> 0.as | A | =. ‘Therefore, the inverting input terminal is practically at the ground potential. ‘Thus, though the Point G is not actually connected to ground it is held virtually at ground potential, whatever be the magnitudes of v, and v,, There is an important difference between an ‘actual ground’ and a ‘virtual ground’. When @ terminal is actually grounded, any amount of current can flow to ground through the termi- _nal. Thus an actual ground can serve as a ‘sink’ for infinite current, But the input impedance of AMP being infinite, no current can flow into the OP AMP through the virtual ground. S0 ground cannot serve as a sink for current, ‘current i through the resistance R, is Fig. 14.6 Inverting amplifier Yy-v (14.8) Scanned with CamScannerScanned with CamScanneror ok (ag which is the voltage gain of the amplifier system. ‘The voltage gain is greater than unity py factor R,/R,. As the gain is positive, there is no phase difference between the input voltay and the output voltage v,,. The input impedance of the circuit is high and the output imped, is low. : : In the circuit of Fig. 14.7, if R= 0 and R, =~, the circuit reduces to that of Fig. 14.8, Equation (14,16) shows that the voltage gain in this case is unity. Therefore, the circuit of il __|> Fig. 14.8 is referred to as a unity-gain buffer or a voltage fol- >t lower. This circuit offers a high input impedance dnd a low out- a put impedance, and therefore can be employed as an imped- ance matching device between a high-impedanace source and Fig. 14.8 A voltage follower. a low-impedance load. 5. Adder or summing amplifier: R, Figure 14.9 gives the circuit diagram ofan adder ,0"—" www or a summing amplifier. The same reasoning as in the case of the inverting amplifier shows that the point Gis a virtual ground, ie. Gis at ground potential. The input impedance of the OP AMP being infinite, the sum of the currents is, ty) .y i, will be equal to i,, by Kirchhoffs current law. That is, or or (4.1 = R, = R, Eq, (14.17) gives Ry Ht Uy ta tv, (14.18) ‘ , Eq. (14.18) reduces to -f 0, =— (Yj +p +. +0,)- (14.19) This equation shows that the output voltage v, is numerically equal to the algebraic sum _ of the input voltages v,, v,, .., v,. Hence the circuit is termed a summing amplifier ot an > If the algebraic sum of the input voltages is very small, the output voltage v, is mes with H,>R, From Eq, (14.18), the desired sum is obtained accurately by dividing 0, tial amplifier: A differential (or difference) amplifier amplifies the difference . Figure 14.10 shows the circuit diagram of a differential amplifier. Suppose that between the voltages v, and v, is to be amplified. The voltage v, is applied to the Scanned with CamScannersree a : 3 inverting input terminal and 0, to the inverting input oo peninal of the OP AMP through resistances, The output We es wentage is v. The voltage gain of the OP AMP boing infi- _ yo—/whri~ ae ‘te, the points a and 6 will have the same potential, say, A, ene nite, the points yoann mvplying Kirehhofs current law at a and b, we obtain a respectively (14.20) ogee, I (14.21) Fig, 14.40 Differential amplifier. and Re Ry where we have assumed that the input impedance of the OP AMP is infinite. Subtracting Bq, (14.20) from Eq. (14.21), we get R, vo FE Od) ‘Thus v, is the amplified version of the difference voltage (v, — v,), the voltage gain of the amplifier system being R/R,. If R, = R,, the circuit serves as a simple subtractor, the output voltage v, giving the difference of the input voltages v, and v,. 