INDUSTRIAL TRAINING UPPCL

1. INTRODUCTION
State Load Despatch Centre, UPSLDC is a part of Uttar Pradesh Power Transmission
Corporation Limited (UPPTCL). SLDC is the nerve centre for Uttar Pradesh Power System
functional since 2011. Formerly, it was Power System unit of erstwhile UPSEB. Our principal
activities include real time operation of Uttar Pradesh Grid. Presently managing 15000 MW
of power in most economical way by merit order scheduling & despatch. SLDC has to remain
in contact with all key stakeholders like UPPCL, UPPTCL DISCOMs (MVVNL, PVVNL,
PUVVNL, DVVNL, KESKO & NPCL), UPRVUNL, AEC, SEC, IPPs, CPPs, Non-
Conventional Generating Units. Four Area Load Despatch Centres (ALDC) are set up at
Sarnath (Varanasi), Panki (Kanpur), Moradabad & Modipuram (Meerut) under the Unified
Load Despatch Centre scheme in coordination with NRLDC. Supervisory Control and Data
Acquisition system referred as SCADA is available at SLDC to get on line data of power
system. System analog data such as MW, MVAR, KV and Hz and digital data such as
breaker, isolator ON or OFF status is available for all power stations, all 400KV sub-stations
and strategic 220KV & 132KV sub-stations

The creation of Uttar Pradesh Power Corporation Ltd. (UPPCL) on January 14, 2000 is
the result of power sector reforms and restructuring in UP (India) which is the focal point of
the Ppower Sector, responsible for planning and managing the sector through its
transmission, distribution and supply of electricity.

The present day electrical power system is ac i.e. electric power is generated, transmitted and
distributed in the form of Alternating current. The electric power is produce at the power station,
which are located at favorable places, generally quite away from the consumers. It is delivered to
the consumer through a large network of transmission and distribution. At many place in the line
of power system, it may be desirable and necessary to change some characteristic (e.g. Voltage,
ac to dc, frequency power factor etc.) of electric supply. This is accomplished by suitable
apparatus called sub-station for example, generation voltage (11KV or 6.6KV) at the power
station is stepped up to high voltage (Say 220KV to 132KV) for transmission of electric power.
Similarly near the consumer’s localities, the voltage may have to be stepped down to utilization
level. This job is again accomplished by suitable apparatus called sub-station.

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2.ROLE OF SLDC

In accordance with section 32 of Electricity Act, 2003 roles and functions of SLDCs are as
under:

The SLDCs shall be the Apex Body to ensure integrated operation of the power system in a
State.SLDCs shall :

i. be responsible for optimum scheduling and despatch of electricity within a State in

accordance with the contracts entered into with the licensees or the generating Companies
operating in that State.
ii. monitor grid operation.
iii. keep accounts of the quantity of electricity transmitted through State grid.
iv. exercise supervision and control over the inter-State transmission system.
v. be responsible for carrying out real time operation for grid control and despatch of
electricity within the State through secure and economic operation of the State Grid in
accordance with the Grid standards and State Grid Code.

SLDCs in the Southern Region are performing the following functions-

i. Overall supervision, monitoring and control of the integrated power system in the State
on real time basis for ensuring stability, security and economy operation of the power
system in the State.
ii. Optimum scheduling and dispatch of electricity within the State. For
this SLDCs estimate the demand of the State / DISCOMS, as may be the case,
availability of power in the State/DISCOMS from State generators and other sources
like Central Generating stations, bilateral contracts etc, conveys the final requisition
to RLDCs on the State’s entitlement from the Central Generating Stations and bilateral
transactions under open access, if any, and issues final dispatch schedule to the State
Generators and drawal schedule to the DISCOMS.

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3. STATE TRANSMISSION UNIT

Section 39 of the Electricity Act, 2003, outlines that the functions of the State Transmission
Utility (STU) shall be –

a) any other person To undertake transmission of electricity through intra-State transmission

system;
b) To discharge all functions of planning and co-ordination relating to intra- state
transmission system with-
i. Central Transmission Utility
ii. State Governments
iii. generating companies
iv. Regional Power Committees
v. Authority
vi. licensees
vii. notified by the State in this behalf
c) To ensure development of an efficient, coordinated and economical system of intra- State
transmission lines for smooth flow of electricity from a generating station to the load
centers;
To provide non-discriminatory open access to its transmission system for use by-

d) Any licensee or generating company on payment of the transmission charges.

e) Any consumer as and when such open access is provided by the state commission under
sub-section (2) of section 42 of the act, on payment of the transmission charges and a
surcharge thereon, as may be specified by the state commission.

Until a Government company or any authority or corporation is notified by the State

Government, the State Transmission Utility shall operate the State Load Dispatch Centre

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4. REMOTE TERMINAL UNIT

An RTU, or Remote Terminal Unit is a microprocessor controlled electronic device which
interfaces objectsin the physicalworld to a distributed control system or SCADA system by
transmitting telemetry data to the system and/or altering the state of connected objects based
on control messages received from the system.

4.1 ARCHITECTURE AND COMMUNICATIONS

An RTU monitors the field digital and analog parameters and transmits all the data to the
Central Monitoring Station. An RTU can be interfaced with the Central Station with different
communication media (usually serial (RS232, RS485, RS422) or Ethernet). RTU can support
standard protocols (Modbus, IEC 60870-5-101/103/104, DNP3, ICCP, etc.) to interface any
third party software. In some control application RTU drives high current capacity relays to a
digital output (or "DO") board to switch power on and off to devices in the field. The DO board
switches voltage to the coil in the relay, which closes the high current contacts, which
completes the power circuit to the device. An RTU can monitor analog inputs of different types
including 4 to 20 milliamperes (4- 20 mA), 0 to 10 V., -2.5V to 2.5V, 1 to 5V etc.; the RTU or
host system then translates this raw data into the appropriate units such as gallons of water left
or temperature before presenting the data to the user via the HMI or MMI.

