Available in the following titles: ADVANCED CALCULUS 1 ADVANCED CALCULUS It [ALGEBRA & TRIGONOMETRY 1 ‘ALGEBRA & TRIGONOMETRY IL [AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEMS/ROBOTICS I AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEMS/ROBOTICS IL CALCULUS TI CALCULUS IHL ‘cHemustRY LECTRONICST ELECTRONICS It ‘NITE & DISCRETE MATH FLUID MECHANICS/DYNAMICS 1 FLUID MECHANICS/DYNAMICS II [MECHANICS 1 MECHANICS IL MECHANICS I NUMERICAL ANALYSIS L [NUMERICAL ANALYSIS I ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 1 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY It PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY 1 PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY IT PHYSICS 1 PHYSICS IL THERMODYNAMICS 1 THERMODYNAMICS II TRANSPORT PHENOMENA T TRANSPORT PHENOMENA It ne eee The ESSENTIALS of TRANSPORT PHENOMENA | Quick Access to the Important Facts and Concepts Includes every important: ° Principle ° Equation e Theorem © Concept Staff of Research and Education Associationthe ESSENTIALS of TRANSPORT PHENOMENA | Staff of Research and Education Association, Dr. M. Fogiel, Director ) ‘This book covers the usual course outline | of ‘Transport Phenomena 1. For | more advanced topics, see "THE ESSENTIALS OF TRANSPORT PHENOMENA II". Research and Education Association 61 Ethel Road West Piscataway, New Jersey 08854THE ESSENTIALS OF TRANSPORT PHENOMENA 1 Copyright © 1887 by Research and Education Association. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without permission of the publishers. Printed in the United States of America Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 87-61803 International Standard Book Number 0-87891-628-8 WHAT “THE ESSENTIALS” WILL DO FOR YOU This book is a review and study guide. It is comprehensive and it is concise. It helps in preparing for exams, in doing homework, and remains a handy’ reference source at all times. It condenses the vast amount of detail characteristic of the subject matter and summarizes the essentials of the field. It will thus save hours of study and prep- aration time. The book provides quick access to the important facts, principles, theorems, concepts, and equations of the field. iliMaterials needed for exams, can be reviewed in summary form eliminating the need to read and re-read many pages of textbook and class notes. The summaries will even tend to bring detail to mind that had been previously read or noted. This "ESSENTIALS" book has been carefully prepared by educators and professionals and was subsequently reviewed by another group of editors to assure accuracy and maximum usefulness. Dr. Max Fogiel Program Director CONTENTS Chapter No. Page No. 1 VISCOSITY AND THE MECHANISM OF FLUID FLOW Introduction Fluid Statics 1 Pressure in a Static Fluid 2 Devices to Measure Pressure Differences Forms of Fluid Flow 1 Laminar or Viscous Flow .2 Turbulent Flow 3 Critical Flow HES) 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.4 Reynold's Number 1.5 Viscosity (1) 1.6 Kinematic Viscosity (v) 1.7 Newton's Law of Viscosity 1.8 Non-Newtonian Fluids 1.8.1 The Bingham Model 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 2 Ostwald-De Waele Model 3 Eyring Model (2-Parameter Equation) 4 5 Ellis Model (3-Parameter Equation) Reiner Philipoff Model (3-Parameter Model)2 FLOW OF NEWTONIAN FLUIDS 5 VELOCITY DISTRIBUTIONS WITH AND FRICTIONAL LOSSES 10 MORE THAN ONE INDEPENDENT 2.1 The Mechanical Energy Balance VARIABLE (Bernoulli's Equation) 10 \ & A 2.2 Friction in Pipes and Flow Regimes 12 | 5.1 Steady Viscous Flow with Two Non- aig avisiglsysten is Vanishing Velocity Components: pe { 1e Stream Function 2 ale Encuonsl | Losa, ERCouen ached Bede, a 5.1.1 Two Dimensional Planar Motion. 5.1.2 Axisymmetrical Motion 5.2 Creeping Flow Around a Sphere 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT OF FLUIDS 20 513 Meal Flow Artuna «°Gylinase 3.1 Orifice Meter 20 5.4 Boundary Layer Thickness 3.2 Venturimeter 21 5.5 Flow Near the Leading Edge of a 3.3 Pitot Tube 22 Flat Plate 3.4 Weirs 23 5.6 Skin Friction Coefficient and Drag 3.5 Flow Through or From a Tank 24 5.7 Flow Near a Wall Suddenly Set in Motion 4 VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION IN 6 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY AND AMINA ROW 26) MECHANISM OF ENERGY Shell Momentum Balance 26 TRANSPORT Flow of Falling Film 27 . Flow Through a Circular Tube 30 6.1 Basic Mechanism Velocity Profile 31 6.1.1 Conduction Maximum Velocity 32 6.1.2 Convection Average Velocity 32 6.1.3 Rade son Volumetric Flow Rate 32 6.2) Fourien!® Law Force of the Fluid on the Welted Ce ea eet Surface of the Pipe 32 6.4 Thermal Radiz _ 32 6.5 Reduced Thermal Conductivity Elon kLhrougiian Aan wne 33 6.6 Fourier's Law of Heat Conduction Velocity Profile 33 | @lr Thermal Conductivity Maximum Velocity 33 Adjacent Flow of Two Immiscible Fluids 34 Greeping Flow Around a Solid Sphere 36 7 STEADY STATE HEAT | CONDUCTION IN ONE DIMENSION -2 Shen Bs 2 nergy Bal | o2 BtStayeeads galance At Condac eho BIKE» SOQ =7.3 Thermal Conductance, Thermal Resistance and Convective Thermal Resistance 64 7.4 The Plane Wall with Specified Boundary Temperature 65 7.5 Conduction Through a Hollow Cylinder 66 7.6 Conduction Through a Solid in Series 67 7.7 Heat Conduction with an Electrical Heat Source 70 7.8 Heat Conduction with a Chemical Heat Source 2 7.9 Heat Transfer from Fins 5 | 7.9.1 Uniform Cross-section 8 | 7.9.2 