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Large Scale Experiments Coastal Engineering
Large Scale Experiments Coastal Engineering
Large Scale Experiments Coastal Engineering
Abstract
Formerly HR Wallingford, Howbery Park Wallingford, Oxon, United Kingdom
* Corresponding author:
Email: achadwick@plymouth.ac.uk
Fax: + 44 1752 23 26 38
2
1 Rationale
The majority of existing research into coastal morphodynamics in the last
twenty years has been concerned with sandy beaches. Little research has been
devoted to gravel beaches and even less to mixed beaches, which results in
this research field being in a stage of early development, or for some issues no
development. Management issues such as storm response or the long-term
stability of gravel and mixed beaches demand new observations and new
methodologies to predict morphological behaviour. Mixed beaches containing
sediment sizes ranging over several orders of magnitude (sand to gravel) are
increasingly seen as being important to coastal engineers and managers
around the world. These practitioners have expressed their concerns about
the difficulties in dealing with such beaches with available predictive tools.
Such beaches are often barrier beaches protecting important backshore
infrastructure or agricultural areas.
3
For longshore sediment transport both process models (Damgaard et al., 1996)
and empirical models, such as the CERC formula, Brampton and Motyka
(1984) or Damgaard and Soulsby (1996), provide reasonable results. Van
Wellen et al. (2000) provides a comprehensive review of the different
longshore transport formulae available and their applicability to coarse-
grained sediments, as well as an inter-comparison of the different formulae.
They found that the most accurate predictions were from formulae previously
validated at sites similar to that used for the subsequent comparison, and
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therefore required further testing against field data from dissimilar sites
before their accuracy could be assessed properly.
College, (e.g. Blewett et al., 2001) and the EU Coast 3D project (Soulsby, 2001)
have provided a range of useful data. In common with all field research, the
results of these programmes are limited by the specific site characteristics and
the uncontrolled sea conditions. Holmes et al. (1996) presented small scale
tests of the profile evolution of fine, coarse and mixed sand beaches, including
beaches with different mix ratios. They also examined the post response
distribution of sediment and found that the finer sediment tended to be
deposited or exposed in the most energetic regions, e.g. at the crest of the bar
and in swash zone. However, there are scaling uncertainties associated with
small scale mobile bed models. These can be avoided in large-scale (1:1) flume
tests while at the same time retaining the advantages of controlled wave and
water level conditions.
The project team was composed of members of the Steering Group (SG) and
Research Team (RT). The project was led by HR Wallingford (Tom Coates,
project manager; Belén Blanco, senior researcher and Jesper Damgaard, SG)
and included members of Imperial College, UK, (Prof. Pat Holmes, SG and Dr.
Tom Baldock, SG), University of Plymouth, UK, (Prof. Andrew Chadwick, SG,
John Lawrence, RT and Adrián Pedrozo Acuña, RT), University of
Southampton, UK, (Prof. Andrew Bradbury, SG and Maurice Mc Cabe, RT),
New Forest District Council, UK, (Prof. Andrew Bradbury, RT), University of
Caen, France, (Prof. Frank Levoy, SG) and University of Firenze, Italy, (Prof.
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Enzo Pranzini, SG). During the experiments in the GWK the Research Team
was assisted by the FZK staff.
The test program was designed to provide the following data sets:
• beach profile change for different sediment types under a range of
wave conditions
• hydraulic gradients within the beach face, both above and below the
still water line
• cross shore and vertical velocity distributions within breaking waves
and the swash zone
• cross shore and vertical changes in sediment distributions following
wave exposure.
More detailed information about the experiments and the data can be found
in López de San Román-Blanco (2002).
The data derived from the test programme will be useful to the many
European researchers interested in beach response modelling. The future
developments resulting from this work have the potential to raise coarse-
grained and mixed beach transport modelling to a new level of confidence,
with benefits to coastal engineers and coastal zone managers throughout the
world.
2.1 Introduction
The experiments were carried out at the GWK (Grosser Wellenkanal – Large
Wave Channel), which is described in Section 2.2 (see Plate 1).