7. Oscillator: Owing to its high gain and wide bandwidth, the IC OP AMP can be used in oscillator circuits. Figure 14.11 shows the circuit diagram of a sal phase-shift RC oscillator using an OP AMP. Thenode |e teen Gisa virtual ground, so that the voltage v, is the feed- back voltage to the input of the OP AMP. If v, is the output voltage of the OP AMP, it can be shown that the frequency of oscillation is f= 12/6 nRC), and that the voltage gain of the inverting amplifier v/u, (= - Ry/ R) must be ~ 29 for sustained oscillations. The resis- tor R, is varied to achieve the desired voltage gain, allowing for small deviations of the circuit parameter values. ‘The use of an OP AMP as the active ele- ment in the Wien-bridge oscillator circuit is shown in Fig. 14.12. The oscillation frequency is f, = (2 x RC). The principle of oscillation has been discussed in detail in Chapter 11. From Eq. (11.58) we find that the voltage gain A of the active element must be 8, where 6 (a positive number greater than 3) is given by Eq. (11.54). LC oscillators with OP AMPs are dis- ‘cussed in Appendix B. 8. Differentiator: The circuit of Fig. 14.13 an output voltage v, which is proportional derivative of the input voltage v, with ‘to time. Therefore, the circuit is termed entiator. ‘The infinite voltage gain of the Fig. 14.12 Wien-bridge oscillator makes G a virtual ground, The charge Using OP AMP. itor C is therefore q = Cv, (14.22) Fig. 14.11 Phase-shift oscillator using OP AMP. Scanned with CamScannertong 4 or nad ig Differentiating with respect to time, we obtain i dy, 1 dq. i daan 2 Anite at Cd C fe | where i is the current lowing through the ea soy the input impedance of the OP AMP is infinite, the curr i flows through the resistance R also. Therefore, i = -v,/R, #0 1 that Bg. (14.24) gives : dv Fig. 14.13 Ditterontiat sa (14.25) Rat Obviously, the output voltage v, is proportional to the time derivative of the input voltage vp the proportionality constant being ~ CR - 9. Integrator: If the positions of Rand C in the circuit = of Fig. 14.13 are interchanged, the resulting circuit, depicted in Fig. 14.14, is an integrator. As the gain of the OP AMP is infinite, the point G is a virtual ground. The current i flow- ing through the resistance R is i = v/R. The input imped- ance of the OP AMP being infinite, the current i flows through the feedback capacitor C to produce the output voltage v, Fig. 14.14 Integrator. Therefore, Yow eens ae (142s The output voltage v, is thus proportional to the time integral of the input voltage v,, the proportionality constant being ~ 1/(CR). Hence the circuit is referred to as an integrator. Inte. grators find applications in sweep or ramp generators, in filters, and in simulation studies in analog computers. The basic integrator circuit of Fig. 14.14 has the drawback that since the capacitor is an epen circuit for de, the de gain of the OP AMP circuit is infinite. So, any de voltage at the input would drive the OP AMP output to saturation. To avoid this possibility, a resistance R, is con- nected in parallel with the capacitance C, which limits the de gain of the circuit. The value of R is so chosen that R, >>| 1/wC| where « is the angular frequency of the input signal. Then v, is to a good approximation, given by Eq. (14.26). 10. Voltage-to-current converter: If the output current of a device is proportional to its input signal voltage, the device is called a voltage-to-current converter. The noninverting amplifier circuit of Fig. 14.7, redrawn in Fig, 14.15, can serve as a voltage-to-current converter, the load resistance R, replacing the resistance R,. If i is the current through R,, we have a /G having the input voltage v, due to the infi- R, pe the OP AMP. Observe that the current i,, Ge) Loy, on the load resistance R,, and is propor: w——1 5 t voltage v,. Voltage-to-current convert- 4 analog-to-digital converters and in driv- Fig, 14.15 