Non-Uniform Cross-section u7 7.9.3 Straight Triangular Fin 78 7.9.4 Fin Efficiency 79CHAPTER 1 VISCOSITY AND THE MECHANISM OF FLUID FLOW 1.1 INTRODUCTION A fluid may be defined as a shape continuously under the ap no matter how slight the shear. tance that changes its ion of a shear stress 1.2 FLUID STATICS 1.2.1 PRESSURE IN A STATIC FLUID ‘The pressure at any p of the force exerted by its Consider for instance area containing a fui Figure 1-1. The pressure exerted by the fluid at any height h is given by P= pgh an where 9 = density g = gravity h = heightatm @ - | at Fig. 1.1 From equation (1.1) one ean conclude that the pressure will be constant at any cross-section, but will vary with height. Thus, the pressure at the bottom of the vessel will be P = pg 1.2) (b) Differential Manometer: If the total pressure at the bottom is desired, one must add SE Rn eee eee eee Oe eae manometer, is helpful to measure small pressure differences, ee SO EE | aP whieh is given by G Pi = gH +P a3) 1.2.2 DEVICES TO MEASURE PRESSURE DIFFERENCES where Hl = reading of the manometer a and pg < 0g (fluid B is lighter than fluid C) ‘This is a U-shaped tube with pressures P, and P, on each arm, respectively, which can be pressure tabs from a fluid meter or one end could be opened to the atmosphere. The device is filled with two immiscible fluids having distinct densities, o, for the lighter fluid A and p, for the heavier fluid B, where p, < Py (see Fig. 1-2). aR ‘The differenee in pressures (P, ~ P,) is measured as OP = (Py~ P,) = HC, - 94) & aay Eo where H = Reading of the manometer Fig. 1.3 Differential (difference of level of two fluids) Manometer 2 31.3 FORMS OF FLUID FLOW 1.3.1 LAMINAR OR VISCOUS FLOW ‘This is a well ordered flow pattern present at low velocities in which the fluid layers appear to slide over one another. 1.3.2 TURBULENT FLOW ‘This flow pattern is present at high velocities which is characterized by the random motion of the fluid particles in all directions. 1.3.3 CRITICAL FLOW It is the ve laminar to turbules turbulent to laminar (lower eritieal velocity 1e flow changes from velocity) or from 1.4 REYNOLD’S NUMBER ‘The ratio of inertial forees to viscous forces is called the Reynold's number and is defined as = Dvo Spey where Nag = Reynold’s Number (dimensionless group) D = Diameter of pipe (meters) v = Average velocity of fluid (m/sec) = Density of fluid (Kg/m*) = Viscosity of fluid Kg/m-see 4 < icates viscous or laminar flow. Nae < 2100, indicats 1 Nye > 4000, indicates turbulent flow. 1.5 VISCOSITY It is that physical property of a fluid, which offers resistance to the movement of one layer of fluid over an adjacent one. 1.6 KINEMATIC VISCOSITY © It is defined as the ratio of viscosity (u) to density «) 1.7 NEWTON'S LAW OF VISCOSITY According to Newton's Law of Viscosity the shear force por unit area is directly proportional to the negative of the 1 velocity gradient. The fluids which behave in this fashion are tered "Newionian Fluids". ave Tr ae ye wy kg Ibm [meses ° Fesee where 11 = Viscosityav APE = velocity gradient v ‘yx ~ Shear stress applied perpendicular to the y-surface in the x-direction. 1.8 NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS According to Newtonian taw of viscosity, @ graph of av ve and - “gE gives a straight tine through the origin, the Viscosity being the slope of the line. But some Aids do not Show. this. Kind of behavior, “Those” fluids are termed non'Newtonian “fluids. “They. do not give. a. atraight. line Eraph. The theologiest behavior is described By nl inereases with increasing rate of shear, the fluid is ilatant. If n decreases with increasing rate ‘of shear, the fluid is pseudo plastic. If n is independent of shear, the fluid is Newtonian, and n = u. For example, polymeric fluids behave as non-Newtonian fluid. 1.8.1 THE BINGHAM MODEL av, Tyg THe tte ly > te av aero It [nl Pseudo plastic fh if > 1=> Dilatant fluids. 1.8.3 EYRING MODEL (2-PARAMETER EQUATION) a ~ Aare ann [2 Sz] Shear ty, +a 1, = finite => Pseudo plastic behavior. vx <., > 0 => Newtonian behavior with p= A/B yx 1.8.4 ELLIS MODEL (3-PARAMETER EQUATION) a eee sett ~ Gy 7 ot ly I Oy a > 1=5 The model approaches Newton's law for small ty. if a<1=> Newton's law is approached for large 1 Be yy1.8.5 REINER-PHILIPOFF MODEL (3-PARAMETER MODEL) where i, u,, and 1, are the three adjustable parameters. ‘This model approaches Newton's law of viscosity at the very low and higher shearing rates. Thixotropic fluids are those that show a decrease in "1" with time under a sudden application of a constant stress a Rheopeetie fluids show an increase inn with time. Fh that return partially to their original form when’ applica stress is released are called viscoelastic fluids. ‘Threshold a “ay Ostwald-de Waele model for Ailatant fluig- Newtonian. (reference) -t, a, Byring modene“ Ostwald~de-Waele Fig. 1.4 steady state Non-tewtonian model for two-parameter nedels~ pseudo plastic fluids Newtonian Reiner-Philippoft moder Fig. 1.5 steady state Non-Newtonian three parameter modelsCHAPTER 2 FLOW OF NEWTONIAN FLUIDS AND FRICTIONAL LOSSES 2.1 THE MECHANICAL ENERGY BALANCE (BERNOULLI’S EQUATION) The principle of energy conservation is applic: flowing fluid at steady state whieh ts obeying the feontinuity : Potential enersy at entrance (2) Pr:Pressure at exit inetic energy at entrance Uz:Velocity at exit Prossure at entrance zyrelevation at exit velocity at entrance PE; :potential at