-based polymers such
as polylactic acid, the poly L lactide, polyhydroxybuturate, polyhydroxyalkalonates
(PHAs), polyamide, polypropylene (PP) obtained from bio-based ethylene obtained
by converting ethanol, polyethylene terephthalate and all other thermoplastic ma-
terials. There are also other bio-based resins partially obtained (polyurethanes with
bio-based dyols and bio based epoxy epichlorohydrine from glycerol) that are ther-
mosetting [60–62]. Bio-based polymers are mostly used in packaging applications;
their use in more demanding applications is still a great challenge. This can be
explained by following evidences:

• Poor durability of bio-based matrices in long life applications such as trans-

portation and construction;
• Important modifications of existing processes are necessary;

• Higher cost of bio-based polymers comparing to oil-based one; and

• Significantly lower performances of bio-based comparing to oil-based ma-

trices.

> Read full chapter

Biomedical polymer hybrid composites

Tavakoli Javad, ... Tang Youhong, in Hybrid Polymer Composite Materials, Volume
1, 2017

Abstract
Bio-based polymer hybrid composites hold a unique position in the fast-growing
and active multidisciplinary world of biomaterials where engineers, scientists, and
biologists combine their knowledge. It is well known that advances in science and
engineering of biomaterials are crucial to solve complex medical and biomedical
problems involving replacement, repair, and regeneration of tissues. This chapter
covers the definition, importance, categorization, and application of polymer hybrid
composites in the biomedical field. It is presented into two main parts. The first
part includes the categorization of biomedical polymer hybrid composites, with
information about the compositions and specifications of nanocomposites on the
basis of hybridization of polymers with natural polymers, biopolymers, minerals,
and metals. The second covers biomedical uses of polymer hybrid composites,
considering their applications (i.e., drug delivery, tissue engineering, bioadhesion,
etc.), and composition.

> Read full chapter

Biobased Thermosets
Ana Dotan, in Handbook of Thermoset Plastics (Third Edition), 2014

Determination of Bio-Based Content in Polymers

Bio-based polymers can be made totally or partially from renewable source raw ma-
terials, produced from photosynthesis and CO2. In order to determine the bio-based
content of the polymer, the “new” carbon content must be measured. A renewable
source is replenished by natural processes at a rate comparable to its exploitation
rate. The carbon content of such polymers is derived from the so-called short carbon
cycle within an expected time frame between 1 to 10 years. Most industrial polymers
and plastics are presently produced from fossil resources that are non-renewable
as they cannot be replenished at a rate comparable to the exploitation rate. Fossil
resources have a long carbon cycle, with an expected time frame to convert biomass
to petroleum, gas, and coal of greater than 106 years [10]. The accepted measure of
bio-based content is the level of 14C isotope in the feedstock (basically, carbon dat-
ing), because ancient petroleum has lost its 14C through radioactive decay whereas
feedstock derived from recently living organisms have a 14C content related to the
current equilibrium concentration in the atmosphere.

ASTM D6866-11 has developed a protocol to quantify the bio-based content in

materials by comparing the 14C/12C ratio to that of a standard specimen typical
of living organisms [11]. CEN/TS 16137 is the equivalent European for the ASTM
standard test [3]. ASTM D6866-11 is the Standard Test Methods for Determining
the Bio-based Content of Solid, Liquid, and Gaseous Samples Using Radiocarbon
Analysis. It defines bio-based content as the amount of bio-based carbon in the
material or product as a percent of the weight (mass) of the total organic carbon in
the product. This standard utilizes two methods to quantify the bio-based content of
a given product: (a) Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) along with Isotope Ratio
Mass Spectrometry (IRMS); or (b) Liquid Scintillation Counters (LSC) using sample
carbon that has been converted to benzene. Those methods directly discriminate
between product carbon resulting from new carbon input and that derived from
fossil-based input. A measurement of the 14C/12C ratio is determined relative to the
modern carbon-based oxalic acid radiocarbon Standard Reference Material (SRM)
4990c (referred to as HOxII), as the oxalic acid standard is 100% bio-based. The
percent new carbon can be slightly greater than 100% due to the continuing (but
diminishing) effects of the 1950s nuclear testing programs. Because all sample 14C
activities are referenced to a “pre-bomb” standard, all modern carbon values must
be multiplied by 0.95 to correct for the bomb carbon and to subsequently obtain the
true bio-based content of the sample [11].