The experiments ran for nearly 3 months during Spring 2002 and consisted of
2 phases:
• Beach I - gravel only; consisting of construction of Beach I,
instrumentation set up and calibration and Beach I testing
• Beach II – mixed; consisting of demobilisation of Beach I, construction
of Beach II, instrumentation set up and calibration and Beach II testing
Identical random and regular wave tests were undertaken for the Gravel
Beach and the Mixed Beach. Measurements included: profile development,
water surface elevation along the flume, internal pressures in the swash zone,
internal set-up, run-up, velocities in the surf-zone and sediment distributions.
This experimental exercise was complemented with a series of full-scale beach
deployments at sand, gravel and mixed sediment beaches at three locations in
the UK (see Holmes et al., 2002).
The GWK is a 309m long, 7m deep and 5m wide flume in the FZK (Coastal
Research Centre), which is a joint central institution of the University of
Hanover and the Technical University Braunschweig and situated in Hanover,
Germany. The flume has a permanent 1:6 asphalt permanent slope (see Figure
1), over which the sediment was placed. The facility is equipped with a
mobile instrument carriage (shown in Plate 1), overhead lifting gantry and a
2m wave capability wave paddle plus a range of instrumentation. Further
details can be found in Dette et al. (1998).
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For both beaches (Beach I- Gravel only and Beach II-Mixed) an initial profile
of 1:8 was placed over the asphalt permanent slope of 1:6, the minimum depth
of the beach being 2m (see Figure 1). At the toe of the beach three sloped
concrete structures were placed to minimise loses of sediment (especially
sand) towards the wavemaker.
Although the two beaches were initially constructed at a 1:8 slope over the
asphalt permanent slope, they were not reshaped during the experimental
procedure, so that the initial condition for each test was the final profile from
the previous test. Although it is acknowledged that this procedure can
introduce some uncertainty due to an extra variable, the initial condition for
each test, it is commonly assumed to be acceptable. Reshaping the beach in
such a large facility would have been very time consuming and therefore not
practical, and there are also uncertainties as to an appropriate initial condition
in any event.
mixed with the sand outside the flume. When placing the mixture back in the
flume it was then further mixed with the bucket of the machine in order to
achieve a uniform mixture before being shaped.
Pre and post test sediment sampling was carried out to verify the mix ratio
(see section 2.6). For the initial mixed beach, the porosity was lower than for
the gravel beach, at around 0.2. However, as the beach sediment was
redistributed under wave attack, the porosity also changed, adopting values
between 0.4 and 0.2, depending on the amount of sand present in the sample.
Figure 2 shows the initial sediment size distribution for both beaches.
Construction issues
For the construction of the beaches a number of factors had to be considered.
Whilst it was important to construct the beach in the most realistic manner,
the logistical difficulties of transporting large quantities of gravel material had
to be accounted for. The compaction of material by the machinery carrying
the sediment raised issues such as the uniformity of beach construction across
the length and breadth of the flume. These and other issues are discussed in
more detail in this section:
Also, due to the instrumentation on the right side of the flume, the machinery
drove over the centre and left side. This resulted in a different compaction of
the sediment across the flume. It is considered likely that this compaction was
the cause of some of the irregularities across the flume seen during the
experiments, especially in Beach II.
2.4 Instrumentation
• Run-up: Maximum run-up elevation was recorded with a video for all
the tests. A grid had been painted in the wall of the flume in order to facilitate
the readings. The grid can be seen in Plate 1.
Calibration
In order to calibrate the wave gauges and pressure transducers, the water
level at the flume was varied in stages. For each water level, voltage readings
were taken for a total of 180s at 30Hz frequency for the pts and wgs. At the
same time, the water level oscillations were monitored. At the end of each test
the mean water level and the mean voltage reading over the 180s were
calculated. A total of 13 different water levels were recorded, at the end of
which regression line between average voltage readings and average water
levels was drawn. The calibration parameter for each probe is taken from this
regression line.
The majority of tests comprised a total of 3000 waves. These waves however,
were not run as a continuous time series but as a series of batches. The length
of the batches varied in response to the rate of morphodynamic changes (see
section 2.5).
