Rocket Propulsion

Ujjwal K. Saha
Professor of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati
Guwahati-781 039, India
E-mail: saha@iitg.ac.in
Rocket Nozzles
 Convert thermal energy of
hot chamber gases into
kinetic energy and direct
that energy along nozzle
axis.

 Mathematically, ultimate
purpose of nozzle is to
expand gases as efficiently
as possible so as to
maximize exit velocity.

U K Saha, IIT Guwahati, India

2
E-mail: saha@iitg.ernet.in
Ideal Rocket:
 The concept is useful because the relevant
thermodynamic principles can be expressed as simple
mathematical relationships.

 These expressions theoretically describe a quasi-one-

dimensional nozzle flow, which is again an idealization and
simplification of 2D or 3D equations and the real aero-
thermo-chemical behaviour.

 However, with some assumptions (!!!!) and simplifications,

they give useful solutions to many rocket propulsion
systems.

 For chemical rockets, the measured actual performance

is usually lie between 1-6% below the ideal values.

 Thus, for a new design, ideal parameters are modified by

appropriate correction factors (!!!!).

U K Saha, IIT Guwahati, India

3
E-mail: saha@iitg.ernet.in
Ideal Rocket – Assumptions
 The working fluid is a perfect gas with constant
composition.

 No heat transfer across the wall (adiabatic flow).

 No appreciable friction and the effect of boundary layer

ignored.

 No shockwaves/discontinuities in the nozzle flow.

 Propellant flow is steady and constant. Transient effects

(startup/shutdown) are of short duration and may be
neglected.

 Velocity, temperature, pressure and density are uniform

at any cross-section normal to the nozzle axis.

 Exhaust gas leaves the nozzle axially.

U K Saha, IIT Guwahati, India

4
E-mail: saha@iitg.ernet.in
Conservation of Energy

v 2
ho  h 
2

Between any two sections x and y

2 v 2
v
hx  x  hy  y
2 2
 
or, C p Tx  T y = 1  y2  vx2 
2 

Conservation of Mass

mx  m y  m   Av 
Av
V
U K Saha, IIT Guwahati, India
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E-mail: saha@iitg.ernet.in
Perfect Gas Laws
pxVx  RTx
cp

cv
c p  cv  R R Universal gas constant
R u 
m molar mass
cp   R
 1

Isentropic Relations
 1  1
 
Tx   px    Vy 
  
Ty  py   Vx 
   

U K Saha, IIT Guwahati, India

6
E-mail: saha@iitg.ernet.in
From
v 2
ho  h 
2
We can write
v 2
To  T 
2c p

Remains constant for adiabatic flow


po  1 v2   1
p  2c pT  M  av  v
 RT
In combustion chamber, M <1, subsonic
M =1, sonic
v0 M >1, supersonic
po  p and To  T
U K Saha, IIT Guwahati, India
7
E-mail: saha@iitg.ernet.in
 v v
M= =
a  RT
M < 1, subsonic
M = 1, sonic
M > 1, supersonic

Supersonic Nozzle
M=1, at throat

Thus
To  1  1 M 2
T 2

po  1  1 M 2   1
p  2 

U K Saha, IIT Guwahati, India

8
E-mail: saha@iitg.ernet.in
Area Ratio
Axvx Ay v y
mx  m y  
Vx Vy
Ay V y vx V y M x  RTx
or,  .  .
Ax Vx v y Vx M y  RTy  1  1
Tx   px   V 
 y 
V y M x Tx Ty  py   Vx 
 . .    

Vx M y T y
To  Tx 1  1 M x2 
 
1 1 2
 
M x  Tx   1  Tx  2
 . To  T y 1  1 M y2 
 
M y  Ty   Ty   2 
   
 1 T 1  1 M y2
Ay M x  Tx  2 1  x 2
T y 1   1 M 2
 .  2 x
Ax M y  T y 
 

U K Saha, IIT Guwahati, India

9
E-mail: saha@iitg.ernet.in
Using
To  Tx 1  1 M x2   T y 1  1 M y2 
   

 2   2 

1   1 M 2
y
 Tx  2
T y 1   1 M 2
2 x

We arrive at  1
Ay
   1  
 2  1
M x 1 2 M y 
2
 
Ax M y 1  1 M 2 
 2 x
 
 1

 1
 1 M 2   1
Ay M x y
  2 
Ax M y 
1   1 M 2 
 2 x
 
U K Saha, IIT Guwahati, India
10
E-mail: saha@iitg.ernet.in
Conservation of Energy
v 2
ho  h 
2
2 v 2
v
hx  x  hy  y
2 2
 2 
or, C p Tx  T y = 1  y2  vx2 
 