CEN/TS 16137 specifies the calculation method for the determination of bio-based
carbon content in monomers, polymers, plastics materials and products using the
14C method based on three test methods: (a) Proportional scintillation-counter

method (PSM); (b) Beta-ionization (BI); and (c) Accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS).
The analytical test methods specified in this Technical Specification are compatible
with those described in ASTM D6866-11. The bio-based carbon content is expressed
by a fraction of sample mass, as a fraction of the total carbon content, or as a fraction
of the total organic carbon content. This calculation method is applicable to any
polymers containing organic carbon, including bio-composites [3]. Calculation of
percentage of bio-based content according to CN/TS 16137:2011 is based on the
calculation of carbon content as a fraction of the total organic carbon content (TOC)
expressed as a percentage, using Equation (15.1):

(15.1)

Here, XB=is the bio-based carbon content by mass, expressed as a percentage; and
XTOC=is the total organic carbon content, expressed as a percentage, of the sample.

> Read full chapter

Biopolymers
Alfred Rudin, Phillip Choi, in The Elements of Polymer Science & Engineering (Third
Edition), 2013

13.3 Bio-Based Polymers (Bioplastics)

A bio-based polymer is derived fully or in part from biomass or microorganisms as
an alternative to petroleum plastics. Many of these polymers are commonly referred
to as bioplastics. A bioplastic is similar to a conventional plastic, like polypropylene,
in the fact that it is used to make commercial products. There are three generic
pathways to producing plastics from natural materials such as (1) the extraction and
modification of natural polymers from biomass; (2) the polymerization of bio-based
monomers; and (3) the extraction of polymers produced in microorganisms. An
explanation of each pathway along with specific examples of bioplastics, processing,
properties, and applications will be detailed. A general overview of synthetic path-
ways to a bioplastic is illustrated in Fig. 13.4, along with examples of products.

Figure 13.4. Flow chart of different pathways used to synthesize bioplastics.

13.3.1 Extraction and Modification of Natural Polymers in Plants

Many different types of natural polymers exist in the environment, as outlined in
Section 13.2. The extraction and/or modification of these polymers enable them to
be used as commercial materials, a bioplastic. Examples of these products include
the vulcanization of natural rubber, thermoplastic starch, and regenerated cellulose.

13.3.1.1 Natural Rubber

As mentioned, natural rubber is collected by tapping rubber trees, Hevea braziliensis,

by making an incision into the bark of the tree [5,7]. Natural rubber is unique
to “bioplastics” as the tree producing the rubber is not destroyed to harvest the
material. When polyisoprene is vulcanized with heat and sulfur, the resulting product
is very useful in commercial products such as tires [5].

13.3.1.2 Starch

Starch, in its native form, is a granular structure. This form of starch is incorporated
into plastics as a type of filler [14]. Starch is heavily used in food processing, such as
cereal, snacks, canned goods, frozen food, dairy products, and much more. Starch is
also used in a variety of industries such as adhesives, mining, metal, paper, cosmetics
and pharmaceutical, construction, and textile in many products. In order to use
starch as the polymer for a bioplastic application, the polymer structures amylose
and amylopectin are extracted. Extraction occurs by disrupting the granular structure
by solubilization of the starch granules in water at elevated temperatures, called
gelatinization [4,15]. In the presence of water the granules swell and eventually burst,
leading to the release of polymer into the surrounding water. Products used for a
range of applications can be obtained depending on the level of destruction of the
granule caused by the water content, time, and temperature of the extraction. For
starch to be able to be classified as a plastic, usable interchangeably with traditional
plastics, it must undergo further processing before it is classified as thermoplastic
starch.

Thermoplastic starch (TPS) is defined as destructurized or gelatinized starch that is

combined with one or more additives (plasticizer) to produce a material that can
be treated like other thermoplastic polymers [16]. Common plasticizers used are
glycerol, sorbitol, polyethylene glycol, or other polyols that are added to the extracted
polymer. The plasticizers are able to separate the melting temperature from the
thermal degradation temperature to allow the extracted polymers to be processed
using conventional machines, such as extrusion and injection molding. The result-
ing material is expelled from the extrusion die as a homogeneous molten phase and
then pelletized after cooling. Thermoplastic starch blended with other biopolymers
increases biodegradability. Focus in research has been placed on engineering TPS
for packaging applications.