Wave generation
An important aspect of the experiments was the wave generation, as
disturbances and primary reflections should be excluded in order to have
accurate generated waves. The paddle (pusher type motion) of the wave
generator at GWK is equipped with an online absorption control system,
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which enables the compensation of all kinds of reflections directly at the wave
paddle (Schmidt-Koppenhagen et.al. 1997). The JONSWAP spectral shape
was chosen as the reference spectrum for all the irregular test series.
Usually, long duration random wave simulations were used to ensure that a
wide spectrum of wave heights and periods were generated for a given test
duration. However, for extreme wave conditions, the largest waves for a
specified Hs would have exceeded the wavemaker capability. Consequently,
for certain tests, the generated waves consisted of the repetition of the shorter
time series with equivalent Hs but smaller maximum wave height. Note that
the total generation time included a small period for ramping the wavemaker
signal up and down at the beginning and the end of each test. This period was
set to four times the peak period.
2.6 Morphology
Profile measurements
Profile measurements were carried out with the GWK mobile carriage. The
profiler consists of a 7.5m long beam equipped with three parallel mounted
plastic rollers. The angular position of the beam is recorded and converted
into position and elevation information. (Details of its mechanical system can
be found in Berend et al., 1997). Plate 1 shows the profiler beam (not in
operation) while the experiments were running.
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This device allows a quick (around 10m/minute) profiling after a single test,
without having to drain the flume or have disturbances due to changing
water level. These profiles were always taken down the centre of the flume.
The profiler measurement error in the vertical is estimated to be r 50mm
(approximate 95% confidence interval). Noting that the mean size of the
gravel was 21mm, such accuracy was deemed sufficient.
G
Sediment sampling
Surface sediment samples were collected at early stages of the profile
development (normally, after 500 waves) and at the end of each test. Samples
were taken with a shovel at three different positions; at the beach step, at the
SWL and at the crest of the berm formed by each wave condition. The location
of the beach step was deduced from the profile taken, visual examinations of
the breaking zone and the interpretation of the person performing the
sampling.
For beach II (mixed sediment), samples at different depths were also collected
for the SWL and crest positions at the end of each wave test. These samples
were taken from the base of the hole left by the removal of sediment with the
large grab suspended from the mobile gantry. The base of the hole was
levelled to determine the sample depth. Although disturbance of the
sediment in the area is high, it is believed to be reasonable, due to the fact that
in-depth samples are taken at least every 3000 waves.
Samples weighed an average of 7kg; they were dried for 24 hours in an oven
and then sieved. Sieves covered the gravel mode: 31.5mm, 24mm, 16mm,
8mm and 2mm. The sand was treated as only one fraction and not sieved.
Although it is understood that the sand may have also sorted out during the
experiments, the effort of sieving it into different fractions was not considered
necessary for the purposes of our experiments.
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Post-experiment sampling
At the end of the tests for Beach II (mixed), additional sampling was carried
out to record the sub-surface sediment distribution across the beach. Firstly,
the surface layer of gravel was scraped with a mini-digger from the top of the
beach for approximately 20m of the profile length. As can be seen from Plate 5,
the interface between the superficial layer of gravel and the mixed sediment
was notably sharp and easily identified, also a feature of natural beaches. The
interface was then profiled to obtain the depth of the mixed layer.
Subsequently, a trench of approximately 300mm depth was dug to investigate
the variation in sediment distribution along the flume. Finally, two sampling
pits were dug at two different chainages and three samples were taken at
different depths.
3 Test Programme
A matrix of tests was developed that enabled a full range of parameters to be
compared. The first entrance of the matrix, target wave steepness (H/L),
adopted three different values: 0.05 (series 1), 0.03 (series 2) and 0.015 (series
3). The second entrance, target significant wave height (Hs), took values of
0.6m, 1.0m or 1.2m. However, there were uncertainties regarding the total
number of tests that could be completed in the allocated flume time.
Core Programme
To ensure that a good range of parameters was covered, a core programme
was developed. The core programme consisted of 5 different random wave
tests and 2 regular waves tests (shown in Table 3). Wave Test 1 was also
repeated in order to investigate the effects of the initial plane shape on overall
profile development. All these tests had a constant water level of 4.7m. This
core programme was completed for Beach I and II.