exit Blovation at entrance KE) :kinetic at exit Ps igrShate, a fuagnetic chemical, 2 work extracted, from the £uia, Fig. 2.1 Energy aspects of a single-stream piping aysten. For one kilogram of real flowing fluid, with its invitable frictional effects, without unusual work effects (e.g. electrical, magnetic, or chemical) and with a constant geavitational pull value g, the mechanical energy balance is given by @ay vom | mero 2 AP for incompressible fluid. BF => Frictional loss, or mechanical energy , and is used to heat or vaporize the fluid. W, => Work received by surroundings. Ee In terms of head, equation 2.1 is multiplied by £2 to yieta e an where 2fpLu*g, Poe” d= diameter of pipe [M] , = conversion factor to be used wit ‘© Engineering Units. In 8.1. uni is 1, and thus drop from all equations hy, = Lost headIn special cases where the work done by the fluid and frictional effects are so negl can be totally equation (2.3) 2.2 FRICTION IN PIPES AND FLOW REGIMES Newtonian fluids flowing in pipes exhibit two distinct types of flow behavior. Laminar (or streamline) when Ro < 2100, and turbulent when R, > 4000. Between R, = 2100 and R, = 4000 uncertain and fluctuating flow conditions arise for which no explanation could be given. In the laminar regime the friction factor is gi To calculate R,, given the value of £,,, use the following equati : Ei (2.6) (and Fig. 2.2). 0.025; jroninar low ~~ fp = 24 Ar ebulence rough pipe oan 0.009] 0.008] 0.007| 0.006 0.005 0.004 0.003 0.0025 Ha plae fe = 9} 000 y aawen 2twee Ssves aves 73468 ro 080708 Fig. 2.2: This figure is useful for finding the pumping requirenent or frictional energy loss, n given the flow rate of fluid in a pipe. For fully developed turbulent flow in rough pipes use Here fy #f,(R,)- *seouysnoz oayaeTsH an(2.8) Roughness c is given in table (2.1) for different piping materials, or for R, < 100,000 use the Blassius expression as an approximation to equation (2.8) a fy = 0.079 RS (2.9) In the above equation © = Roughness [M] = Diameter of pipe (MI p= Ftuia denatty [RE = Viscosity [pfs] ‘Two types of friction factors are in use. (a) The Fanning friction factor f,, defined in equation (2.5) (&) The Darey friction factor f, 2 x 10° * 108 ea x 10 x 10° x 10! 18 lo. 0002, 16 0.0002 1p. 0008 28886 0008 u jp:001 p-oo1s fo:o02 2 p.003 10 cage au 6 See ane 10 10? aot 10° 108 dedp2te 968° paPee a ant Re fr = 20% Pig. 2.3. This figure is useful for finding the flowrate of fluid in a pipe wi force (e.g. gravitational head, energy i for flow. p given the driving >‘Table 2.1. Roughness of Clean Pipe Pipe material em Riveted steel 1-10 Conerete 03-3 Wood stave o2-1 Cast iron 0, 26¢0. 25)! Galvanized iron 0,15¢0..15) Asphalted east iron 0.12(0.13) Commercial steel or wrought iron 0,.046(0.043)> Drawn tubing 0.0015 Glass ° Plastic(PVC, ABS, polyethylene) 0 2.3 PIPING SYSTEM There are expansions, contractions, elbows, valves, and many kinds of fittings in any piping system. Bach has its own distinct frictional losses. This loss is represented by an equivalent length of a straight pipe, and is given by S + 2.10 Lequiv ~ Tstraignt * * Nequiv oe ‘total pipe all fittings contraction expansions ete In turbulent flow, the equivalent length 6f the piping system is not a function of the Reynolds number (R.). Table 2.2 exhibits these values for different pipe fittings. 2.4 FRICTIONAL LOSS THROUGH PACKED BEDS Fluid flow through a packed bed of solids has a characteristic Reynolds number defined a: 16 ‘Table 2.2. Equivalent Pipe Length for Various Pipe Fittings (Turbulent Flow Only) Pipe fitting Globe valve, wide open Angle valve, wide open Gate valve, wide open 3/4 open. 1/2 open. 1/4 open 90° elbow, standard long radius 45° elbow, standard ‘Tee, used as elbow, entering the stem Tee, used as elbow, entering one of two side arms Tee, straight through 180° close return bend Ordinary entrance (pipe flush with wall of vessel) Borda entrance (pipe protruding into vessel) Rounded entrance, union, coupling Sudden enlargement from'd to D Laminar flow in d: ‘Turbulent flow in d: Sudden Contraction from D to d; all ‘conditions exeept high-speed gas flow where p/p, > 2. For this see Chapter 3. Laminar flow in d: ‘Turbulent flow in d: Ja 300 -170 “7 ~40 200 16 20 Negligibleau R= 22 see Fig. 2.4 2 Be (see Fig. 2.4) where 4, = Particle diameter [M1] U, = Superticial velocity = mia density [EA] sty | Ki v= Fluid viscosity [BE ] s) u, = [superficial ‘u = {axial velocity) uy jvelocity, =eu in the bea | = = Lie. in empty bed Fig. 2.4 Plow through packed bed. ‘The frictional loss ZF for flow through packed beds can be estimated by the Ergun equation, thus 0c O7NU,E LTB Vit ES FEES + ee Seca once Viscous Losses Turbulent Losses aay where © = bed voidage, and all other variables, follow previous definition. Remark: When R,,, < 20 the viscous loss term is dominant and thus could be used alone negligible error. When R, > 1000 the turbulent loss term is larger. ep ‘The friction factor in packed bed is given by 12) or from the Ergun equation 13) Brgun eg. fits at all Rep jurke-Plonmer 3. fits at high Rep fp = 1.75 fRozeny-Carnan ea $ its at low Rep, ee agh 2 + Fag! Fig. 2.5 Friction factor vs. Reynolds number for Flow through packed beds.CHAPTER 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT OF FLUIDS 3.1 ORIFICE METER eee a © flow meter ‘The equation for the orifi Gn where v= Voloety of the Mult ir the ones (2 | D = Diameter of the pipe (m) d= Diameter