13.3.1.3 Cellulose

Cellulose can be harvested from many plant sources as it is the major part of the cell
wall. Also cellulose can be produced by fermentation of certain bacteria. Fermen-
tation occurs in a bioreactor and is the process of microorganisms metabolically
breaking down organic substances in the absence of oxygen, anaerobic metabolism.
Important parameters controlled during the process are temperature, pH, and sugar
content from the feedstock material. Fermentation can also be carried out with
genetically engineered microorganisms (GEMs). GEMs can be designed to break
down specific substrate materials during fermentation, as well as surviving the harsh
conditions [6]. Cellulose produced by bacteria can be obtained as a continuous film
by cultivating the bacteria in a glucose solution [5]. Cellulose is also secreted by
marine chordates such as the sea squirt [5].

Cellulose from plant sources can be extracted by chemical solubilisation type

processes such as pulping, which results in a refined structure. The cellulose struc-
ture is disrupted and the cellulose remaining in solution is then precipitated. This
method is used to prepare regenerated cellulose. Regenerated cellulose is different
from native cellulose because extensive degradation takes place during the process
of dissolution and the final product is usually less crystalline [5].

Other products derived from cellulose include cellulose nitrate, cellulose ester, and
cellulose acetate. Work has been conducted on grafting cellulose as copolymer, as
well as the potential to cross-link cellulose. There is interest in cellulose chemistry
and polymerization due to the abundance of cellulose as a renewable resource.

13.3.2 Polymerization of Bio-monomers

Bioplastics produced from bio-monomers use well-established polymerization tech-
niques. In general, such bio-monomers are molecules from renewable resources
that can be polymerized [6]. Specific examples of bioplastics produced in this way
are given below.

Polyesters, polyamides, and polyurethanes can be manufactured from triglycerides,

or commonly known as fatty acids, in vegetable oils [17]. The vegetable oils are
collected from the oil-containing seeds such as flax, canola, and soybeans. These
products are then subsequently crushed to release their fatty acids. These vegetable
oils can be polymerized using techniques such as free radical, cationic, olefin
metathesis, and condensation polymerization [17]. The resulting polymer ranges
from ductile linear thermoplastics to rigid cross-linked thermosets as well as soft
to hard flexible rubbers [17]. However, purification of the monomers prior to poly-
merization is always challenging. There is controversy regarding utilization of food
such as vegetable oils for synthetic materials.

Polylactic acid (PLA) is a thermoplastic polyester synthesized from the bio-interme-

diate, lactic acid (2-hydroxypropionic acid), produced from microbial fermentation
of agricultural by products [6,14,18]. PLA can be polymerized by either or a com-
bination of condensation polymerization and ring opening polymerization (ROP),
shown in Fig. 13.5 [18]. Condensation polymerization reactions produce low-mol-
ecular-weight PLA versus ROP reactions which yield high-molecular-weight PLA
corresponding to increased mechanical properties as well as a higher glass transition
temperature (Tg) and temperature of degradation [18]. Also, molecular weight (Mw)
of PLA has an impact on susceptibility to microbial attack. Low-molecular-weight
PLA tends to be more susceptible than high-molecular-weight PLA [18].
Figure 13.5. Monomer and dimer conformations of lactic acid before polymerization
reaction.

Another factor that influences PLA’s properties is the degree of crystallinity. Depend-
ing on how PLA is synthesized, three stereochemical forms can exist: poly(L-lactide)
(PLLA), poly(D-lactide) (PDLA), and poly(DL-lactide) (PDLLA). PLLA and PDLA are
semicrystalline materials and are optically pure forms. A mixture of these stere-
ochemical configurations leads to the resulting material being more amorphous.
The crystallinity of the polymer has a noticeable impact on degradation rates for
both water and biodegradation [18]. Amorphous PLA degrades more easily than the
crystalline form [19,20]. Crystallinity is controlled by slow cooling or annealing it
above the glass transition temperature, Tg. PLA is the most abundant bioplastic on
the market, with trademark Ingeo (produced by NatureWorks LLC) having the largest
market share.

