Model Atom JJ.

Thomson

Pada awal 1900an, J.J. Thomson mengusulkan model atom baru yang mengikutkan
keberadaan partikel elektron dan proton. Karena eksperimen menunjukkan proton
memiliki massa yang jauh lebih besar dibandingkan elektron, maka model Thomson
menggambarkan atom sebagai proton tunggal yang besar. Di dalam partikel proton,
Thomson memasukkan elektron yang menetralkan adanya muatan positif dari proton.
Menurut Thomson, atom terdiri dari suatu bulatan bermuatan positif dengan rapat muatan
yang merata. Di dalam muatan positif ini tersebar elektron dengan muatan negatif yang
besarnya sama dengan muatan positif. Cara yang populer untuk menggambarkan model
ini adalah dengan menganggap elektron sebagai kismis (plumb) di dalam kue puding
proton, sehingga model ini diberi nama model kue kismis (plumb-pudding model).
Walaupun model atom Thomson adalah yang pertama yang memasukkan konsep adanya
proton dan elektron yang bermuatan, model Thomson tidak mampu melewati
pengamatan pada eksperimen-eksperimen berikutnya. Sebagai catatan, proton yang
digunakan dalam model Thomson ini bukanlah partikel proton yang ditemukan di model
yang lebih modern. Bahkan sesungguhnya dapat dikatakan model Thomson tidak
memiliki proton, namun sebuah sel bermuatan positif.
Pengaruh model atom Dalton dapat dilihat dengan jelas pada model Thomson. Dalton
berspekulasi bahwa atom adalah benda padat, dan Thomson mendukung gagasan ini
dalam modelnya dengan mengelompokkan elektron dan proton bersama-sama.

Dari hasil percobaannya, Thomson menyatakan bahwa sinar katoda merupakan partikel
penyusun atom (partikel sub atom) yang bermuatan negatif yang selanjutnya dinamakan
sebagai elektron. Atom merupakan partikel yang bersifat netral. Oleh karena elektron
bermuatan negatif, maka untuk menghasilkan muatan total netral harus ada muatan
positif. Dengan demikian, Thomson telah menyempurnakan teori atom dari Dalton dan
mengemukakan teori atomnya yang dinamakan sebagai teori atom Thomson. Teori atom
Thomson menyatakan bahwa:

“Atom merupakan bola pejal yang bermuatan positif dan didalamya tersebar muatan
negatif elektron”

The electron was identified as a particle in 1897 by J. J. Thomson and his team of British
physicists.[6][9] Electrons are identical particles that belong to the first generation of the
lepton particle family. Electrons have quantum mechanical properties of both a particle
and a wave, so they can collide with other particles and be diffracted like light. Each
electron occupies a quantum state that describes its random behavior upon measuring a
physical parameter, such as its energy or spin orientation. Because they are a type of
fermion, no two electrons can occupy the same quantum state; a property known as the
Pauli exclusion principle.[10]

In 1896, British physicist J. J. Thomson, with his colleagues John S. Townsend and H. A.
Wilson,[6] performed experiments indicating that cathode rays really were unique
particles, rather than waves, atoms or molecules as was believed earlier. Thomson made
good estimates of both the charge e and the mass m, finding that cathode ray particles,
which he called "corpuscles," had perhaps one thousandth of the mass of the least
massive ion known: hydrogen. He showed that their charge to mass ratio, e/m, was
independent of cathode material. He further showed that the negatively charged particles
produced by radioactive materials, by heated materials and by illuminated materials were
universal.[23] The name electron was again proposed for these particles by the Irish
physicist George F. Fitzgerald, and it has since gained universal acceptance.[20]

[sunting] J.J. Thomson: Elektron

Pada tahun 1899, Joseph John Thomson meneliti cahaya ultraungu dalam tabung sinar
katoda. Dipengaruhi oleh kerja James Clerk Maxwell, Thomson menyimpulkan bahwa
sinar katoda terdiri atas partikel-partikel bermuatan negatif, yang dia sebut corpuscles
(belakangan disebut "elektron"). Dalam penelitian tersebut, Thomson menempatkan pelat
logam (yaitu, katoda) dalam tabung hampa, dan menyinarinya dengan radiasi frekuensi
tinggi.