of orifice (m) K,, = Orifice coefficient (dimensionless) usually 0.61 P, = Pressure in the upstream 20 P, = Pressure in the downstream = Density of the fluid. The volumetric flow rate "q” is obtained by the product of "wand the area of the orifice A,. Volumetric or cubie flow rate q is given by (3.2) where q = Volumetric flow rate A, = Area of the orifice hote K, = Orifice coefficient (dimensionless) 3.2 VENTURIMETER 2 ir The equation for the flow of the fluid in the venturimeter is given byusing units) where V,, = The velocity of the fluid at the point B or Bat the throat = Experimental coefficient cy = Diameter of the pipe D, = Diameter of the pip D, = Diameter at the point B where the venturimeter is placed = Pressure at the point A Dy it the point = Pressure at the point B B te p = Density of the fluid. ‘The volumetric rate is given by av, - ue Bo The value of Cy is usually 0.98, Condition: Friction is neglected and pipe should be horizontal. 3.3 PITOT TUBE This is a device used to determine the vi flow at a given pt Figure 3.3. ity of the + The pitot tube meter is shown in : ‘SEagHETION Porn | Flow + eee toe) ay Fig. 3.3 Pitot tube The velocity is given by 3.5) where v = velocity at point B in the tube P= Stagnation pressure P,, = Static pressure p= Density of the fluid flowing at the static pressure P © = Dimensionless coefficient whose values values range from 0.98 to 1.0. 3.4 WEIRS Weirs are often used to determine the flow of water in open channels. Figure 3.4 shows the two types of weirs commonly used (a) rectangular (b) triangular. The volumetric flow rate for a rectangular welr is given by3 3 a= 5 wey nt (3.6) where w = width of the weir h = height of the water over the bottom edge of the weir C, = discharge coefficient (e ja ) Fig. 3.4 Weirs: (a)rectangular (b)erdangular For the triangular weir we have Bn 3.5 FLOW THROUGH OR FROM A TANK ‘The flow rate of fluid through a tank with a sharp-edged orifice (Fig- 3.5) and with no inflow is given by where C, = coefficient of discharge A, “area of the orifice On the other hand, the time ‘the tank to drop from depth h, needed for the fluid level in jo depth hy is given by (3.9) C yA where A, is the area of the tank. Ag ts th f the tank If the level in steady state is wanted when there is a constant rate of inflow, the following equation should be used (3.10) Fig. 3.5CHAPTER 4 VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION IN LAMINAR FLOW 4,1 SHELL MOMENTUM BALANCE Momentum transport occurs due to 1) Bulk motion of fluid. 2) Pressure forees acting on the fluid. 2) Gravity forces acting on the volume. For steady state rectilinear flow, the momentum balance is given as: (Rate of momentum in) ~ (Rate of momentum out) + (Sum of the forces acting _ 4 on the system) Boundary Conditions: of viseosity is assumed an jons are solved using the 2) Momentum flux and velocity gra both sides of the interface at the liqui 26 4.2 FLOW OF FALLING FILM Momentum in by flow | 5 Direction | Na of Gravity | | aI Fig. 4.1 Nomen Com out by flow Assumptions: 1) Flow is incompressible Steady state 3) vo=v 50 vito x Ny 2 By 4 momentum balance over a thin region Ax, we get the following equation aa Sen “gt = pe cosa aay‘The above differential equation for the momentum flux « may be integrated to give Tq 7 PEX cosa + C, (4.2) where C; is a constant Boundary Condition: Atx=0, 4, =0 By using above B+ ec, the value of constant C, = 0. Substituting this value’ of C, into equation (4.2), we get See = EX COBH 4.3) For the Newtonian fluid, momentum flux is related to the velocity gradient by the following relation av, te aE a4) Substituting this expression for +, in equation (4.3) gives the following differential equation for velocity distribution: aun pg cosa) We (me, a Integration of the above equation gives 27 Pee xt+c, 4.6) ‘The constant of integration C, can be calculated by using the following B +e Substitution of this boundary condition into equation (4.6) shows = [emcosd 5 c= (Pages 28 Therefore, the velocity distribution is an Hence the velocity profile is parabolic. Onee the velocity profile has been found, a number of quantities may be caleulated. (a) The maximum velocity V, fe asmax 1 clearly at x = 0, that 4.8) (>) The average velocity over a cross-section of the film is obtained by the following calculation: ¥ axay 4.9) (©) The volume rate of flow Q is obtained from the average velocity or by integration of the velocity distribution: 29 fv,dxdy = W 5 “fl cat men = - Pe. (aya. , PE ion safe = BS = 2 Fieea | tp where T= pee, > (e) The z-component of the force F of the fluid on the surface can be calculated as follows: F, = pg SWE cosa (4.12) 4.3 FLOW THROUGH A CIRCULAR TUBE Assumption: 1) Consider steady-state laminar flow. 30 2) The fluid is assumed to be incompressible. 