RTUs differ from Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) in that RTUs are more suitable for
wide geographical telemetry, often using wireless communications, while PLCs are more
suitable for local area control (plants, production lines, etc.) where the system utilizes physical
media for control

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4.2 SOFTWARE AND LOGIC CONTROL

Modern RTUs are usually capable of executing simple programs autonomously without
involving the host computers of the DCS or SCADA system to simplify deployment, and to
provide redundancy for safety reasons. An RTU in a modern water management system will
typically have code to modify its behavior when physical override switches on the RTU are
toggled during maintenance by maintenance personnel. This is done for safety reasons; a
miscommunication between the system operators and the maintenance personnel could cause
system operators to mistakenly enable power to a water pump when it is being replaced

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5.SCADA
SCADA stands for supervisory control and data acquisition. It generally refers to an
industrial control system: a computer system monitoring and controlling a process. The
process can be industrial, infrastructure or facility-based as described below:
1. Industrial processes include those of manufacturing, production, power
generation, fabrication, and refining, and may run in continuous, batch, repetitive, or
discrete modes.
2. Infrastructure processes may be public or private, and include water treatment and
distribution, wastewater collection and treatment, oil and gas pipelines, electrical power
transmission and distribution, Wind Farms, civil defense siren systems, and large
communication systems.
3. Facility processes occur both in public facilities and private ones, including buildings,
airports, ships, and space stations. They monitor and control HVAC, access, and energy
consumption.

5.1 COMMON SYSTEM COMPONENTS

A SCADA System usually consists of the following subsystems:
4. A Human-Machine Interface or HMI is the apparatus which presents process data to a
human operator, and through this, the human operator monitors and controls the process.
5. A supervisory (computer) system, gathering (acquiring) data on the process and sending
commands (control) to the process.
6. Remote Terminal Units (RTUs) connecting to sensors in the process, converting sensor
signals to digital data and sending digital data to the supervisory system.
7. Programmable Logic Controller (PLCs) used as field devices because they are more
economical, versatile, flexible, and configurable than special- purpose RTUs.
8. Communication infrastructure connecting the supervisory system to the Remote
Terminal Units.

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5.2 SUPERVISION v/s CONTROL

There is, in several industries, considerable confusion over the differences between SCADA
systems and distributed control systems (DCS). Generally speaking, a SCADA system usually
refers to a system that coordinates, but does not control processes in real time. The
discussion on real-time control is muddied somewhat by newer telecommunications
technology, enabling reliable, low latency, high speed communications over wide areas. Most
differences between SCADA and DCS are culturally determined and can usually be ignored.
As communication infrastructures with higher capacity become available, the difference
between SCADA and DCS will fade.

5.3 SYSTEMS CONCEPTS

The term SCADA usually refers to centralized systems which monitor and control entire
sites, or complexes of systems spread out over large areas (anything between an industrial
plant and a country). Most control actions are performed automatically by Remote Terminal
Units ("RTUs") or by programmable logic controllers ("PLCs"). Host control functions are
usually restricted to basic overriding or supervisory level intervention. Acquisition begins at
the RTU or PLC level and includes meter readings and equipment status reports that are
communication to SCADA as required. Data is then compiled and formatted in such a way
that a control room operator using the HMI can make supervisory decisions to adjust or
override normal RTU (PLC) controls. Data may also be fed to a Historian, often built on a
commodity Database Management System, to allow trending and other analytical auditing.

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SCADA systems typically implement a distributed database, commonly referred to as a tag

database, which contains data elements called tags or points. A point represents a single input
or output value monitored or controlled by the system. Points can be either "hard" or "soft". A
hard point represents an actual input or output within the system, while a soft point results
from logic and math operations applied to other points. (Most implementations conceptually
remove the distinction by making every property a "soft" point expression, which may, in the
simplest case, equal a single hard point.) Points are normally stored as value-timestamp pairs:
a value, and the timestamp when it was recorded or calculated. A series of value-timestamp
pairs gives the history of that point. It's also common to store additional metadata with tags,
such as the path to a field device or PLC register, design time comments, and alarm
information.

5.4 HARDWARE SOLUTIONS

SCADA solutions often have Distributed Control System (DCS) components. Use of "smart"
RTUs or PLCs, which are capable of autonomously executing simple logic processes without
involving the master computer, is increasing. A functional block programming language, IEC
61131-3 (Ladder Logic), is frequently used to create programs which run on these RTUs and
PLCs. Unlike a procedural language such as the C programming language or FORTRAN,
IEC 61131-3 has minimal training requirements by virtue of resembling historic physical
control arrays. This allows SCADA system engineers to perform both the design and
implementation of a program to be executed on an RTU or PLC. A Programmable
automation controller(PAC) is a compact controller that combines the features and capabilities
of a PC-based

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control system with that of a typical PLC. PACs are deployed in SCADA systems to provide
RTU and PLC functions. In many electrical substation SCADA applications, "distributed
RTUs" use information processors or station computers to communicate with protective
relays, PACS, and other devices for I/O, and communicate with the SCADA master in lieu of
a traditional RTU.
Since about 1998, virtually all major PLC manufacturers have offered integrated
HMI/SCADA systems, many of them using open and non-proprietary communications
protocols. Numerous specialized third-party HMI/SCADA packages, offering built-in
compatibility with most major PLCs, have also entered the market, allowing mechanical
engineers, electrical engineers and technicians to configure HMIs themselves, without the
need for a custom-made program written by a software developer.