Kelemahan Teori atom Thomson

Tidak dapat menjelaskan bagaimana susunan elektron dan muatan positif di dalam atom

Perkembangan Berikutnya
Penemuan-penemuan baru dalam bidang fisika ternyata mampu membuka cakrawala
baru pemahaman atom oleh manusia. Penemuan elektron oleh J.J. Thomson
menyebabkan model atom yang dikemukakan Dalton tidak dapat diterima lagi. Dengan
gugurnya model atom Dalton ini, Thomson terdorong untuk mengemukakan teori atom
baru yang dikemukakannya pada tahun 1904. Thomson melukiskan bahwa atom
bukanlah merupakan partikel terkecil yang tidak dapat dibagi-bagi lagi, seperti yang
dipahami manusia sebelumnya. Ia melukiskan bahwa atom mempunyai bentuk seperti
bola yang muatan positifnya terbagi merata ke seluruh isi atom. Muatan positif itu
dinetralkan oleh elektron-elektron bermuatan negatif yang tersebar di antara muatan
positif tadi. Teori atom ini diterima secara luas oleh para ilmuwan hingga akhir abad ke-
18.

Dalam perjalanan berikutnya, teori atom Thomson inipun akhirnya gugur oleh pengujian
yang dilakukan Ernest Rutherford. Pengujian itu dilakukan dengan cara menembaki
lempengan emas yang sangat tipis (ketebalan 0,01 mm) dengan partikel alfa. Apabila
model atom Thomson itu benar, maka gerakan partikel alfa tidak akan dibelokkan
sewaktu menumbuk lempeng emas.

Elektron
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Estimasi teoritis dari densitas elektron untuk atom Hidrogen dengan beberapa orbit
elektron

Elektron adalah partikel subatomik. Memiliki muatan listrik negatif sebesar -1.6 × 10-19
coulomb, dan massanya 9.10 × 10-31 kg (0.51 MeV/c2).

Elektron umumnya ditulis sebagai e-. Elektron memiliki partikel lawan yang dikenal
sebagai positron yang identik dengan dirinya namun bermuatan positif.

Atom tersusun dari inti berupa proton dan neutron serta elektron-elektron yang
mengelilingi inti tadi. Elektron sangat ringan jika dibandingkan dengan proton dan
neutron. Sebutir proton sekitar 1800 kali lebih berat daripada elektron.

Elektron adalah salah satu dari sekelas partikel subatom yang dikenal dengan lepton yang
dipercaya merupakan partikel dasar (yakni, mereka tak dapat dipecah lagi ke dalam
bagian yang lebih kecil). Elektron memiliki spin 1/2, artinya elektron merupakan sebuah
fermion, dengan kata lain, mematuhi statistik Fermi-Dirac.

Sejarah

Elektron pertama kali ditemukan oleh J.J. Thomson di Laboratorium Cavendish,

Universitas Cambridge, pada tahun 1897, pada saat beliau sedang mempelajari "sinar
katoda".

[sunting] Rincian Teknis

Penjelasan mengenai elektron dibahas di mekanika kuantum dengan Persamaan Dirac.

Dalam Model Standarnya, elektron membentuk suatu doublet dalam SU(2) dengan
neutrino elektron, karena ia berinteraksi lewat interaksi lemah. Elektron memiliki dua
rekan massive lagi, yang muatannya sama namun berbeda massanya: muon dan tau.
[sunting] Arus Listrik

Jika elektron bergerak, lepas bebas dari pengaruh inti atom, serta terdapat suatu aliran
(net flow), aliran ini dikenal sebagai arus listrik. Ini dapat dibayangkan sebagai
serombongan domba yang bergerak bersama-sama ke utara namun tanpa diikuti oleh
penggembalanya. Muatan listrik dapat diukur secara langsung menggunakan
elektrometer. Arus listrik dapat diukur secara langsung menggunakan galvanometer.

Apa yang dikenal dengan "listrik statis" bukanlah aliran elektron sama sekali. Ini lebih
tepat disebut sebagai sebuah "muatan statik", mengacu pada sebuah benda yang memiliki
lebih banyak atau lebih sedikit elektron daripada yang dibutuhkan untuk mengimbangi
muatan positif sang inti. Jika terdapat kelebihan elektron, maka benda tadi dikatakan
sebagai "bermuatan negatif". Jika terdapat kekurangan elektron dibanding proton, benda
tersebut dikatakan "bermuatan positif". Jika jumlah elektron dan proton adalah sama,
benda tersebut dikatakan "netral".