Voltage-to-current conve" coils of eathode ray tubes in television. er (14.27) Scanned with CamScanner In put th th fe i—---s “mtegrated: Circuits and Operational Amplifiers , on 11, Current-to-voltage converter: If the out. ", put voltage ofa device is proportional to ita input signal face farrent, the device is termed a current-to-voltaye eon 9 af: verter, Figure 14.16 shows the cireuit diagram of a oun te tm { ely rent-to-voltage converter, ‘The input signal current i, © a ‘can be provided by the output current (independent of the load) of a photocell or a photomultiplier tube, Since Fig. 14.16 Gusrontto-vohage the point G serves as a virtual ground, the current bene through the resistance R, must be zero. The whole input signal current i, flows through the feedback resistor R, to produce the output voltage v,. We have v=-1,R, (14.28) Thus the output voltage v, is proportional to the input current i,, the proportionality constant being -Ry. 12, Logarithmic amplifier: If the feedback resistor Rin the circuit of Fig, 14.6 is replaced by a diode, we obtain a logarithmic amplifier giving an output voltage v, that changes as the Jogarithm of the input voltage v,. The circuit of a logarithmic amplifier is shown in Fig. 14.17. The volt-ampere characteristic of the diode is given by Eq. (5.5), viz. ° I,\e p |. 1 i | = er | i Here i is the diode current for the forward voltage i tp Wev;/(n hy T) >> Lor, i >I, , we have role 6 ey, al. = ira {s- ease? (#5 | 2) \T,)” nkeT Fig. 14.17. A logarithmic ampliier for positive input volage ¥, nike? (4 oj= SEE a5 Since G is a virtual ground in Fig. 14.17, we have i = v/R, and the output voltage is La ee) v, responds to the logarithm of». wave rectifier: The half-wave rectifier circuit of Fig, 14.18 operates in the fol- During the negative half cycle of the sinusoidal input voltage v, (Fig. 14.19), § positive, since v, is fed to the inverting terminal of the OP AMP. Now, Dy is Saas geraren|binend. ‘So, D, in ON and.D, is OFF. Neglecting the diode of the inverting amplifier is -RY/R,. Thus v, =-(Ry/R,)v,, The amplified ‘positive, as shown in Fig. 14.19. Scanned with CamScanner—_—— ‘Again neglecting the diy and D, is ON: 6 ve hg of von a virtual ground at the During the peclirs tones oreigedback throu Py Hv eases nth i - e ree aeespath, Clearly, the cireull ives half-wave reetifiesti0™ a aa aro seein ene hor with rectification and that rectification is achieved at fre va (hat amplification oceurs together vl ‘The Sd ‘yp to about 100 KH 4 oP AMPs and diodes ‘A full wave rectifier circu are not given here for simplicity’ ‘tcan also be obtained using 7 {an Fig. 14.18 A halt-wave rector. Fig. 14.19 Wavetorms of v and ¥ Precision Rectifier i hode rectifier hes a limitation in that the input ac voltage must exceed the cutin voltage A SW for cllcon) for the diode to conduct. In power supply applications, the input voltages are (07y larger than the cutin voltage, and so this limitation does not PE & serious problem. In crese applications, particularly in instrumentation, the 0.7V cutin voltage is a sizable portion of fhe total input voltage swing, and so the circuit performance is ‘remarkably affected. In such caice precision rectifiers are required. In these rectifiers, the cutin voltage problem is over- Some by combining an OP AMP with one or more diodes: ‘A simple precision half-wave rectifier circuit is | shown in Fig, 14.194. Ifthe input voltage is slightly L | vena the output voltage v, ofthe OP AMP attains a =9" ae \ large positive value greater than the cutin voltage of fg al, mr ‘the diode D as the open-loop gain of the OP AMP is very i) large. Hence the diode is largely forward biased andy, (~) ‘starts conducting, The feed back loop