13.3.3 Production of Polymers by Microorganisms

Bioplastics in this category are polymers produced within the microorganism, bac-
teria. The bacteria produce the polymers when a carbon source is in excess and at
least one other nutrient essential for growth has been depleted [21]. The polymers
accumulate in the form of intercellular granules as a carbon reserve for energy
[22]. The bacteria use sugar from plant feed stocks to fuel this cellular process [6].
This growth and accumulation of polymers within the bacteria occur in a bioreactor
during the fermentation process [6]. The polymer from the microorganism is ex-
tracted by a sequence of isolating the bacteria by means of centrifugation followed
by press filtration and subsequent drying of the final bioplastic [21]. Bacteria used
for this purpose are sometimes genetically engineered to metabolize different feed
stocks as well as to increase conversion efficiency of feedstock into polymer.
Important variables in choosing bacteria strains include high density growth, high
polymer content, rapid growth rate as well as the ability to produce controllable
structures [21]. The most widely studied bioplastics produced from this process are
polyhydroxylalkanoates (PHAs).

PHAs are the most widely studied types of polyesters that are produced by bacteria
[22]. The most common type of PHA is poly(hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) and poly(hy-
droxyvalerate) (PHV). PHAs are classified in terms of short chain length (PHAscl)
possessing thermoplastic properties and medium chain length (PHAmcl) with elas-
tomeric properties [22]. PHAs have the potential to be a competitive bioplastic due
to the range of possible monomers that can be polymerized by the microorganisms.
The range of material substrates allows the possibility of tailoring the mechanical
properties for a particular application. Types of PHAs that are produced commer-
cially include poly-(R)-3-hydroxybutyrate (PHB), copolymer of (R)-3-hydroxybutyrate
(3HB) and (R)-hydroxyvalerate (3HV) termed PHBV, copolymer of (R)-3-hydroxybu-
tyrate (3HB) and (R)-hydroxyhexanoate (3HHx) termed PHBHHx [21].

> Read full chapter

FUNDAMENTALS OF FRACTURE IN
BIO-BASED POLYMERS
Richard P. Wool, in Bio-Based Polymers and Composites, 2005

The design of bio-based polymers is strongly influenced by the need to achieve

useful mechanical, thermal, electrical, rheological, and other physical properties,
such as environmental degradability or resistance to degradability. Properties such
as mechanical strength, stiffness, fatigue resistance, heat distortion temperatures,
chemical resistance, and processability are related to molecular architectures and
chemical composition. We know how to design the molecular architecture to ob-
tain certain classes of polymers. For example, thermoplastics such as PLA and
PHBV, which are processed by melt injection molding (cups, spoons), blow molding
(bottles), and extrusion (fibers, films), should be linear polymers with molecular
weights M* about 8 times their critical entanglement molecular weight Mc. But what
determines Mc and why should M* = 8Mc? How does the strength depend on Mc
and M* and are there penalties to pay for improper design, for example, M = 5Mc
instead of 8Mc?

> Read full chapter

Future Prospects of Algae-Based Mate-

rials
Saima Rehman, ... Rehana Iqbal, in Algae Based Polymers, Blends, and Composites,
2017

20.4 Conclusion
In replacing the conventional polymers, bio-based polymeric materials are closer
to the reality more than ever before. Algae-based biomaterials are promising candi-
dates for the replacement of conventional, nonrenewable, fossil fuel–based polymer-
ic materials. Owing to the advancements in biotechnology, algae-based polymers,
blends, and composites have found many applications in numerous fields of human
life, i.e., from food and medical to high-tech applications. However, in spite of these
innovative advancements, there are some hurdles to wider commercialization and
applications of these biomaterials. Among which most important challenges are
performance and cost compared to their conventional counterparts.

> Read full chapter

Coating removal techniques in the aero-

space industry
D.L. Monette, in Corrosion Control in the Aerospace Industry, 2009

10.12 Engineered bio-based media

The concept of engineering a bio-based polymer media for aerospace coating
removal applications was first realized in 1991. The first generation bio-based media
was made via a hydrothermal extrusion process with pure native wheat starch. Sev-
eral aerospace Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEM) found that this soft media
type, with an apparent Moh’s hardness of 2.0 and a specific gravity of 1.45 g cm−3,
had unique characteristics compared with other plastic media types available at the
time. Several studies showed that this media was the gentlest dry-stripping media
available. One of the first major users was a special USAF program, the B-2 Spirit
aircraft fleet. After evaluating all of the alternative coating removal methods, wheat
starch media was found to be unique in its ability to remove the thick elastomeric
coatings found on this aircraft without compromising the all-composite skin of the
B-2 aircraft. Wheat starch media has been used to maintain the B-2 fleet since
1994. During the 1990s, several OEMs evaluated and approved wheat starch for a
wide variety of delicate aerospace applications such as coating removal from various
different composites and metal structures and components. In the aerospace man-
ufacturing sector, several OEMs found that wheat starch could selectively remove
excess structural adhesive from bonded surfaces without removing the bond primer.
This application replaced mechanical and chemical processes that damaged the
corrosion protection scheme.