3) Newtonian fluid. velocity shear stress pjee —-«igtyibution _gistribution 5 t it Saas i Fig. 4.2 Velocity and shear stress distribution in circular tubes. Net momentum efflux = Momentum out - Momentum in General Equation: @,-?, a) Det yp =o 8 © ar & yd “TE Boundary Conditions: Q) atr=0 tis finite yx @) atr=R v=o 4.3.1 VELOCITY PROFILE 4.13)4.3.2 MAXIMUM VELOCITY Vy max Hf the velocity at r= 0 2 (7 Py) a ee ay 4.3.3 AVERAGE VELOCITY ® (4.15) 4.3.4 VOLUMETRIC FLOW RATE 1, ~P,) oar R (4.16) 4.3.5 FORCE OF THE FLUID ON THE WELTED SURFACE OF THE PIPE = TR? OP, =P.) +H Lg aan 4.4 FLOW THROUGH AN ANNULUS General Equatio jelocity faistripution surface of zero omeem ‘Shear Stross distribution Fig. 4.3 Flow through a cylindrical annulus. Boundary Condition: () Atr=DR yy =0 (@) Atr=aR V=0 @ Atr=R | Vi =0 Solution: 4.4.1 SHEAR STRESS DISTRIBUTION (4.18) (4.19) 4.4.3 MAXIMUM VELOCITY Vacsmax ~ Vee = be‘THE VOLUMETRIC FLOW RATE Q Q= amt - ad= ~ PRY a-ay- ‘THE FORCE EXERTED BY THE FLUID ON THE SOLID + 2naR +1 rear 2nRL 9 vleon Fy = TRC ~ a2)(P, ~ PD 4.5 ADJACENT FLOW OF TWO IMMISCIBLE FLUIDS General Equation: dt, _P, ~ Py 23) Fane = Shoes Ye tie = f - fiterface 2” Direction » ut "of flow = Fig, 4-4 Shdar stress or ou onentun flux aésteibution distribution Equation for Phase I Equation for Phase IT Boundary Condition: 1 bo atx=0 4 2) atx=0 vi =v 3) atxs-b viz o 4) atx= Solu MOMENTUM FLUX (,,,): (, = Pe coVELOCITY PROFILE (V,): (4.25) The fluid has a viscosity y and density o and approaches the sphere vertically upward along the negative z-axis with uniform velocity V_. At every ‘there are Pressure and friction forces acting on the spherical surface. For very slow flow, the momentum flux distribut 71 4 | pressure distribution, and velocity components in spherical n_ Po 7 Py)b* coordinates have been found analytically to be ee vi tL (4.29) (4.26) 4.2 (4.30) 4.28) (ap 4.6 CREEPING FLOW AROUND (4.32) A SOLID SPHERE soundary condition wey, aces Th distribution at the surface of the sph v= Mp za fe Pressure distribution at the surface of the sphere i) y) os ‘ which is acting perpendicular to it Is } 7 i Pham =P opReose - $yt cos (4,33) B= faR%pq + 2m RY, 4.34) | Fluid approaches J 1 am pew een At each point on the surface force exerted by the fluid on the spher¢ 36 37F< duRV, 4.35) Sotution: -", Total foree 4.37) P= 4uR%g +20 RV, + 4m RV, 4,36) (buoyant (form (friction ‘ force) drag) ‘dzag) 4.8 ANNULAR FLOW WITH INNER CYLINDER MOVING 4.7 FLOW THROUGH A SLIT ese levtinder of inside a presse Pay |e lesa at pressure p, fod of radius ek rr Yoving with velocity v maT General equation of motion in eylindrical coordinates Heeeovy tb eovy+d (ov,) =0 Assumptions: 1 Incompressible, steady-state flow. Fluid out eS 2) V,=V, =0. Caen \ Consider the flow of the fluid in the direction of 2. ‘The equation of motion reduces to BOmieD ay, Cx) v 2 f = a eae Boundary Conditions: D atx=0 ti =0 xe Do atr=eR Visv 2 ates vi =0 2 2) atr=R Vi =0a a ( », ce « - ee fa an pea (4.39) Pees) Pee ee =o [2Eeeo] 4.9 THE GENERAL EQUATION OF CHANGE FOR ISOTHERMAL SYSTEM EQUATIONS OF CONTINUITY 2-component ap, 2 2 Ht ae (PM) tay OP i ut 2 Cylindvieal coordinates (r, 8 a ar andy tat ar COT YD) * Going Be (PY SNE) * 1 aint EQUATION OF MOTION IN GYLINDRICL COORDINATES Velocity gradients for a Newtonian fluid with constant 9 and yw: 40av av ay ~ component pf Fey —¥e y “Vey oy Saas of ae eT yt ee ap. (yy my "ty + Maat * yk aa] toe, component Le » s-oomponent [248+ x a + Te 1S cota “In these equations a 2st v3 oF EQUATION OF MOTION IN RECTANGULAR COORDINATES Velocity gradients for a Newtonian uid with constantCHAPTERS VELOCITY DISTRIBUTIONS WITH MORE THAN ONE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE 5.1 STEADY VISCOUS FLOW WITH TWO NON-VANISHING VELOCITY COMPONENTS: THE STREAM FUNCTION ious chapter there was only one non-vanishing component of the v - The solution to the lows in two and three A e this problem the ial equations may be simplified by formulation in stream function ¥. For flows with constant 9 and yu: the components g in a fourth order sealar equation for . 5.1.1 TWO DIMENSIONAL PLANAR MOTION 8) (io z-dependence. Rectangular coordinate system Velocity components are yee 20 ste eee aw x77 ay 'y “he The differential equation for y which is equivalent to the Navier-Stokes equation fs 2D 2 ay Cay eeu 2 (5.1) b) Cylindrical Coordinate system Velocity componentsExpression for the operator: = (cath alae VSS Set top 1 # #30 5.1.2 AXISYMMETRICAL MOTION 8) Cylindrical Coordinate System: Vp =9 and no © dependence. Velocity components are: veoh Equivalent Navier-Stokes Equation 2G _136.59) 290) ee FShay - ee = vet Expression for operator 22 ta, a BOS grt” rar tig BW: E(RYy) ») Spherical Coordinate System: ¥,= 0 and no § dependence, fs © dep. Velocity components: 6.3) 4) Fig. 5.1 Flow around a sphere forces acting at every There are pressure and friction f¢ e " point on the surface of the sphere. The Navier-Stoke's equation is used here 1d the solution. For steady state creeping flow, the Ieft side of the oquation is zero. The direction of flow is in the r-direotion. Thus ce ave #2 =0 ana Sh-9 General equation:In spherical coordinates: Profile in this case we use # , sine a (1 a Tt 1) The Cauchy-Riemann's equation Bet +p? ae (ak aejjyao JED WO) = 9G0y) +1 4609) 2 The complex potential equation Boundary Condition oy eior iam es apace pepe r i. - | 9@ =v. (e+ Do Ye" > Hping pe 70 atr=R ae] By spliting into real and imaginary parts ee ee Stream function Potential Function mb ve-dy vente arse Solution: Solution: The velocity profile is given as 6.9) | 6.0 I | oe o.8) o.9 i BOUNDARY LAYER THICKNESS ~}) Simplified boundary layer equation for laminar flow: dr by Uiiicontnutty > SE + Ge 0jotion + a ty Moti v vt vy, ey, Ga liaxte canyh Eh 2) Boundary layer thickness (6): Boundary layer thickness is the distance & from the wall out to where the fluid velocity is 99 percent of the main stream velocity. 