 C p T1  T2  
1 2 2
 v2  v1 
2 
v22  2C p T1  T2   v12
  1 
 R   p2   
v2  2 T 1    v2
 1 1   p1   1
 
 

U K Saha, IIT Guwahati, India

11
E-mail: saha@iitg.ernet.in
   1 
 p2   
v2  2
 R 
T1 1  
    v2
 1   p1   1
 
 

v1  Nozzle approach velocity = very small

  1 
 RT1   p2   
v2  2 1  
 1   p1  
 
 
p 
f  2 ,  , R,T1 
 p1 
 
T1  Absolute temperature

U K Saha, IIT Guwahati, India

12
E-mail: saha@iitg.ernet.in
Nozzle Exit Velocity

  1 
 RT1   p2   
v2  2 1   
 1   p1  
  R  Ru ; more pronounced
  m
T1; more pronounced
  1 
p1
 RTc   pe     NPR
ve  2 1   p2
 1   pc  
 
 

 Any increase in T1 (gas temperature) or decrease in

molar mass of propellant gives high v2, and this would
give high Isp.
 Performance increases with the rise of pressure ratio.

U K Saha, IIT Guwahati, India

13
E-mail: saha@iitg.ernet.in
Comparison of Isp Values

Value of pressure ratio p1  6.894 MPa

is to be standardized p2  0.1013 MPa

For optimum expansion, p 2  p3

p p 
 c  v2   2 3 A
 m  3
 
c  v2
Thus, v2   c opt

For a fixed nozzle area expansion ratio (A2/At) and chamber

pressure (p1), the optimum condition occurs at a particular
altitude, where p2 =p3.

U K Saha, IIT Guwahati, India

14
E-mail: saha@iitg.ernet.in
Maximum Theoretical Velocity
  1 
2 R   p2   
v2  T 1  
 1 1   p1  
 
 
2 R
 v2  max
 T
 1 1
Infinite expansion

m
At the Nozzle Throat,  
 A max


po   1 2   1
 1 M 
p  2  
  pt   2  1
or ,  

p1   1  1    1   1
 1   
p1   1 
pt  2   2 
Critical Pressure Ratio
Typical: 0.53 < CPR < 0.57
U K Saha, IIT Guwahati, India
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E-mail: saha@iitg.ernet.in
At the point of critical pressure (the throat) M=1, and then the
values of temperature and specific volume can be obtained as
given below:
To  1  1 M 2
T 2
 T1  1  1   1
Tt 2 2
 
 Tt   2  T1
  1 

  1 
 
vt  2 R T 1  pt     2 R T 1 2 
 
 1 1   p1    1 1   1
 
 

 2 R T1  1  2 R T1   R 2 T1   RTt
 1   1   1  1
U K Saha, IIT Guwahati, India
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E-mail: saha@iitg.ernet.in
Mass Flow
At 2 R T p1 At 2 R T
At vt  1 1  1 1
m  1
 1
Vt
V1    1   1 RT1    1   1
 

 2   2 
1 1
p1 At   2 2  2   1
 
  
 
RT1   1    1 
 1
p A   2  2 1
 1 t 
 
RT1   1 

p1 At RT1 1 RT1 *
   1  c
m  
 2  2 1
 
  1 

17
Mass Flow
p1 At RT1 1 RT1 *
   1
 c
m  
 2  2  1
 
 
   1 
 1
 2  2 1
where,     
  1 


c  Characteristic velocity  p1 At  RT1

m 

 Figure of merit for the performance of propellant and is

proportional to square root of energy released in the chamber
reaction.
U K Saha, IIT Guwahati, India
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E-mail: saha@iitg.ernet.in
Thrust
F  mv2   p2  p3  A2
  1 
 p   
2 R   2 
 p2  p3  A2
pA
 1* t T1 1  
c  1   p1  
 