5.5 REMOTE TERMINAL UNIT (RTU)

The RTU connects to physical equipment. Typically, an RTU converts the electrical signals
from the equipment to digital values such as the open/closed status from a switch or a valve,
or measurements such as pressure, flow, voltage or current. By converting and sending these
electrical signals out to equipment the RTU can control equipment, such as opening or closing
a switch or a valve, or setting the speed of a pump.

5.6 SUPERVISORY STATION

The term "Supervisory Station" refers to the servers and software responsible for
communicating with the field equipment (RTUs, PLCs, etc), and then to the HMI software
running on workstations in the control room, or elsewhere. In smaller SCADA systems, the
master station may be composed of a single PC. In larger SCADA systems, the master station
may include multiple servers, distributed software applications, and disaster recovery sites. To
increase the integrity of the system the multiple servers will often be configured in a dual-
redundant or hot-standby formation providing continuous control and monitoring in the event
of a server failure.

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5.7 COMMUNICATION INFRASTRUCTURE AND METHODS

SCADA systems have traditionally used combinations of radio and direct serial or modem
connections to meet communication requirements, although Ethernet and IP over SONET /
SDH is also frequently used at large sites such as railways and power stations. The remote
management or monitoring function of a SCADA system is often referred to as telemetry.
This has also come under threat with some customers wanting SCADA data to travel over
their pre-established corporate networks or to share the network with other applications. The
legacy of the early low-bandwidth protocols remains, though. SCADA protocols are designed
to be very compact and many are designed to send information to the master station only
when the master station polls the RTU. Typical legacy SCADA protocols include Modbus
RTU, RP-570, Profibus and Conitel. These communication protocols are all SCADA-vendor
specific but are widely adopted and used. Standard protocols are IEC 60870- 5-101 or 104,
IEC 61850 and DNP3. These communication protocols are standardized and recognized by all
major SCADA vendors. Many of these protocols now contain extensions to operate over
TCP/IP. It is good security engineering practice to avoid connecting SCADA systems to
theInternet so the attack surface is reduced.
RTUs and other automatic controller devices were being developed before the advent of
industry wide standards for interoperability. The result is that developers and their
management created a multitude of control protocols. Among the larger vendors, there was
also the incentive to create their own protocol to "lock in" their customer base. A list of
automation protocols is being compiled here.
Recently, OLE for Process Control (OPC) has become a widely accepted solution for
intercommunicating different hardware and software, allowing communication even between
devices originally not intended to be part of an industrial network.

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6.POWER LINE COMMUNICATION & SCADA

SYSTEM OF UPPTCL:

Uttar Pradesh Power Transmission Corporation Ltd. (UPPTCL) has a very large network of
high voltage transmission lines in whole UP (about 24,000Km). Transmission lines transfer
power from power houses to substations and from one substation to many other substations or
vice versa. Power is generated at low Voltage (of the order of 3.3KV to 25KV) and is
stepped-up to high voltage (765KV, 400KV, 220KV & 132KV) for evacuating power into the
grid network through transmission lines.

6.1 TRANSMISSION OF DATA

Below in Figure 6.1, main equipment from substation/power house to its subLDC has
been shown in a very simple form.

Figure 6.1: Transmission of Data from substation/Power house to subLDC

Current Transformers (CTs) and Potential Transformers (PTs), installed on transmission lines,
provide inputs to transducers of SIC (Supervisory Interface & Control) & RTU (Remote
Terminal Unit) panel. Circuit breakers & isolators' status are extended up to SIC panel. If for
such extension extra potential free contacts are not available in the Control Panels, Contact
Multiplying Relays (CMRs) are used to provide potential free contacts. The output of RTU is
connected to the communication equipment, through Modem. In between substation &
subLDC, a communication link has been shown. Telephone exchanges are connected with the
communication equipment.

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Such communication links can be of any type. UPPTCL has got its own three different type of
communication systems, i.e. PLCC (Power Line Carrier Communication), microwave and
fibre- optic. PLCC system is more prevalent in UPPTCL. Modem output at receive side is
connected with the CFE (Communication End Frame). Its output is connected with data takes
over. Each RTU is automatically polled by Server of subLDC to obtain each data of repeats at
least once in 10 sec and is stored in the database of subLDC. This data is processed in database
formats and is retrieved for different applications. These formats or graphics are displayed or
printed as per requirement. At subLDC, System Control Officers use this data to monitor and
analyze position of the grid.

Figure 6.2
A systematically combined/processed data of all RTUs, in server of subLDC, is
transmitted to SLDC Lucknow. This data in the form of 64Kb/s signal is sent through
multiple paths/channels. Presently four channels are used. For this purpose 'Routers' are
used. Routers basically work as modem but is has multiple paths for LAN, WAN or
internet, etc. In UPPTCL, for transmission of data, from subLDC to SLDC, only
wideband communication system (microwave or fibre-optic links) is being used. In
SLDC, data from all other subLDCs is also received simultaneously and are processed
for different purposes and applications. From Inter-Control Centre Communications
Protocol (ICCP) Servers of SLDC, complete data of all subLDCs is sent to NRLDC,
New Delhi through wideband communication system. This way communication plays a
major role in grid management.

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6.2 COMMUNICATION FOR POWER SYSTEM

Following are mainly three inter-related areas of functions in UPPTCL for management of
power system:

A) Telecommunication

B) SCADA- Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition System.