3) Displacement thickness ( It is the distance by which the boundary would have to (5.10) 5.5 FLOW NEAR THE LEADING EDGE OF A FLAT PLATE | t i Bat, gg aie Fig. 5.3 Boundary layer thickness General Equation: Motion ‘ontinul ay, Continuity vy P¥y _g may Boundary Conditions: g(a) = 0 gg) = Yoo aS Assumption: a) Neglect the y-component By, oe b) Neglect the term ) Uniform flow. a) Velocity distribution ocy 6 b) Boundary layer thickness: (1)©) Drag foree: Bi = 1292/5 VT 4) Boundary layer equation: 2 D 5.6 SKIN FRICTION COEFFICIENT AND DRAG The drag caused by the viscous shear i layers is called the local skin friction coef! defined as ient 52 (5.13) (5.14) (5.15) (5.16) (.17) boundary and is, (6.18) ‘The loeal friction coefficient developed from the Blassius ‘equation is (5.19) Drag D on one side of whole plate of width "b" and length "L" having a laminar boundary layer is given by D = 0.664 bYLV ap and the total coefficient of skin friction for the whole plate is defined as where Re,l = Plate Reynolds number 5.7 FLOW NEAR|A WALL SUDDENLY SET IN MOTION =Oand v= v (yt). For this system v, ex! General Equation: 53Pace he teen ee ne CHAPTER6 B.Cl: aty=0 vi =v foralt> 0 B.Clzaty== vi =0 forallt> 0 Solution: 5 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY ——— pea 6.20 AND MECHANIS! OF ENERGY TRANSPORT ype eo <0 to eae fluid ygwarr — [hinstea 4 YVat rest’|set in AAO motion velocity: =~ 6.1 BASIC MECHANISM Fig. 5.4 unsteady viscous flow ‘There are three basle mechanisms by which heat transport takes place: conduction, convection and radiation. 6.1.1 CONDUCTION It is the transport of heat from one to another part of a body appreciable movem the ground during f molecules. Example: the freezing of 6.1.2 CONVECTION | ig the transport of heat energy which takes place by bulk movement and mixing of molecules of warmer portions with cooler portions of the same material. ‘There are two types of convection: 8) Forged Convection: In this type of convection the fluid is forced to flow p: solid small surface by a pump, fan or by mechanical means.b) Free Convection: In this type of conveetion, the heat is transferred due to the density difference resulting from the temperature gradient in the fluid. This is classified as free convection. Examples are (i) Loss of heat from a car radiator. Gi) Cooking of foods in a vessel with stirring. 6.1.3 RADIATION It is the transfer of heat energy through space or vacuum by means of electromagnetic waves. Heat transfer rate = Dtving force Resistance Driving force is a temperature drop across the solid, and the resistance is the barrier across which heat must flow. 6.2 FOURIER’S LAW The rate of heat flux is directly proportional to the temperature gradient. Mathematically, 6D 4, = Heat transfer rate in the direction of the * x-coordinate (watts) A = Cross-sectional area (M1, normal to the Gireetion of flow ‘T = Temperature in Ko k = Proportionality constant usually termed as w i ‘thermal conduetivity in a in wi @ = Heat flux in W/Mt 42 = Temperature gradien Ge = Temperature gradient. ‘The minus (-) sign is required beeause heat flows from @ higher temperature region to a lower temperature region. Fourier's law can be integrated for the case of steady-state heat transfer through a flat wall of area A. — _ [ioen fo om where T; = The temperature at x = xx, T. = The temperature at x = x, $ Ga~ my = ke veg. seta = (8.8) 6.3 NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING 1 heat flux is directly proportional to the overall temperature difference or q =ha(T, - 7.) (6.4) where q = heat flux A = heat transfer area T, = upstream temperature of solidT, = surface temperature of solid h = heat transfer coeffieiont (convection) in BTU /hr-f'F° 6.4 THERMAL RADIATION ‘The basic equation for heat transfer by radiation from a perfect black body with an emissivity © = 1.0 aq, = aa + “v (6.5) where dq = Rate of heat transfer by ra: from one side of the black element of area dA © = Stefan-Boltzmann's dimensional constant which is approximately equal to 5.676 = 10-* Wiat-K* T = Temperature of black body in K(R°) With a gray surface (which has emissivity less than a black body) “at a lower temperature than the enclosure temperature, the net absorption of energy due to radiation between the two bodies can be estimated by the equation -6) where © = Emissivity of the small body at. 0 = Stefan-Boltzman's constant ‘Ay= Area of the gray body (m*) 6.5 REDUCED THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY ts the ratio of the thermal conductivity at a given temperature and pressure fo. the thermal conductivity” at the Gaileat tempereture. ‘From figure. 6-1 the seduced” thermal cette and the ratuccl temperature ehow that the thonnal conductivity of a gas appronenes.« Uniting function Geta iow prescure,, Sut for most. gases this limit Js Shsentilly reuched at 1 alnosphere pressure. Aeauced terme cody he AhImportant points to remember: (a) Thermal eonduetivity of TH Bases at low density increases increasing temperature. (b) The thermal eondueti 6.6 FOURIER’S LAW OF HEAT CONDUCTION This can be . be explained using the trenspor theory by considering heat transfer throughs tak eee to larg parallel plato nich anaemic, ah et Shown ‘In figure 6.2. I is notigeable fromthe ‘igen 6°d Sint ag “ime Proceeds the tnperire Soin see i distribution is attained. ¥ @ Hnear steady temperature Solid inti ally ata <0 tem. 1, Lower plate suddenly raised to temp. 1, When this steady state condition is reached a constant rate of heat flow Q, through the slab is required to maintain the temperature difference,T; = Ty = AT. It is found that gant 6. ‘That is, heat flow per unit area is proportional to the temperature drop in the distance Y, where K is the constant of proportionality which is usually termed the thermal conductivity of the slab. ‘The heat flow per unit area in the positive directions x, y and 2 respectively ee ge a.