 
 
  1 
2 R   p2   

 p2  p3  A2
p1At
  T1 1  
RT1  1   p1  
 
 
 1   1 
 2  2 1 2 R  p   
 p2  p3  A2
pA
 1 t    T1 1   2  
RT1   1   1   p1  
 
 
 1   1 
2  2   1 
2 p   
 p1 At  
 1    1 
1 

2 
 p1 


 p2  p3  A2
   
 

Thus the thrust  throat area (At), chamber pressure (p1), and is a function of
nozzle pressure ratio (p1/p2), and specific heat ratio () and the pressure thrust.
Thrust   1 
 p   
2 R   2  
F  mv2   p2  p3  A2   p2  p3  A2
p1At
T 1 
*
c  1 1   p1  
 
 
  1 
2 R   p2   
 p2  p3  A2
p1At
  T1 1  
RT1  1   
p1  
  
 
Thrust Coefficient
  1 
F 2   p2     p p A
  1    2 3 2
p1 At  1   p1   
 p1  At
 
 
p p A
 CF  CFo   2 3  2
 p1  At


The CF is a function of , the nozzle area ratio () and the pressure ratio
across the nozzle (p1/p2), but independent of chamber temperature (T1).
Thrust and Thrust Coefficient
 p2  p3  A2
CF  CFo   
 p1  At

When p2 = p3, CF  CFo

The CF is a parameter to see the effects of chamber pressure or altitude

variation in a given nozzle configuration or to correct sea level results for
flight altitude conditions.

Thrust can now be expressed as

F  CF p1 At  CF mc*

Nozzle Exit Velocity

  1    1 
2 R   p2    RT1 2   p2   
v2  T 1    . 1    c.CFo
 1 1   p1     1   p1  
   
   
Thrust Coefficient and Thrust

p p A
 CF  CFo   2 3  2
 p1  At

p p A
CF p1 At  CFo p1 At  p1 At  2 3  2
 p1  At

p p A
F  Fo  p1 At  2 3 2
 p1  At

Nozzle Area Expansion Ratio

A
 2 2
At 1
 p2 
  C How


p1  Fo ???
Nozzle Area Expansion Ratio
 1  1
A v Av
m 2 2  t t Tt  pt  
 
V 
  2 
V2 Vt T2  p2   Vt 
 
1 p1   1  1    1   1
 1  
A2 V2 vt  pt   RTt pt  2   2 

or,  .   
At Vt v2  p2    1   2   1
 pt    p1
2 R T 1   p2      1 
 
 1 1   p1    T1  1  1   1
  Tt 2 2
 
 
 Tt   2  T1
  1 
1  R 2 T1 1
 pt    1  pt   1
   
 
 p2    1   2 
p   1 
2 R T 1   p2      1 1   p2   
   
 1 1   p1    1   p1  
   
   
Nozzle Area Expansion Ratio
1 1
 2   1 

2  1
  
A2   1  1  1 
   
At 1   1  1   1 
 p2    1 1   p2   


 
 
 p2   1 2 1  p2   
 p1   1   p1  



p1  2  1  

p1  
    
   
 1
1 1 2   1
 2 2
 2   1  
  1    1   2 
        1 
1   1  1   1 
 p2   2   p2     p   2   p2   
 
  1   p    2 1    
 1
p 1   1   p1   1   p1  
   

A . 2
  2   1
At 1   1 
 p2   2 1   p2   
 p2  
       CF
 p1  o

 p1   1   p1   
 
 
 References
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U K Saha, IIT Guwahati, India

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E-mail: saha@iitg.ernet.in
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3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta_2000#/media/File:Delta_2914_launching_IUE_spacecraft.jpg
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27. http://www.answers.com/main
28. http://www.astronautix.com
29. http://www.spaceatdia.org/uploads/luca/Space%20Shuttle%20Propulsion%202010.pdf
30. http://science.nasa.gov/missions/
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35. http://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/postsecondary/features/F_Spacecraft_Classification.html
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41. http://www.space-propulsion.com/spacecraft-propulsion/propellant-tanks/manufacturing.html

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