[sunting] Penemuan

Sekitar periode 1870-an, Ahli kimia dan fisika Inggris, Sir William Crookes membuat
tabung sinar katoda pertama untuk menghasilkan ruang hampa udara bertekanan tinggi
didalamnya.[1] Dia kemudian menunjukkan bahwa sinar luminescence yang muncul dalam
tabung membawa energi dan bergerak dari katoda ke anoda. Lebih jauh, dengan
menerapkan sebuah medan magnet, dia dapat mengalihkan sinar tersebut, sehingga hal
ini dapat memperagakan bahwa cahaya dapat dikendalikan dengan sinar negatif.[2][3] Pada
tahun 1879, dia mengusulkan hal ini dapat dijelaskan secara logika dengan apa yang dia
sebut sebagai persamaan 'radiant matter'. Dia menyarankan bahwa pada keadaan seperti
ini, bagian cahaya ini akan mengandung molekul negatif yang dapat diarahkan dengan
kecepatan tinggi dengan menggunakan katoda.[4]

J. J. Thomson
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J. J. Thomson
Sir Joseph John Thomson (1856-1940). Portrait by Arthur Hacker.

18 December 1856
Born
Cheetham Hill, Manchester, UK
30 August 1940 (aged 83)
Died
Cambridge, UK
Nationality United Kingdom
Fields Physics
Institutions University of Cambridge
University of Manchester
Alma mater
University of Cambridge
John Strutt (Rayleigh)
Academic advisors
Edward John Routh
Charles Glover Barkla
Charles T. R. Wilson
Ernest Rutherford
Francis William Aston
John Townsend
J. Robert Oppenheimer
Owen Richardson
Notable students William Henry Bragg
H. Stanley Allen
John Zeleny
Daniel Frost Comstock
Max Born
T. H. Laby
Paul Langevin
Balthasar van der Pol
 Plum pudding model
Discovery of electron
Discovery of isotopes
Mass spectrometer invention
First m/e measurement
Known for Proposed first waveguide
Thomson scattering
Thomson problem
Coining term 'delta ray'
Coining term 'epsilon radiation'
Thomson (unit)
Notable awards Nobel Prize for Physics (1906)
Religious stance Anglican
Signature

Notes
Thomson is the father of Nobel laureate George Paget
Thomson.

Sir Joseph John “J.J.” Thomson, OM, FRS (18 December 1856 – 30 August 1940) was
a British physicist and Nobel laureate, credited for the discovery of the electron and of
isotopes, and the invention of the mass spectrometer. He was awarded the 1906 Nobel
Prize in Physics for the discovery of the electron and his work on the conduction of
electricity in gases.
Contents
[hide]

• 1 Biography
o 1.1 Career
 1.1.1 Cathode rays
 1.1.1.1 First experiment
 1.1.1.2 Second experiment
 1.1.1.3 Third experiment
 1.1.2 Nobel Prize
 1.1.3 Isotopes and mass spectrometry
 1.1.4 Other work
• 2 Awards
• 3 Bibliography
• 4 Notes
• 5 References

• 6 External links

[edit] Biography

Joseph J. Thomson was born in 1856 in Cheetham Hill, Manchester in England, of

Scottish parentage. His father died when he was 16 years old.[1] In 1870 he studied
engineering at University of Manchester known as Owens College at that time, and
moved on to Trinity College, Cambridge in 1876. In 1880, he obtained his BA in
mathematics (Second Wrangler and 2nd Smith's prize) and MA (with Adams Prize) in
1883. In 1884 he became Cavendish Professor of Physics. One of his students was Ernest
Rutherford, who would later succeed him in the post. In 1890 he married Rose Elisabeth
Paget, daughter of Sir George Edward Paget, KCB, a physician and then Regius
Professor of Physic at Cambridge. He fathered one son, George Paget Thomson, and one
daughter, Joan Paget Thomson, with her. One of Thomson's greatest contributions to
modern science was in his role as a highly gifted teacher, as seven of his research
assistants and his aforementioned son won Nobel Prizes in physics. His son won the
Nobel Prize in 1937 for proving the wavelike properties of electrons.

He was awarded a Nobel Prize in 1906, "in recognition of the great merits of his
theoretical and experimental investigations on the conduction of electricity by gases." He
was knighted in 1908 and appointed to the Order of Merit in 1912. In 1914 he gave the
Romanes Lecture in Oxford on "The atomic theory". In 1918 he became Master of
Trinity College, Cambridge, where he remained until his death. He died on 30 August
1940 and was buried in Westminster Abbey, close to Sir Isaac Newton.

Thomson was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society on 12 June 1884 and was
subsequently President of the Royal Society from 1915 to 1920.
Sir Joseph John Thomson.

[edit] Career

[edit] Cathode rays

Thomson conducted a series of experiments with cathode rays and cathode ray tubes
leading him to the discovery of electrons and subatomic particles. Thomson used the
cathode ray tube in three different experiments.