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3.1 Sequencing
Each wave test was run in batches in order to enable measurement of the
morphodynamic response over time. At the beginning of the wave test,
batches of small numbers of waves were run, as important changes in the
profile occur at the beginning. The number of waves in the batches increased
as the profile developed towards equilibrium and changes reduce in
magnitude. A usual sequence for a wave test was: 50, 450, 500, 1000, 1000
waves; total number of waves in this case being of 3000. For beach II (mixed)
the total number of waves was usually bigger as the profile took longer to
develop. In Table 4 the batches used in each wave test have been indicated.
Note that the table is in chronological order so that the sequencing of the
different wave tests can also be extracted from it. Also, Table 4 contains
information on the time intervals at which profile measurement and sediment
sampling were carried out.
• Other data. This comprises all the other data that was not collected with
PRESTON and therefore not synchronised. It includes the hydrophone,
profile, video and sampling data.
x Profile data: The measured profile is given in a series of
spreadsheets. The data are stored as a couple of columns, the
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5 Results
Representative results of the experiments are presented in this section in
order to provide the scientific and engineering community with an example.
Beach I – Gravel Beach wave test 4 (with the characteristics shown in Table 4)
has been selected as “representative” and time series of the measurements
during this test are given in this section. For representation purposes,
sequence 4a (the shortest in terms of number of waves) has been selected for
most of the cases.
Figure 3 shows the profile evolution for Test 4 (Beach I – Gravel) after each
batch of waves, so that the morphological development of the beach can be
appreciated. Also, a small plot containing the initial and final profile has been
included (upper-left corner) in order to provide the total balance of material
moved for that test.
Figure 4 shows the water surface elevation time series as recorded by one of
the wave gauges (wg 5) during the duration of Test 4a (Beach I – Gravel). In
this figure the ramping up and down of the waves, as well as their random
characteristic is easily seen.
Figure 5 shows a time series of the currents as measured by the ADVs for Test
4b (Beach I – Gravel).
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Figure 6 shows the subsurface pressure time series for Test 4a (Beach I –
Gravel). For representation purposes, only the pressures measured by the first
array of pressure transducers is shown. These pressures are represented in
terms of absolute head of water. These absolute heads measured at the same
horizontal position but different vertical positions are separated by 0.1m,
which accounts for the hydrostatic pressure change among them.
Figure 7 shows the internal set-up time series for Test 4a (Beach I – Gravel) as
measured by the buried pressure transducers. In this case the 4th buried
pressure transducer did not record any signal. The internal set-up is
represented as head of water measured.
6 Analyses
In this section, a summary of the analysis and research already undertaken
with the experimental data is presented with reference to publications
containing detailed explanations. Also, a summary of ongoing investigations
is also given. Currently, amongst the work that is being carried out by
different partners in the project, we can mention the following:
In addition, analysis of wave reflection from the GWK gravel and mixed
beaches, Pedrozo-Acuña et al. (in prep) showed a marked difference in the
reflectivity of the two beach types. This is discernible when Kr is correlated
with a surf-similarity number based on the swash beach slope. Support for
this comes form field observations by Mason (1997) and this study
complements previous studies of sand beaches and of structures.
and to extend the method into the surf zone. Collisions between moving
sediment particles generate acoustic energy, referred to as Self Generated
Noise (SGN) which is transmitted into the water and can be measured by a
hydrophone. A Bruel & Kjaer Type 8105 passive hydrophone was co-located
with the ADV's on the mobile gantry, at a height of 0.4m from the bed. The
hydrophone is omni-directional with a dynamic range of 50 to 20,000 Hz.
Data from the hydrophone were digitized at 48 kHz and stored
simultaneously with video recordings on a digital video recorder. In this way,
the SGN record is tied instantaneously to the video recording of waves
passing over the hydrophone. The mobile gantry was moved to different
locations whilst the wave conditions were constant and, accordingly, acoustic
measurements could be made at different distances from the beach, both
inside and outside the surf zone. From the SGN record, it was possible to
identify discrete transport phases, swash and backwash, even within a wave
group. Further results from the hydrophone experiments are given in Mason
et al. (2004).