C) EMS- Energy Management System

A) TELECOMMUNICATION

There are three different types of telecommunication systems in UPPTCL i.e.

i. Microwave Communication System,

ii. Fibre-optic Communication System,

Voice Frequency (VF) channels of all these systems have been integrated/interconnected
to make a hybrid communication system. Microwave & Fibre Optic are multi-channels
communication systems and are also called 'Wideband communication system'. PLCC is
single channel communication syst

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7. SUBSTATION
An electrical sub-station is an assemblage of electrical components including busbars,
switchgear, power transformers, auxiliaries etc.
These components are connected in a definite sequence such that a circuit can be switched off
during normal operation by manual command and also automatically during abnormal
conditions such as short-circuit. Basically an electrical substation consists of No. of incoming
circuits and outgoing circuits connected to a common Bus-bar systems. A substation receives
electrical power from generating station via incoming transmission lines and delivers elect.
power via the outgoing transmission lines.

Fig 7.1 Graphical view of 220 KV Grid

7.1 MAIN TASK

Associated with major sub-stations in the transmission and distribution system include the
following:

1. Protection of transmission system.

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2. Controlling the Exchange of Energy.

3. Ensure steady State & Transient stability.
4. Load shedding and prevention of loss of synchronism. Maintaining the system
frequency within targeted limits.
5. Voltage Control; reducing the reactive power flow by compensation of reactive power,
tap-changing.
6. Securing the supply by proving adequate line capacity.
7. Data transmission via power line carrier for the purpose of network monitoring; control
and protection.
8. Fault analysis and pin-pointing the cause and subsequent improvement in that area of
field.
9. Determining the energy transfer through transmission lines.
10. Reliable supply by feeding the network at various points.
11. Establishment of economic load distribution and several associated functions.

7.2 TYPES OF SUBSTATION

The substations can be classified in several ways including the following :

1. Classification based on voltage levels, e.g. : A.C. Substation : EHV, HV, MV, LV;
HVDC Substation.
2. Classification based on Outdoor or Indoor : Outdor substation is under open skv.
Indoor substation is inside a building.
3. Classification based on configuration, e.g. :
▪ Conventional air insulated outdoor substation or
▪ SF6 Gas Insulated Substation (GIS)
▪ Composite substations having combination of the above two
4. Classification based on application
▪ Step Up Substation : Associated with generating station as the generating voltage
is low.
▪ Primary Grid Substation : Created at suitable load centre along Primary
transmission lines.
▪ Secondary Substation : Along Secondary Transmission Line.

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▪ Distribution Substation : Created where the transmission line voltage is Step

Down to supply voltage.
▪ Bulk supply and industrial substation : Similar to distribution sub-station but
created separately for each consumer.
▪ Mining Substation : Needs special design consideration because of extra
precaution for safety needed in the operation of electric supply.

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8. LIGHTNING ARRESTOR

Lighting arrestor is a device, which protects the overhead lines and other electrical apparatus
viz , transformer from overhead voltages and lighting When the positively charged cloud
produce negative charge on the overhead line by electrostatic induction then the negative
charge is however presented right under the cloud and portion of the line away from the cloud
becomes positively charged This charge on the line does not flow
Every instrument must be protected from the damage of lighting stroke. The three protection
sin a substation is essential:-

• Protection for transmission line from direct strokes

• Protections of power station or substation from direct strokes
• Protection of electrical apparatus against traveling waves
Effective protection of equipment against direct strokes requires a shield to prevent lighting
from striking the electrical conductor together with adequate drainage facilities over insulated
structure.
8.1 INSTALLATION LOCATION :-
Install arrester electrically as close as possible to the appearatus being protected Line and
ground connections should be short and direct

8.2 GROUNDING:-
The arrester ground should be connected to the apparatus grounds and the main station
ground utilizing a reliable common ground network of low resistance. The efficient operation
of the lightning arrester requires permanent low resistance grounds : Station class arresters
should be provided with a ground of a value not exceeding five ohms.
Clearances:- These are given on the drawings. These are the maximum recommended. The
term ‘clearance’ means the actual distance between any part of the arrester or disconnecting
device at line potential, and any object at ground potential or other phase potential.
It consist of a isolator in series and connected in such a way that long isolator is in upward
and short isolator is in downward so that initially large potential up to earth is decreased to
zero
An ideal arrestor must therefore have the following properties:

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1. It should be able to drain the surge energy from the line in a minimum time
2. Should offer high resistance to the flow of power current
3. Performance of the arresters should be such that no system disturbances are
introduced by its operation
4. Should be always in perfect from to perform the function assigned to it
5. After allowing the surge to pass, it should close up so as not to permit power current
to flow to ground

Fig 8.2 Lightning Arresters

8.3 WORKING:-
Lightning, is a form of visible discharge of electricity between rain clouds or between a rain
cloud and the earth The electric discharge is seen in the form of a brilliant arc, sometimes
several kilometres long, stretching between the discharge points How thunderclouds become
charged is not fully understood, but most thunderclouds are negatively charged at the base
and positively charged at the top However formed, the negative charge at the base of the
cloud induces a positive charge on the earth beneath it, which acts as the second plate of a
hugecapacitor

When the electrical potential between two clouds or between a cloud and the earth reaches a
sufficiently high value (about 10,000 V per cm or about 25,000 V per in), the air becomes
ionized along a narrow path and a lightning flash results.