of the OP AMP is ‘ ae now closed and the circuit acts like a voltage follower. ‘As v, = v, for a voltage follower, the load voltage ¥, follows the positive variations of v,. Note that the voltage drop across the diode does not appear in v, When the input voltage v, becomes negative, the out i | tage v, , put voltage v, is also negative, causing the diode ibe speedo ‘The feedback loop opens, and so v, n0 longer follows v, As the OP AMP 20 oy Joop, it quickly attains its maximum negative output voltage. AS & result, os sos is bald al Sn reverss bias, The load is now isolated from the OP AMP ‘output. The current in i i S, Res are Niessen ng input terminal of the OP AMP is zero. So, the load 14. Peak detector: |i ‘rcuit (Fi Sesser than the output ten pee Fas circuit (Fig. 14.20), if the input voltage v, 18 Sarath eomtects The cis AMP output voltage v is positive. Hence the diode D Se tis Civ area by the am parcel now acts as a voltage follower, so that v = vy and plifier output current through D to the voltage v,- If" —_di Scanned with CamScanner R, Jone Fig, 14.19A A precision rectifier————xx jamtegratedCircuite;and Operational Amplifiers drops below the capacitor voltage v,, the OP AMP output volta turns oe. The ee cannot discharge, and holds at any instant of time f the snost positive value ae voltage v, prior to ¢ (Fig, 14.21), After the operation, the circuit is by activating the gate ofa MOSFET connected across the capacitor, The MOSFET acts as a wwitch to discharge the capacitor. y iw nogative and the diode D Fig. 14.20 Peak detector Fig. 14.21 Input and output voltage waveforms 15. Voltage comparator: A voltage comparator (or simply 2 comparator) is a device used for the comparison of two voltage levels. The output of the comparator indi- cates which of the two input voltages is greater. Hence it fc a switching device, giving an output voltage when one input voltage is larger, and another output voltage when the other input voltage is larger. An OP AMP can be used ‘ase comparator by operating it in the open-loop condition Ri, and applying the two voltages to be compared to the in. Fi9- 14.21 () ‘An OP AMP comparator. verting and the noninverting inputs. If the voltage to the voninverting input terminal (v,) slightly exceeds the voltage to the inverting input terminal (vy), the OP AMP quickly switches to the maximum positive output voltage V, and if'v, is slightly than v,, the OP AMP switches to the maximum negative output voltage ~ V. This be- oviour results from the very large open-loop gain, and is illustrated in Fig 14.5C. The output voltage v, switches when v,= 0, — U2 ~0- To further clarify the behaviour of the compara- tor we show in Fig. 14.21(i) an open-loop OPAMP with ‘supply voltages +V and -V. A de source of voltage +Vn ‘connected to the inverting input and a sinusoidal volt- , = V,, sin ot is applied to the noninverting input > V,, > Vz). Figure 14.21(ii) displays the ‘comparator "voltage v,, The output voltage v, switches to +V vt a v, stays at Vas long as v, > Vi" anil v, exceeds Vp. drops below V;, the comparator output switches -v Fig. 14.21 (i) Input and output voltages s the inverting or the noninverting in- of the comparator. is grounded. The comparator then acts as inverting input is grounded, the output voltage vy switches to detector. If the i t positive voltage V when the voltage to the noninverting input is slightly v, is slightly negative, ¢, witches to ~V, If the noninverting input is grounded, ion takes place. Scanned with CamScannerBlectronien—Fundamentals and App 7” plication 14.8 THE SCHMITT TRIGGER With a positive or mgenerative feedback, be constructed to «witch from one voltage level to another, show. ze : called @ ragenerative comparator, or more commonly, a Sehmitt 2% ? friqwer after the original developer of the circuit using vacuum s tubes. Z An OP AMP Schmitt trigger is shown inFig. 