--x2 aK ax, Oy ay, Oe Boe These three rel vector equation a= -kvT (6.8) which is the three-dimensional form of Fourier's law. “ions are the components of the single 6.7 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY of monoatomie polyatomic gases by using the following formulae: (CHAPMAN-ENSKOG nl x 21.9801 x 19-* LEAN] (Mfanoatomic gas)ngstroms (A°) and k is In Cal em™*see"*k->. BRIDGMAN'S EQUATION EUKEN'S FORMULA a 5R) x= (0, +f 8]p coyatns gy (6.1) 7? ay Colyatomi 5°)" y (Polyatomie 3s Sues (6.12) aL © = volume per motecute N © fap) : Vg = sonic velocity = let fe | (6.13) vv FA c, pe ec Ty = 1 for Hquids (except at critical pointy fap), (3p) _, “Sothermal compressibility correlation K = molecular heat capacity a CHAPTER7 STEADY STATE HEAT CONDUCTION IN ONE DIMENSION 7.1 SHELL ENERGY BALANCE Bnergy transport may oceur by: (1) Overall fluid motion: convective transport. (2) Dissipation of electric energy. (3) Nuclear fission. Viscous dissipation of mechanfeal energy. (5) Conversion of chemical energy to heat. For steady state conditions a shell energy balance is written below: (Rate of Rate of Rate of thermal energy | - [energy | + | energy -0 input output production ‘The boundary conditions employed are as follows: (2) The temperature and heat flux at a surface to be specified. 63(2) Newton's law of cooling is defined at the solid-fluid interface. (2) The continuity of heat flux and temperature are to be specified at the solid-solid interface, 7.2 STEADY STATE HEAT CONDUCTION IN ONE DIMENSION Governing differential equation For the steady state one-dimensional conduction with no internal heat generation, the general heat conduction reduces to: Cartesian Coordinates: ot =0 Cylindrical Coordinates: att 7.3 THERMAL CONDUCTANCE , THERMAL RESISTANCE AND CONVECTIVE THERMAL RESISTANCE | ‘Thermal conduetance C: ‘Thermal resistance Ry: Convective thermal resistance Ry cha Overall heat transfer aes coefficient U,: (OAT, | K = Thermal conduetivi h = Heat transfer coeff ent Ax = Thickness of the material. 7.4 THE PLANE WALL WITH SPECIFIED BOUNDARY TEMPERATURE Conditions: () Steady state ‘One-dimensional conduction Each fac intained at a uniform temperatureBoundary Conditions: @ tesa ety Gl) tGx = x2) = te 7.5 CONDUCTION THROUGH A HOLLOW CYLINDER Condition Steady state ‘One-dimensional con: of the cylinder and outside of the cylinder ed at specified temperature. (4) No internal heat generation. (5) Constant thermal conductivity. (6) Heat is flowing radially from inner surface to outer surface. Consider a cylinder of inner radius r, and outer radius r, and length Le General Equation: 9-92 a” kG Boundary Conditions: @ Ta=ry=T Q) Teer) =t Fig. 1.2 Solution: 2aL of} ask ch - T) ay or corer a=" where A= 2nrk 7.6 CONDUCTION THROUGH A SOLID IN SERIES (2) Plane wall in series General EquationBoundary Conditions: @) TGs) = Tr (&) TEr = x2) = Te (©) Texan =Ts Solution q= pth --B Big Oxy Fy Ry KAA *RB R, and Ry are called resistance. (2) Conduction through multilayer cylinder (1.2) General Equation: Boundary Conditions: @) TO (b) To = (e) Ter=ry) = Ts (a) Ter= nm) = Te Solution: a3) Som = As- As aE7.7 HEAT CONDUCTION WITH AN ELECTRICAL HEAT SOURCE Uniform heat production gy [tty by electric dissipation, on Pig. 7.5 tn this) problem it is desired to determine the temperature profile obtainable from tho heat souree H, = & where ¢ is the current in the wire and K, Is the electrical conductivity of the material element (usually a wire). Solution: Thermal energy balance on a cylindrical slice of thiekness dr yields a ar (ra,) = Hr Boundary Condition 1 Atr=0, q, is finite, Then Boundary Condition 2: Atr=R, T=T so that 9 (2) Maxiaum temperature rae (at = 0): anal (7.5) 1-2 2) Average temperature rise: a R | { tra - marae 0 = T) = yer | [vera 0(3) Thermal energy flow for entire length "L" Them length "L" and surface an 7.8 HEAT CONDUCTION WITH A CHEMICAL HEAT SOURCE Fig. 7.6 az Assumptions: () Radial velocity gradient is assumed ne (2) Superficial velocity of the entering reactant is -_w “GRD (9) Axial heat conduction follows Fourier's law with axial effective thermal conductivity. (4) The volume rate of thermal energy production by Chemical reactions H, is given by ee (eteat ago ta = | ‘T= Local temperature i. and T? = Empirical constants for the given RB reactor inlet conditions. General Equation: Zone 1 (Z <0) ar, ar! _ “K, ett azz * 2%: Op ae? Jone I @ 1) Ky ett a * 2 Sp ae Boundary Conditions: 1 Q) atZ=-« ther, (@ ataao tert 1 a (3) at Zao er ce Ky ett OZ ~¥z,ett “dz BTea era a 7.9 HEAT TRANSFER FROM FINS ©) atz=L art apt Kuyett GZ *Ks,ete ae Fins are used to increase the effective surface area in heat exchangers, internal combustion engines, ete. (6) atZ=0 oll. finite ‘The generalized Fin equation: Solution: Zone 1 mame(oy ~ ols — | gels — mgets co A(x) = Area of cross-section Zone 11 S(x) = Surface area @ =H) -T, Tt = (meteatat — myemebst woh 9) abe 2 7.9.1 UNIFORM CROSS-SECTION (7.19) aconvective where m = 5 BQ - v= CNTB)) =$8Q + /T= NTE) sae Fig. 7.7 eT owe, TY 1 acGeneral Equation: where 9 =T-T, ‘T, = fluid temperature if P = Perimeter of the fin. Boundary Conditions: (1) 9(0) = ey = T,- h, a es ae to ee t ® where h, = Average heat transfer coefficient. Solution: £ . cosh{m¢Lox)) + Hsinh{m¢L=29) . Ty cosh mL + Hsinh mb ee) Heat flow rate: inh mL + Heosh ml. * cosh mL + Hsinh mb 1.33) a = mas, Insulated end: (x = L ee To Tt _ cosntmas = 391 Be Ta, © Seah me 1 6 q=kAm 8» tanh ol 7.9.2 NON-UNIFORM CROSS-SECTION Annular fins come under this section. (e) = an(e?