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9. WAVE TRAP

It is used to trap the communication signals & send PLCC room through CVT. Rejection
filters are known as the line traps consisting of a parallel resonant circuit ( L and C in
parallel) tuned to the carrier frequency are connected in series at each and of the protected
line such a circuit offer high impedance to the flow of carrier frequency current thus
preventing the dissipation. The carrier current used for PLC Communication have to be
prevented from entering the power equipments such as attenuation or even complete loss of
communication signals. For this purpose wave trap or line trap are used between transmission
line and power station equipment to avoid carrier power dissipation in the power plant reduce
cross talks with other PLC Circuits connected to the same power station. Ensure proper
operating conditions and signal levels at the PLC transmit receive equipment irrespective of
switching conditions of the power circuit and equipments in the stations.

9.1 LINE MATCHING FILTER AND PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT:-

For matching the transmitter and receiver unit to coupling capacitor and power line matching
filters are provided. These flitters normally have air corral transformers with capacitor
assumed.

The matching transformer is insulated for 7-10 KV between the two windings and perform
two functions. Firstly, it isolates the communication equipment from the power line.
Secondly, it serves to match .

9.2TRANSMITTER:-

The transmitter consists of an oscillator and a amplifier. The oscillator generates a frequency
signal with in 50 to 500 HZ frequency bands the transmitter is provided so that it modulates
the carrier with protective signal. The modulation process usually involves taking one half
cycle of 50 HZ signal and using this to create block to carrier.

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Fig 9.1 Wave Trap

9.3 RECEIVERS:-

The receivers usually consist of and alternate matching transformer band pass filter and
amplifier detector.

The amplifier detector converts a small incoming signal in to a signal capable of operating a
relatively intensive carrier receiver relay. The transmitter and receiver at the two ends of
protected each corresponds to local as far as transmitting.

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10. ISOLATOR

When carrying out inspection or maintains work in substation ,it is essential to disconnect
reliability the unit of other station on which the work is done from all other parts on
installation in order to ensure full safety of working staff .So guard against mistake it is
desirable that should be done by an apparatus is called “ISOLATOR”. In other words a
device which is used to open or close the circuit either when negligible current is interrupted
or when no significant change in voltage across the terminal of each pole of the isolator will
result from operation .they must only be opened or closed when current is zero. There is
single ear thing Isolator used .

Isolator is switching device used to open (or close) a circuit either when a negligible current
exists or when no significant change in voltage across the terminal of each pole of the
isolator, will result from the operation. Broadly speaking isolator are the switches which’s
operate under "No current” condition.

Fig 10.1 View of Isolator

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Isolators are file with earthing blades as an integral part of it. They may be isolators with
single ear thing blades or two earthling blades on either side of it.They must only be opened
or closed when current is zero. Isolators are classified into following categories.

1. Bus isolator
2. Line isolator
3. Transformer isolating switch

From constructional point of view the isolator may be classified as-

1.The post- centre post rotating part, double post break type.

2. Two post single type.

3. Base: - Each pipe phase isolator is mounted on a robust base of steal construction.

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11. INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER

There are two types of instrument transformer:-

1. Potential Transformer
2. Current Transformer

11.1 Potential Transformer:-

Similar to CT it is another type of instrument type of instrument transformer .Transformer

used for voltage measurements are called voltage transformer or Potential transformer. it may
be of 1 phase or 3 phase

These transformers make the instruments suitable for measurement of high voltage and
isolating then from high voltage. these TX. Are connected in parallel and secondary winding
is always open ckt.

The primary has large no of turn in secondary,which provided step down of voltage , and
then the voltmeter is connected across secondary terminal the high voltage line.Some terms
related to PT :-

1. Rated voltage :- the capacity voltage of the PT which it can stand

2. Rated transformer ratio:- The ratio of the rated primary voltage to the rated second voltage.

3. Rated secondary voltage:- 130 / root (3) = 63.3 VAR.

Voltage transformer which step down system voltage to sufficient form high value to low
value are necessary in every system for-

• Induction of d.c supply voltage conduction.

• Metering of the supply of energy.

• Relaying

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Design and ranges are selected according to the secondary size of potential transformer for
indicating instruments, meter and relays. But calibration of these instruments is done
according to the primary voltage

Fig 11.1 Potential Transformer

11.2 CURRENT TRANSFORMER
The current transformers are kept in the category of the instrument transformer. The C.T. are
used to reduce/ stepping down A.C form high value to lower value for measurement /
protection / control.

They are usually installed in the outdoor switch. The primary conductor at high voltage with
respect to earth. The secondary of C.T. is just like the ring type C.T. the primary winding
consists of a very few turns , and therefore there is no. appreciation volt drop across injection
Current is transformed by C.T. the current transformer is used with primary winding ,
connected in series with the line carrying the current to be measured and therefore primary
current is dependent upon load connected in the system.

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Fig11.2 Current Transformer

Measurement of alternating current is one of the most frequent operation not only because of
it’s inheriant but a also because it is necessary in determining other parameters of electrical
circuit. A current transformer value of current is used for

1. Indication of current

2. kwh and kw meters

3. Telementry

4. Protective relay etc

A current transformer is intended to operate normally with rated current of the system
flowing through the primary winding which is increased in the series with the network
Secondary winding of current transformer connected to measuring instruments and relay
supplies currents circulating in the design of current transformer.

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12. POWER TRANSFORMER

There are two power transformers of 160 MVA and 100 MVA . They are used convert 220
KV/66KV.And two power transformers are used of 20 MVA and 16/20 MVA which convert
66KV/11KV. Which transforms e/e energy from one voltage level to another desired level
with corresponding change in current value and without any change in frequency value.

The physical basis of a transformer is mutual induction between the circuits linked by a
common magnitude pulse voltage supplied to one set of winding called primary switch builds
up a magnitude flux through the iron.