[edit] First experiment

In his first experiment, he investigated whether or not the negative charge could be
separated from the cathode rays by means of magnetism. He constructed a cathode ray
tube ending in a pair of cylinders with slits in them. These slits were in turn connected to
an electrometer. Thomson found that if the rays were magnetically bent such that they
could not enter the slit, the electrometer registered little charge. Thomson concluded that
the negative charge was inseparable from the cathode rays.

[edit] Second experiment

Thomson's second experiment.

In his second experiment, he investigated whether or not the rays could be deflected by
an electric field (something that is characteristic of charged particles).[2] Previous
experimenters had failed to observe this, but Thomson believed their experiments were
flawed because they contained trace amounts of gas. Thomson constructed a cathode ray
tube with a practically perfect vacuum, and coated one end with phosphorescent paint.
Thomson found that the rays did indeed bend under the influence of an electric field, in a
direction indicating a negative charge.

[edit] Third experiment

Thomson's third experiment.

In his third experiment, Thomson measured the mass-to-charge ratio of the cathode rays
by measuring how much they were deflected by a magnetic field and how much energy
they carried. He found that the mass to charge ratio was over a thousand times lower than
that of a hydrogen ion (H+), suggesting either that the particles were very light or very
highly charged.

Thomson's conclusions were bold: cathode rays were indeed made of particles which he
called "corpuscles", and these corpuscles came from within the atoms of the electrodes
themselves, meaning that atoms are in fact divisible. The "corpuscles" discovered by
Thomson are identified with the electrons which had been proposed by G. Johnstone
Stoney. He conducted this experiment in 1897.

Thomson imagined the atom as being made up of these corpuscles swarming in a sea of
positive charge; this was his plum pudding model. This model was later proved incorrect
when Ernest Rutherford showed that the positive charge is concentrated in the nucleus of
the atom.

[edit] Nobel Prize

Thomson's discovery was made known in 1897, and caused a sensation in scientific
circles, eventually resulting in him being awarded a Nobel Prize in Physics in 1906.[3] He
notes that prior to his work: (1) the (negatively charged) cathode was known to be the
source of the cathode rays; (2) the cathode rays were known to have the particle-like
property of charge; (3) were deflected by a magnetic field like a negatively charged
particle; (4) had the wave-like property of being able to penetrate thin metal foils; (5) had
not yet been subject to deflection by an electric field.

Thomson succeeded in causing electric deflection because his cathode ray tubes were
sufficiently evacuated that they developed only a low density of ions (produced by
collisions of the cathode rays with the gas remaining in the tube). Their ion densities were
low enough that the gas was a poor conductor, unlike the tubes of previous workers,
where the ion density was high enough that the ions could screen out the electric field. He
found that the cathode rays (which he called corpuscles) were deflected by an electric
field in the same direction as negatively charged particles would deflect. With the
electrons moving along, say, the x-direction, the electric field E pointing along the y-
direction, and the magnetic field B pointing along the z-direction, by adjusting the ratio
of the magnetic field B to the electric field E he found that the cathode rays moved in a
nearly straight line, an indication of a nearly uniform velocity v=E/B for the cathode rays
emitted by the cathode. He then removed the magnetic field and measured the deflection
of the cathode rays, and from this determined the charge-to-mass ratio e/m for the
cathode rays. He writes: "however the cathode rays are produced, we always get the same
value of e/m for all the particles in the rays. We may...produce great changes in the
velocity of the particles, but unless the velocity of the particles becomes so great that they
are moving nearly as fast as light, when other considerations have to be taken into
account, the value of e/m is constant. The value of e/m is not merely independent of the
velocity...it is independent of the kind of electrodes we use and also of the kind of gas in
the tube."

Thomson notes that "corpuscles" are emitted by hot metals and "Corpuscles are also
given out by metals and other bodies, but especially by the alkali metals, when these are
exposed to light. They are being continually given out in large quantities and with very
great velocities by radioactive substances such as uranium and radium; they are produced
in large quantities when salts are put into flames, and there is good reason to suppose that
corpuscles reach us from the sun." Thomson also describes water drop experiments that
enabled him to obtain a value for e that is about twice the modern value, and close to the
then current value for the charge on a hydrogen ion in an electrolyte.

[edit] Isotopes and mass spectrometry

In the bottom right corner of this photographic plate are markings for the two isotopes of
neon: neon-20 and neon-22.

In 1913, as part of his exploration into the composition of canal rays, Thomson
channelled a stream of ionized neon through a magnetic and an electric field and
measured its deflection by placing a photographic plate in its path. Thomson observed
two patches of light on the photographic plate (see image on right), which suggested two
different parabolas of deflection. Thomson concluded that neon is composed of atoms of
two different atomic masses (neon-20 and neon-22), that is to say of two isotopes. This
was the first evidence for isotopes of a stable element; Frederick Soddy had previously
proposed the existence of isotopes to explain the decay of certain radioactive elements.