-rb?) Fig. 7.8 Boundary Conditions: 0(ryb) = 89 = Ty ~ Ty : Hint: Use Fourler's law of conduction. Tome) + Ky(mr,) + Ko(meyT, (mr) © GE KGa, FR Ga, HE) n ayTHE BEST AND MOST COMPREHENSIVE IN TEST PREPARATION COLLEGE BOARD ACHIEVEMENT TEST CHEMISTRY Based on the most recent exams. Six full length exams. Each exam is 1 hour. lution methods illustrated in detail. questions are extensively Almost every type of question that can be expected on the Chemistry Achievement Test. Complete Answer Key follows every exam. students to discover their strengths and es and thereby become better prepared. Available at your local bookstore or order directly from us by sending in coupon below. SO Mastercard Expiration Date (o./¥r.) ‘THE BEST AND MOST COMPREHENSIVE IN ‘TEST PREPARATION MCAT MEDICAL COLLEGE ADMISSION TEST © Based on the most recent exams. © Six full length exams. Over 750 pages. ‘© Each exam is 64 hours. © Solution methods to questions are extensively explained in detail. © Almost every type of question that can be ‘pected on an MCAT. © Complete Answer Key follows every exam. yaknesses and thereby become better prepared. Available at your local bookstore or order directly from us by sending in coupon below. Phone:(201) 819-8680 RESEARCH and EDUCATION ASSOCIATION {G1 Ethel Road West » Piscataway, Nod. Please c Check enclosed Charge ‘Care Number box! Mastercard Expiration Dato (Mo. 75), Please ship the "CBAT Chemistry" @ $12.95 plus $2.00 for shipping. Please ship the MCAT € $17.85 plus $2.00 for shipping. = Rae Nome. | * Enables students to discover their strengths and | AddressTHE ENGLISH HANDBOOK HANDBOOK AND GUIDE OF FOR GRAMMAR, STYLE, SELECTING A CAREER AND | EPARING FOR THE FUTURE COMPOSITIO AND PRI This book illustrates the rules and numer exceptions that te 8 of grammar and writing. Over 250 careers are covered. Each car in detail including: + Young Job-Seek | ae characterite ofthe Enaishanovage, i teat dept, ae + Persone Seeking carne | + Persone Entering the Labor Fores © Ove 100 examples comparing correct and wrong usage sie 2 raining and Education rates spelling “tricks” and how to remember correct 3 ing. © Teaches how to acquire good writing skills, © Provides special learning exercises at the end of each chapter to prepare for homework and ex: © Fully Indexed for locating specific topics Available at your local bookstore or order directly Available at your local bookstore or order directly from us by sending in coupon below, from us by sending in coupon below. ] RESEARCH and EDUCATION ASSOCIATION aoe He ti fp, 61 Ethel Road Ph NJ. 08884 tO MasterCard Expiration Dato (Mo. ¥5.), | Please "career Handbook” @ $15.95 plus $2.00 for shipping. ship the "English Handbook" @ $12.95 plus $2.00 for shipping. Please ship the "Career Handbook” @ $15.95 plHANDBOOK AND GUIDE FOR COMPARING and SELECTING COMPUTER LANGUAGES BASIC. PL/1 FORTRAN APL PASCAL ALGOL-60 col c © This book is the © It oxemines and high Fences and similarities among tho eight most widely used com; languages. ® A practical guide for selecting the most appropriate programming language for any given task. © Sample programs in all eight languages are written and compared ‘side-by-side. Their merits are analyzed and evaluated. © Comarehensive glossary of computer terms. Available at your local bookstore or order directly from us by sending in coupon below. is kind ever produced in computer science, HANDBOOK of MATHEMATICAL, SCIENTIFIC, and ENGINEERING FORMULAS, TABLES, FUNCTIONS, GRAPHS, TRANSFORMS rticularly useful reference for those in math, science, ongingering and other technial field. Inchide bostofion used formulas, tables, transforms, functions, anc Graphs which are needed as. tools in solving problems. The EXtire field. of special. functions is’ also ‘covered. A. large tmount of” scientific. data which ie often of interest to Scientists and engineers has been inchided. Available at your local bookstore or order directly from us by sending in coupon below.[ THE PROBLEM SOLVERS with step- by-si ranged in order} elementary weed. Each book is fully. indexed for locating problems rapidly. [ADVANCED CALCULUS ‘GEOMETRY: [ALGEBRA & TRIGONOMETRY orto aneria ‘urowane conto. EAT TRANSFER | ‘SYSTEMSIROBOTICS LINEAR ALGEBRA BioLocy MACHINE DESIGN BUSINESS, ACCOUNTING, MECHANICS: es onsen ‘RFINANCE NUMERICAL ANALYSIS. | cALcuLus ‘OPERATIONS RESEARCH | ccuemisTaY ornes ‘COMPLEX VARIABLES ‘ORGANIC CHEMISTRY ‘COMPUTER SCIENCE PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS PHYSICS ECONOMICS PRE-CALCULUS | ELECTRICAL MACHINES PeveHoLocy ELECTRIC CIRCUITS stansrics| ELECTROMAGNETICS STRENGTH OF MATERIALS & ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS MECHANICS OF SOLIDS ELECTRONICS ‘TECHNICAL DESIGN GRAPHICS | FINITE and DISCRETE MATH THERMODYNAMICS FLUID MECHANICS/DYNAMICS ‘TRANSPORT PHENOMENA: { lacs) VECTOR ANALYSIS | If you would like more information about any of these books, Lembttte “ie coupon below and return it to us or go to your loc | { Please send me more information about your | Problem Solver Books.