A transformer in simplest form consist of two magnetic coil, which are electrically separated
from each other but magnetically linked through path of reluctance .

Fig 12.1 Power Transformer

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Transformer parts are:-

1. BUCHHOLZ RELAY: It is a very sensitive gas and oil operated instrument which
safely detect the formation of gas or sudden pressure inside the oil transformer.
2. CONSERVATOR: It is used to provide adequate space for the expansion of oil when
transformer is loaded or when ambient temperature changes.
3. SILICA GEL BREATHER: It sucks the moisture from the air which is taken by
transformer so that dry air is taken by transformer.
4. DOUBLE DIAPHRAGM EXPLOSION VENT: It is used to discharge excess pressure
in the atmosphere when excess pressure is developed inside the transformer during loading.
5. OIL LEVEL INDICATOR: It is used to show the oil level in the transformer.
6. WINDING TEMPERATURE INDICATOR: used to show the temperature of
transformer winding.
7. RADIATORS: These are used for cooling of the transformer oil.

Fig 12.2 Various Parts of Transformer

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13. INSULATOR

Transmission line insulators are devices used to contain, separate or support electrical
conductors on high voltage electricity supply networks. Transmission insulators come in
various shapes and types, including individual or strings of disks, line posts or long rods.
They are made of polymers, glass and porcelain--each with different densities, tensile
strengths and performing properties in adverse conditions.

13.1 Pin Type Insulators

Pin type insulators are used for the transmission of lower voltages. A single pin type insulator
is used to transmit voltages up to 11 kV (kilovolts) and higher voltages require two-, three- or
four-piece pin insulators. They are not economically feasible for 33 kV and higher
transmission lines. Pin type insulators are secured with steel or lead bolts onto transmission
poles. These are typically used for straight-running transmission lines.

Fig 13.1 Pin type insulator

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13.2 Suspension Type Insulators:-

Suspension type transmission line insulators suspend and support high voltage transmission
lines. They are cost effective for higher voltage transmission, typically replacing multiple pin
type insulators. Suspension type insulators have a number of interconnected porcelain discs,
with each individual unit designed to support a particular voltage. Together, a system of these
discs is capable of effectively supporting high voltages. There are three types of suspension
insulators: cemented cap suspension insulators; interlinking or Hewlett suspension insulators;
and link or core suspension insulators.

Fig 13.2 Suspension type insulator

13.3 Strain Type Insulators

Strain type insulators are horizontally suspended suspension insulators. They are used to
handle mechanical stresses and take the pressure off a conductor at the end of a transmission
line, at a sharp corner or curve or over long river crossings. Strain insulators are typically
used for higher voltage transmissions.

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Fig13.3 Strain type insulator

13.4 Shackle Type Insulators:-

Shackle type insulators, similar to strain type insulators, are used on sharp curves, end poles
and in section poles. However, unlike strain insulators, shackle insulators are designed to
support lower voltages. These insulators are single, round porcelain parts that are mounted
horizontally or vertically.

Fig 13.4 Shackle type insulator

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14. CIRCUIT BREAKER

A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect an

electrical circuit from damage caused by overload or short circuit Its basic function is to
detect a fault condition and, by interrupting continuity, to immediately discontinue electrical
flow Unlike a fuse, which operates once and then has to be replaced, a circuit breaker can be
reset (either manually or automatically) to resume normal operation Circuit breakers are
made in varying sizes, from small devices that protect an individual household appliance up
to large switchgear designed to protect high voltage circuits feeding an entire city.
In any circuit, carrying a large amount of current, if a contact is opened then normally a spark
is produced due to fact that current traverses its path through air gap Arcing is harmful as it
can damage precious equipment media are provided between contacts.
This is one of the important equipment in power system It protects the system by isolating
the faulty section while the healthy one is keep on working Every system is susceptible to
fault or damages while can be caused due to overloading, short-circuiting, earth fault etc thus
to protect the system and isolate the faulty section C B are required Apart from breaking and
making contacts, a C B should be capable of doing
1. Continuously carry the maximum current at point of installation
2. Make and break the circuit under abnormal and normal condition
Close or open the faulty section only where fault exists
There are different arc quenching media:-
1) Air blast
2) Oil
3) SF6 gas
4) Vacuum

In 220 kV Grid Devigarh , SF6 gas circuit breaker are used, as for greater capacity SF6 type
breakers are very efficient .

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14.1 SF6 BREAKER

The outstanding physical and chemical properties of SF6 gas makes it an ideal dielectric
media for use in power switchgear.These properties of SF6 gas makes it an ideal dielectric
media for use in power switchgear,these properties are included:
1) High dielectric strength
2) unique arc quenching ability
3) Excellent thermal stability
4) Good thermal conductivity
In addition, at normal temperature SF6 is chemically inert,inflammable,noncorrosive and
non-condensable at low temperatures.
SF6 versus oil :-
SF6 is not flammable and toxic like oil.It is easier to handle,maintain and repair equipment
filled with SF6.
In case of breakdown of oil strong surges of pressure may occur due to sudden development
of gaseous products.In case of breakdown of SF6,the only pressure rise will result from the
thermal expansion of gas.