7 Conclusions
This major large scale experimental study of gravel and mixed beaches was
successfully completed in 2002 in the GWK (large wave channel of FZK in
Hanover) by an international team. A unique data set of measurements
including profile development, water surface elevation along the flume,
internal pressures in the swash zone, piezometric head levels within the
beach, run-up, flow velocities in the surf-zone and sediment size distributions
for identical wave forcing conditions for a gravel and mixed, sand and gravel,
beach are available to other research groups.
8 Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge the assistance and support provided
by staff of the FZK (GWK flume) in Hanover. In particular thanks are due to
Dr Uwe Sparboom, Reinold Schmidt-Koppenhagen, Wolfgang Malewski,
Dieter Junge, Kai Jürgensen, Günter Bergmann and Kai Irschik. Thanks are
also due to the rest of the Research Team and Steering Group.
The large scale tests in the Large Wave Channel (GWK) of the Coastal
Research Centre (FZK) were supported by the European Community under
the Access to Research Infrastructures action of the Human Potential
Programme (contract HPRI-CT-1999-00101). The work was also supported by
the Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA - formerly
MAFF) under Commission FD1901.
9 References
Ang, L.S. C.H-Y. Sum, T.E. Baldock, L. Li, and P. Nielsen, (2004).
Measurement and modelling of controlled beach groundwater levels under
24
Dette H-H, Peters K and J Newe (1998) Large wave flume experiments’96/97-
Experiments on beach and dune stability. Technical University of
Braunschweig report N0 830.
Holmes, P., Baldock, T.E., Chan, R.T.C. and Neshaei, M.A.L., 1996. Beach
evolution under random waves. Proc.25th ICCE, Orlando, Florida, 3006-3018.
Pedrozo-Acuña, A., Simmonds, D.J., Otta, A.K., Chadwick, A.J., (in review),
“On the cross-shore profile change of gravel beaches” Coastal Engineering.
Pedrozo-Acuña, A., Simmonds, D.J., Otta, A.K. and Chadwick, A.J., 2005, in
press. A numerical study of coarse-grained beach dynamics, 5th International
Conference on Coastal Dynamics 2005, Barcelona, Spain.
27
Powell K A (1990) Predicting short term profile response for shingle beaches.
HR Wallingford SR report 219.
Van der Meer J (1988) Rock slopes and gravel beaches under wave attack.
Delft Hydraulics Publications n 396.
Tables
Table 1. Wave gauge positions along the flume and vertical range.
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SWL=4.7m
Random Tests Regular Tests
Series 1 Series 2 Series 3 Series 1 Series 3
Hs H/L=0.05 H/L=0.03 H
H/L=0.015 H/L=0.05 H/L=0.015
Test 1& 1r Test 6 Test 8
0.6m
Tp=3.22s Tp=4.14s Tp=5.75s
Test 2 Test 4 Test 5 Test Reg1 Test Reg2
1.0m 1.0m
Tp=4.14s Tp=5.29s Tp=7.47s Tm=3.6s Tm=6.5s
Test 3 Test 7
1.2m
Tp=4.48s Tp=5.86s
Table 3. Core test programme for Beach I (gravel only) and Beach II
(mixed). Additional tests for Beach I (gravel only) shown in Italics.
31
for: J or R: J for JONSWAP spectrum, R for regular waves; 47 for water level, in this case d=4.7m; 32 for
peak period, in this case Tp=3.2s; 06 for wave height, in this case Hs=0.6m
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Figure 5. Currents time series for Test 4b Beach I – Gravel. Top panel ADV 1,
medium panel ADV 2, Bottom panel ADV 3
Figure 8. The whole picture for Test 4 Beach I – Gravel. Filled diamonds
represent the position of the pressure transducers.
Plate captions
Plate 1. Example of waves in Beach II (mixed).
Plate 5. Trench.
100
90
Percentage passing (%)
80
70
60
50
40 D50 D16 D84
30 (mm) (mm) (mm)
20 Gravel Beach
Gravel
10 Mixed Beach 21 17 26
0
Beach
Mixed
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 17 1 23
Sedim ent size (m m ) Beach
1
Velocity (m/s)
-1
1
Velocity (m/s)
-1
1
Velocity (m/s)
-1
Plates