Thomson's separation of neon isotopes by their mass was the first example of mass
spectrometry, which was subsequently improved and developed into a general method by
Thomson's student F. W. Aston and by A. J. Dempster.

[edit] Other work

In 1905 Thomson discovered the natural radioactivity of potassium.[4]

In 1906 Thomson demonstrated that hydrogen had only a single electron per atom.
Previous theories allowed various numbers of electrons.[5][6]

[edit] Awards

• Royal Medal (1894)

• Hughes Medal (1902)
• Nobel Prize for Physics (1906)
• Copley Medal (1914)
[edit] Bibliography

• 1883. A Treatise on the Motion of Vortex Rings: An essay to which the Adams
Prize was adjudged in 1882, in the University of Cambridge. London: Macmillan
and Co., pp. 146. Recent reprint: ISBN 0-5439-5696-2.
• 1888. Applications of Dynamics to Physics and Chemistry. London: Macmillan
and Co., pp.326. Recent reprint: ISBN 1-4021-8397-6.
• 1893. Notes on recent researches in electricity and magnetism: intended as a
sequel to Professor Clerk-Maxwell's 'Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism'.
Oxford Univ. Press, pp.xvi and 578. 1991, Cornell University Monograph: ISBN
1-4297-4053-1.
• 1921 (1895). Elements Of The Mathematical Theory Of Electricity And
Magnetism. London: Macmillan and Co. Scan of 1895 edition.
• (with J.H. Poynting). A Text book of Physics in Five Volumes: Properties of
Matter, Sound, Heat, Light, and Magnetism & Electricity.
• Navarro, Jaume, 2005, "Thomson on the Nature of Matter: Corpuscles and the
Continuum," Centaurus 47(4): 259-82.

Plum pudding model

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A schematic representation of the plum pudding model of the atom. In Thomson's

mathematical model the "corpuscles" (or modern electrons) were arranged non-randomly,
in rotating rings.

The plum pudding model of the atom by J.J. Thomson, who discovered the electron in
1897, was proposed in 1904 before the discovery of the atomic nucleus. In this model, the
atom is composed of electrons (which Thomson still called "corpuscles," though G.J.
Stoney had proposed that atoms of electricity be called electrons in 1894) [1] , surrounded
by a soup of positive charge to balance the electron's negative charge, like negatively-
charged "plums" surrounded by positively-charged "pudding". The electrons (as we know
them today) were thought to be positioned throughout the atom, but with many structures
possible for positioning multiple electrons, particularly rotating rings of electrons (see
below). Instead of a soup, the atom was also sometimes said to have had a cloud of
positive charge.

The model was disproved by the 1909 gold foil experiment, which was interpreted by
Ernest Rutherford in 1911[2] to imply a very small nucleus of the atom containing a very
high positive charge (enough to balance about 100 electrons in gold), thus leading to the
Rutherford model of the atom, and finally (after Henry Moseley's work showed in 1913
that the nuclear charge was very close to the atomic number) to the Antonius Van den
Broek suggestion that atomic number is nuclear charge. Eventually, by 1913, this work
had culminated in the solar-system-like (but quantum-limited) Bohr model of the atom, in
which a nucleus containing an atomic number of positive charge is surrounded by an
equal number of electrons in orbital shells.

Thomson's model was compared (though not by Thomson) to a British treat called plum
pudding, hence the name. It has also been called the chocolate chip cookie model or
blueberry muffin model, but these mental pictures assume the particles as static, which
they were not for Thomson.

Thomson's paper was published in the March 1904 edition of the Philosophical
Magazine, the leading British science journal of the day. In Thompson's view:

... the atoms of the elements consist of a number of negatively electrified corpuscles
enclosed in a sphere of uniform positive electrification, ... [3]

In this model, the electrons were free to rotate within the blob or cloud of positive
substance. These orbits were stabilized in the model by the fact that when an electron
moved farther from the center of the positive cloud, it felt a larger net positive inward
force, because there was more material of opposite charge, inside its orbit (see Gauss's
law). In Thomson's model, electrons were free to rotate in rings which were further
stabilized by interactions between the electrons, and spectra were to be accounted for by
energy differences of different ring orbits. Thomson attempted to make his model
account for some of the major spectral lines known for some elements, but was not
notably successful at this. Still, Thomson's model (along with a similar Saturnian ring
model for atomic electrons, put forward also in 1904 by Nagaoka after the Maxwell
model of Saturn's rings), were earlier harbingers of the later and more successful solar-
system-like Bohr model of the atom.