Fig 14.1 SF6 Circuit Breaker

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15. EARTHING

Earthing is the provision of a surface under the substation, which has a uniform potential as
nearly as zero or equal to Absolute Earth potential. The provision of an earthing system for an
electric system is necessary by the following reason.
1. In the event of over voltage on the system due to lighting discharge or other system fault.
These parts of equipment which are normally dead as for as voltage, are concerned do not
attain dangerously high potential.
2. In a three phase, circuit the neutral of the system is earthed in order to stabilize the
potential of circuit with respect to earth.
The resistance of earthing system is depending on shape and material of earth electrode
used.
the earthing is of two principal types :-

1. Neutral Earthing
2. Equipment Body Earthing

15.1 NEUTRAL EARTHING:-

Neutral Earthing also known as System Neutral Earthing (or Grounding) means connecting
the neutral point i.e. the star point of generator,transformer etc. to earth. In rotating machines,
generator, transformer circuit etc., the neutral point is always connected to earth either
directly or through a reactance. The neutral point is usually available at every voltage level
from generator or transformer neutral. If neutral point is not available, then the most common
method used is using a Zigzag transformer. Such a transformer has no secondary. Each phase
of primary has two equal parts. There are 3 limbs and each limb has two winding, providing
flux density under normal condition. Since the fluxes are opposite, the transformer takes very
small magnetizing current under normal conditions. During fault, the circuit is primary side,
which provides very less impedance to the current. The grounding transformers are short time
rating. Their size is almost one tenth as compared to power transformer.

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15.2 ELECTRICAL EARTHING:-

electrical Earthing is different from neutral earthing. During fault condition, the metallic parts
of an electrical installation which do not carry current under normal conditions, may attain
high potential with respect to ground. As human body can tolerate only I=0.165A/T current
for a given time t so to ensure safety we connect such metallic parts to earth by means of
Earthing system ,which comprises of electrical conductor to send fault current to earth. The
conductor used is generally in the form of rods, plates, pipes etc.
Earthing system ensures safety in following ways :-

1. The potential of earthen body does not reach dangerously high value about earth,
since it is connected to earth.
2. Earth fault current flows through earthing and readily causes the operation of fuse or
an earth relay.

Merits of neutral Earthing:-

1. Arcing grounding is reduced.
2. Voltage of heating with respect to earth remains at harmless value they don't increase to
root 3 times of normal value.
3. Suitable neutral point.
4. The earth fault relaying is relatively simple useful amount of earth fault current is available
to operate earth fault relay.
5. The over voltage due to lightening are discharged to earth.
6. Improved service reliability due to limitation of arcing ground and improved of
unnecessary fringing of CB.
At Devigarh the neutral point of power transformer is connected solidly to earth generally the
earth connection are provided which leads reliability.

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16. PROTECTION RELAY

A relay is an electrically operated switch Current flowing through the coil of the relay creates
a magnetic field which attracts a lever and changes the switch contacts The coil current can
be on or off so relays have two switch positions and they are double throw (changeover)
switches.
Relays allow one circuit to switch a second circuit which can be completely separate from the
first For example a low voltage battery circuit can use a relay to switch a 230V AC mains
circuit There is no electrical connection inside the relay between the two circuits, the link is
magnetic and mechanical.
The coil of a relay passes a relatively large current, typically 30mA for a 12V relay, but it can
be as much as 100mA for relays designed to operate from lower voltages. Most ICs (chips)
cannot provide this current and a transistor is usually used to amplify the small IC current to
the larger value required for the relay coil The maximum output current for the popular 555
timer IC is 200mA so these devices can supply relay coils directly without amplification
Types of Relays
These are called normally opened, normally closed in GSS control room there is panel in
which the relays are set and there are many types of relays

1. Over voltage relays

2. Over current relays
3. I D M T fault relay
4. Earth fault relay
5. Bucheloz’s relay
6. Differential relay

OVER VOLTAGE RELAY: - This protection is required to avoid damage of system in case
line becomes open circuited at one end These fault would trip the local circuit breaker thus
block the local and remote ends This relay is operated i e , energized by CVT connected to
lines.
OVER CURRENT RELAY: -This relay has the upper electromagnet of non-directional
relay connected in series with lower non-directional electromagnet When the fault current
flow through relay current coil which produces flux in lower magnet of directional element

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Thus the directional relay has the winding over the electromagnets of non-directional element
and produces a flux in lower magnet and thus over current operates.
EARTH FAULT RELAY: -when a conductor breaks due to some reason and it is earthen
then earth fault occurs The fault current is very high thus, there is need to of over current
relay This relay has minimum operating time
DIRECTIONAL RELAY: - It allows flowing the current only in one direction then only
this relay operates It has a winding connected through the voltage coil of relay to lower
magnet winding called current coil Which is energized by C T if fault occurs This relay
operates when v/I is less than theoretical value The v/I is normally constant .

Fig 61.1 Over Current and Voltage Relays

DIFFERENTIAL RELAY: - This relay operates when phase difference of two electrical
quantities exceeds the predetermined value It has always two electrical quantities; hence in
400kv GSS for transformer differential relay is used

INVERSE TIME CHARACTERISTICS RELAY: - The relay using here having the
inverse time characteristics having the time delays dependent upon current value This
characteristic is being available in relay of special design There are:-
i. Electromagnetic Induction type
ii. Permanent magnetic moving coil type

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iii. Static type

BUCHHOLZ’S RELAY: - It is the protective device of the transformer When any fault
occurs in the transformer then it indicates about fault and we disconnect the transformer from
the circuit It is used in the power transformer It is connected between the tank and
conservator It has two floats on which two mercury switch are attached One float is used for
the bell indication and other float is used for the tripping In the normal position the relay is
filled with the oil and contacts of the mercury switch are opened When the earth fault occurs
in the transformer then it increases the temperature of oil and oil flows into the conservator
through relay On the way it makes the contacts of the tripping circuit short So in the we can
say that this relay works as circuit breaker.

Fig16.2 Buchholz Relay

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17. CONTROL ROOM

To remote control of power switch gear requires the provision of suitable control plates
located at a suitable point remote from immediate vicinity of CB 's and other equipments.