In 1996, during a new product research project, a blind comparative laboratory eval-
uation of a new corn hybrid starch polymer (CHP) media, along with other different
starch polymer candidates, was conducted. During the performance evaluation, it
was found that there were no significant differences between the candidate media
in terms of mechanical effects, productivity or consumption, and the standard wheat
starch product. However, it was discovered that this particular corn starch type was
more resistant to water than the standard wheat starch. Hydration capacity testing
by centrifuge confirmed that CHP had a higher water absorption resistance than
wheat starch.

When introduced in 1998, the majority of OEMs that had approved wheat starch
media found that there were no significant differences in mechanical effects
between the two media types. Tested for years in various industrial settings, CHP
was found to be more stable than the standard wheat starch in extremely high or
low relative humidity conditions. Compared with wheat starch, CHP was also found
to perform better when using less than ideal blast equipment.

CHP was also found to be very well suited for use as the backbone material to
manufacture Type VII plastic media. The typical operating pressure for the bio-based
media types is 1.0–3.0 bar. (15–45 psi).

Advantages
• Bio-based media is biodegradable and is made from a renewable resource.

• Bio-based media dry stripping is a mature and well proven process.

• Non-chemical process, relatively safe for the operators.

• Considered to be the most gentle of all impact processes.

• Cost, operator skill and engineering support low to moderate.

• Selective stripping is feasible under certain circumstances.

• Depending on media type and parameters they can be reused 8 to 15 times.

• Spent media disposal includes recycling options. Disadvantages

Disadvantages
• Dust produced can contain toxic heavy metals (from coating), proper protec-
tion is required.
• Ingress of media in structures is possible if incorrect masking procedures are
used.
• Compared with aggressive plastic media, bio-based media may be slightly
slower to remove certain tenacious coating systems.

> Read full chapter

Biopolymer processing and its compos-

ites
Deepak Verma, Elena Fortunati, in Biomass, Biopolymer-Based Materials, and
Bioenergy, 2019

1.2 Biodegradable/bio-based polymers as matrices for biocom-

posite applications
It has been generally observed that bio-based polymers may or may not show
biodegradable properties. This not only depends on the composition of the biopoly-
mers and their structure but also on the environment in which they are placed.
Renewable sources of polymeric materials give an answer to preserving the sustain-
able evolution of economically and ecologically pleasing technology. The manufac-
ture of materials from biopolymers, the protection of fossil-based raw materials,
biodegradability, depletion in the volume of waste, atmospheric carbon dioxide
reduction, enhancement in the utilization of agricultural resources for the develop-
ment of novel green materials are several issues of public concern. Biodegradable
polymers offer scientists a feasible answer to waste disposal linked with conventional
petroleum-obtained plastics. Biodegradable polymers may be defined [3] as those
which undergo microbial scission, resulting in photo-degradation, oxidation, and
hydrolysis and alter the polymer through the degradation process. On the other
hand, biodegradable polymers primarily decompose to carbon dioxide, methane,
and inorganic compounds by the enzymatic action of microorganisms within a
specified period of time. It has also been seen that biopolymers may be derived from
renewable resources and also can be obtained from petroleum-based chemicals.
However, the blending of two or more biopolymers results in the development of a
novel biopolymer, which can be designed or utilized for specific requirements.

Suitable applications for biopolymers have been found in the field of packaging in-
dustries with lower strength requirements. The major disadvantages of biopolymers
are their high cost and performance limitations, however they are still considered
as a substitute for conventional polymers which are not biodegradable. It has been
observed that several biopolymers are costly in comparison to conventional plastics
because of their low volume of production and not because of their raw material
costs. The stability of biopolymers during storage and their disposal after their
intended life are major challenges for the development of biodegradable polymers.
Therefore, biopolymers are frequently used for the development of the novel com-
posite materials which can easily replace synthetic fiber-reinforced composites in
different applications [17].

1.2.1 Degradable thermoplastic matrix: a brief study

1.2.1.1 Polylactic acid

PLA is considered to be a favorable biopolymer, because of its high strength and
biodegradability properties. However, some of its properties like brittleness and
moderate crystallization rate may restrict the utilization of PLA in various applica-
tions. Therefore, nanoparticles have been thoroughly utilized to enhance some of
these properties without affecting certain intrinsic properties of PLA [18].