14.21A. The =A whereas hy, input voltage v, is applied to the inverting termi the feedback voltage v, is applied to the noninverting terminal From the superposition theorem we get Fig. 14.218 An OP Arse Schmit trigge Ifo, is small or negative such that v; << yy then the amplifier will saturate giving v, = y where V, is the positive saturation voltage. VaR, Va Re R,+R, +R, Let us now increase v; in the positive direction. Then v, will remain unchanged at V,, til 0, attains the threshold, critical, or trigger voltage V,. At this trigger voltage, the output of the amplifier switches regeneratively to v,=—V,. This is because as v, just exceeds V,, v, and hence v will decrease. Thus (v, ~ v,) increases to decrease v, further. This cumulative action takes place rapidly to bring v, immediately to -V,. The output voltage v, is held at—V;, so long as v, > V,. Figure 14.21B(a) shows this transfer characteristic. For v, > V,, we have Ve Ro _ Vashi V, (say). peer eerie 3 O89) a) The switching action occurs only if the amplification is P + sufficiently large so that small changes in v, are amplified to Y — thedesired extent, The feedback factorhereisB=Ry/(R,+R,). gk i ‘The circuit will function satisfactorily provided the loop gam eT gi 0 ~fiAy is much larger than unity. a — Suppose that we now decrease v,, Then the output will | remain at -V, till v, = V,. A regenerative transition will occur TI at this point, as shown in Fig. 14.21B(b) so that v, will switch an aim Y to +V,, instantaneously. The overall transfer characteristic of “gl -v, the Schmitt trigger is depicted in Fig. 14.21B(c). This curve is called a hysteresis curve because it has the form of a magnetic resis loop. The hysteresis curve shows that the circuit at a higher voltage for increasing input signals than \. oon " (a) increasing v, and (o) asing input signals, decreasing v, (c) The overall ‘The width of the hysteresis loop is given by input-output curve exhibiting 2R, Vy hysteresis. Ry+ Ry" to reduce V,,, we have to make R,/(R, + R,) small. Bi be reduced h (Ry + Ry |. But it cannot otherwise the loop gain ~ BA, becomes small. Fig. 14.218 Transfer charac teristic of the Schmitt trigger Vee, -V, Scanned with CamScannerIntegrated Cireurts ana ted Circuits ana uperarronar ampuprers: Zé Suppose we have to design a Schmitt tri 7 tt trigger for z which Vp= 8 V, and Vy = 0.08 V, using t trlag fe Jor which V, = 6 Vand Ay = ~20000, Then i 2R, Va, _10R, = 0.03 = 4 - Ry+R, Ry +R, = a ag . Av R ‘The loop gain is — Wie Ferry * 20000 x 8» 10 =60. This is much larger than 1, and is » her Acceptable. Let us choose R, = 100 0. mE ark, le 23 KA. We can use the commonly avail- Fig, 14216 Genera ; neralion of square waves gives. Ry ge Daistance of 83 kA for R,,. For these ‘ for Ry. paramete i abieas, the high-level trigger voltage is Vi = Se wee aioe wae ce Yalthe low-level trigger voltage is V_ = 2.976 V. Note that ee trigger et are primarily, determined by the reference voltage Vp. im] application of the Schmitt trigger is to transform varying , important a slowly v yt voltage into a pears are voltage at the output. ‘Consider the input signal v; of Fig {421c, plotted against B oo s signal is arbitrary but extends peyond V, and V,. The output voltage Pi wings abruptly to-V, when the input Voltage , exceeds V, and to +V, when v, drops below Vz “Phe output voltage is thus a square wave of peak values +V,and -V, iAdependent of the ampli- tude of the input voltage. The Schmitt trigger is a comparator because the circuit compares Nt input voltage with the trigger levels V, and