At "220KV DEVIGARH" the separate control room provided for remote protection of
220KV switch yards transformer incoming feeder, outing feeders. Bus bar has their own
control plant in their control rooms. The control panel carrier the appropriate relays.
Necessary meters indicating lamp control switches and fuses. There are meters for reading
purpose. A circuit concerning the panel is shown on the panel with standard co lour.

On each panel a control switch is provided for remote operation of circuit breaker. There are
two indicators which show that weather circuit breaker is closed or open. A control switch for
each insulator is also provided. The position indicator of isolator is also done with the help of
single lamp and indicator. The co lour of signal lamps are as follows :-

RED :- For circuit breaker or isolator is close option

GREEN :- For CB or isolator in open position. In

addition to used indication an alarm is also providing for indicating abnormal condition
when any protective relay or tripping relay has operated. Its constants energies on auxiliary
alarm. Relay which on operation completes the alarm belt circuit.

Energy Meter:- These are fitted on different panel to record transmitted energy and recorded
in energy hours. For this purpose MWH meter have been provided.

Watt Meter:-This is mounted on each feeder panel to record import or export power.

Frequency Power:-Provided to each feeder to measure frequency which analog or digital.

Volt Meter :-Provided on each panel or the purpose of indication of voltage.

Ammeter:-These are used to indication the line current.

MVAR Meter:-Provided for indicating power factor of import and export.

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Maximum Indicator Demand :-Chief requirement of these indicators to record the

minimum power factor taken by feeder during a particular period. This record the average
power successive predetermined period.

Fig 17.1 Control Room

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18. BATTERY ROOM

There is a battery room which has 55 batteries of 2 volt each for 132KV section and 110
batteries for 220KV section. Therefore D.C. power available is for functioning of the control
panels. A battery charger to charge the battery.

Fig 18.1 View of Battery Room

18.1 CHARGING OF BATTERIES:-

Initial charging
It is the first charging given to batteries by which the positive plates are converted to “lead
peroxide”, whereas the –ve plates will converted to spongy lead. Also in a fully charged
battery the electrolyte specific gravity will be at its highest venue or 1.2 and its terminal
voltage will be 24 volts
Discharging:-
When a fully charged battery delivers its energy out by meeting a load the lead peroxide of
the +ve plates slowly gets converted to lead sulphate and the spongy lead of the –ve plates
also gets converted into lead sulphate during this time the specific gravity of the electrolyte
also decreases the value around 1.00 and the terminal voltage also decreases from its initial to
a lower value which may be around 1.85 or 1.8.

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19. CAPACITOR BANK

A capacitor bank is a grouping of several identical capacitors interconnected in parallel or in

series with one another. These groups of capacitors are typically used to correct or counteract
undesirable characteristics, such as power factor lag or phase shifts inherent in alternating
current (AC) electrical power supplies. Capacitor banks may also be used in direct current
(DC) power supplies to increase stored energy and improve the ripple current capacity of the
power supply. Single capacitors are electrical or electronic components which store electrical
energy. Capacitors consist of two conductors that are separated by an insulating material or
dielectric. When an electrical current is passed through the conductor pair, a static electric
field develops in the dielectric which represents the stored energy. Unlike batteries, this
stored energy is not maintained indefinitely, as the dielectric allows for a certain amount of
current leakage which results in the gradual dissipation of the stored energy. The energy
storing characteristic of capacitors is known as capacitance and is expressed or measured by
the unit farads. This is usually a known, fixed value for each individual capacitor which
allows for considerable flexibility in a wide range of uses such as restricting DC current while
allowing AC current to pass, output smoothing in DC power supplies, and in the construction
of resonant circuits used in radio tuning. These characteristics also allow capacitors to be used
in a group or capacitor bank to absorb and correct AC power supply faults.

Fig 19.1 Capicator Bank

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The use of a capacitor bank to correct AC power supply anomalies is typically found in
heavy industrial environments that feature working loads made up of electric motors and
transformers. This type of working load is problematic from a power supply perspective as
electric motors and transformers represent inductive loads, which cause a phenomenon
known as phase shift or power factor lag in the power supply. The presence of this
undesirable phenomenon can cause serious losses in terms of overall system efficiency with
an associated increase in the cost of supplying the power. The use of a capacitor bank in the
power supply system effectively cancels out or counteracts these phase shift issues, making
the power supply far more efficient and cost effective. The installation of a capacitor bank is
also one of the cheapest methods of correcting power lag problems and maintaining a power
factor capacitor bank is simple and cost effective. One thing that should always be kept in
mind when working with any capacitor or capacitor bank is the fact that the stored energy, if
incorrectly discharged, can cause serious burns or electric shocks. The incorrect handling or
disposal of capacitors may also lead to explosions, so care should always be exercised when
dealing with capacitors of any sort.

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20 CONCLUSION

The training at grid substation was very helpful. It has improved my theoretical concepts of
electrical power transmission and distribution. Protection of various apparatus was a great
thing. Maintenance of transformer, circuit breaker, isolator, insulator, bus bar etc was
observable.
I had a chance to see the remote control of the equipments from control room itself, which was
very interesting.
So the training was more than hope to me and helped me to understand about power system
more. Now I have studied a lot about the electrical transmission system. One must have never
thought that so many things are required for just switching on a television or a refrigerator or
say an electric trimmer. The three wing of electrical system viz. Generation, transmission and
distribution are connected to each other and that too very perfectly. Here man and electricity
work as if they are a family. Lots of labour, capital and infrastructure is involved in the system
just to have a single phase,220V,50Hz power supply at our houses.

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