1.2.1.2 Polyhydroxyalkanoates

PHAs belong to a family of polyhydroxy esters of 3-, 4-, 5-, and 6 hydroxyalkanoic
acids, and are developed from numerous bacterial species by the following nutri-
ent-limiting conditions with high carbon [19]. Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) polymers
are considered to be a fascinating option compared with synthetic polymers because
of their various advantages, such as biodegradability, biocompatibility, and their
ability to be developed by bacterial fermentation from renewable resources. How-
ever, PHBs are developed on an industrial level; and may not be considered to be
competitive compared with traditional thermoplastics, due to their high crystallinity
and brittleness. Additionally, PHBs show poor thermal stability at temperatures close
to their melting point (Fig. 1.1).

Figure 1.1. PHB random chain scission.

Source: Reproduced with kind permission from Villmow T, Pötschke P, Pegel S,

Häussler L, Kretzschmar B. Influence of twin- screw extrusion conditions on the
dispersion of multi- walled carbon nanotubes in a poly (lactic acid) matrix. Polymer
2008;49:3500–9 [20].

1.2.1.3 Starch

Starch is a biopolymer which is available in huge amounts in nature, is cost-effective,

and used as a packaging material. Starch generally has a linear -d-glucan amylose
and densely branched amylopectin. Generally, starches are well ordered into semi-
crystalline granules. However, a major disadvantage of starch is that it has deficient
mechanical properties, and so, nanoparticles are used as reinforcement to enhance
some of the starch properties as desired for a particular material [18].
1.2.1.4 Cellulose-based biopolymer

Cellulose is a biopolymer, which is abundantly available in nature. Cellulose, gener-

ally considered to be a linear polymer, with (1→4)-linked d-glucose is incorporated
into plants and bacteria. In this, the glucose monomer units found in cellulose make
inter- and intramolecular hydrogen bonds, resulting in the development of cellulose
microfibrils. Various cellulose nanocomposites reinforced with nanoparticles, like
clay, carbon nano tubes (CNTs) (through melt compounding [21] and solvent casting
[22,23]); graphene (through solution casting [24,25]); layered double hydroxides
(LDH) (through solution casting [26]); and silica (through solution casting [27]) have
been developed by various researchers.

1.2.1.5 Chitin

Chitin is the most abundant biopolymer in nature after cellulose. Chitin is generally
found as ordered crystalline microfibrils in the structural component of crustaceans
and insects, and is also found in the cells of fungi and microorganisms. Chitin is
generally considered to be an acetylated polysaccharide made by N-acetyl-d-glu-
cosamine groups, which are linked by a (1 → 4) linkage. On the other side, chitosan
(poly- (1, 4)-2-amino-2-deoxy-d-glucose) can be obtained by the deacetylation
process of chitin. Free amine groups and hydroxyl groups are the chemically active
groups in chitin [18].

1.2.1.6 Protein

A protein, generally considered to be highly complex polymers, consists of 20

different amino acids. In this, the substituted amide bonds can be used to link the
available constituents. Protein molecules may act as both acids and bases, and can
firmly sit at the interfaces of oil/water or air/water. As compared to starch, proteins
generally have greater gas barrier properties but less water vapor permeability. This
can be enhanced by reinforcing the nanoparticles, such as by using clay in the protein
matrix. There are numerous proteins available, some of which are the most investi-
gated protein nanocomposites, such as milk protein-based, soybean protein-based,
gelatin-based, corn zein-based and wheat gluten-based nanocomposites [28].

> Read full chapter

Lignin-Reinforced Rubber Composites

Adel R. Kakroodi, Mohini Sain, in Lignin in Polymer Composites, 2016
 Abstract
Lignin is one of the most abundant bio-based polymers which is discarded as
waste in the pulp and paper industry in very large amounts. Production of rub-
ber/lignin compounds is discussed in this chapter as a promising approach for the
development of value-added products from lignin. Challenges facing the successful
production of such compounds have also been explained along with common
modification techniques from the literature. Effects of addition of lignin on the
network structure, mechanical properties, and physical characteristics of rubbers
such as their oil resistance and surface adhesion are included in this chapter. Lignin
is also introduced as an interesting stabilizer for polymers, especially elastomers.

> Read full chapter

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