V, for the output voltage to swing between-V, and +V,. Ttisa regenerative comparator tive feedback. because it employs positive or regenera sed loop gain, say, A. and an Observation ‘When a practical OP AMP is connected as an amplifier with a clo Jied, the output voltage is expected to be A, volt. In practice, the input de voltage of 1 volt is appl “A. volt, but takes some time to reach it ‘output voltage does not at once attain the final value of A. owing to the i nstants of the OP AMP. The time rate of change of the Glosed-loop amplifier output voltage is Omid the slew rate of the OP AMP. Itis afigure of merit, measured in volt per microsecond. A typical value of the slew rate for a monolithic OP AMP is 1 Vius. For a faithful reproduction ofthe input signal, the output: must change ata rate less than the slew rate. For an ideal OP AMP, the slew rate is infinitely large- 44.9 DIGIT! “AL-TO-ANALOG CONVERTER : Si ‘A device that produces an analog output voltage from a given digital input is called a digit -to- ad We describe below two forms of D/A converter using OP AMPs. (For tems, refer to Chapters 17 and 18.) || word into an analog form. The decimal we consider the conversion ofa 4-bit digital (np ofa 4bit digital word (B,B,B,Bo)'s ; Ne 2B, +2? Ba + 2B, + Bo ; contributes to ‘the final value with a weight 2! B. is either 0 or 1, the contribution is clearly zero 0 fi (B,=0 oF yy multiplied by the valu r the bit weigh of the word 2, 3). Since Scanned with CamScannerintegrated Circuits and Operational Amptifiern 268 ‘Ans. Equation (14.17) gives for tho output voltage 500 ye (2 100g, 00 1000, 200 “** 49 **) =~(-2.547.545)=10¥ 5. Compute the voltage gain for the amplifier shown Fig. 1428. Find the output voltage v,, ifthe input volt WW ue is Ug = 0.5 in 100 xt volt, WW ; i (C.U, 1996) 11a ™~\ ‘Ans. The voltage gain of the given inverting amplifier Yn0- A> = —_ D | 6-120 a. If the operation were entirely linear, the output = voltage would have been V yup =A Vig = — 50 x 0.5 sin 100 xt =~ 25 sin 100 nt V. But since the supply voltage is + 12V, the OP AMP is saturated when |v,,,! attains 12V Let at time t = ty, Uj; =—12V. Then = —12=~25 sin 100 xt, Fig, 14.23 or, apt 12) _ 3 jon” (2)= 1.5910 8. ‘Thus over the entire cycle, we have Vaye = — 25 8in 100 mt V when 0 el ae Fig. 14.268 ‘The gain of the OP AMP being infinite, the potential of the point X in the circ is 4 V. Applying Kirchhoff’s current law at X, we obtain it impedance of the OP AMP is infinite. Thus V, = 2 V. Scanned with CamScanneree aan = Honal Amplifiers 9. For the circuit of Fig 14.260, tial mode gain A= V,/(V, yi" Fi" Ry Ryo R, 355 ~ TOKO, and Ry = 100.0. Find the differen Ans. Since the voltage gains of the OP AM a IPs are infinite, the vol V, and V,, respectively. Applying Kirchhoff's _ ‘i ee he wo = at = points X and Y are MMnV vy-vy RR, Re or, i eee @ Again applying Kirchhoff’s current law at Y, we get Ve-V | Ve-v Vv, -V, Ry ¥ 2. 1 Vv, vo V,|s-+++2+|-4_Y.V ms lee dE EL «a Pa | Van Va Rpl dy 220 RM Bits a) Vo Va Ry) Wott, | RM RAN, “a [z R Z| Rae Ry vi Ry to Rgi Bites J a 1a ih aly 2; ek, 1, ce igs ‘. ves RR, | [RR RR R M Putting the given values of the resistances, we get V,{20.2] - V(20.21 E =- 202. ¥i-Va AMP circuit of Fig. 14.26D ifn #1. en aati of the OP AMP being infinite, the potential at the point b is as Reacen Ve Ve=G+DR ntl Scanned with CamScannerae Blectronien—Fundamentals and Application, As the voltage gain of the OP AMP is infinite, the potential at the point a is, a ait Mee ned ets a oy Applying Kirchhoff’ current law at the point a fe we obtain | 3 R or, y, Fig. 14.250 or, a a =-V, x naa! or, Beier nd) V; -1 11. Determine the output voltage V, in the circuit of 7 R, Fig. 14.26E. Ir ws —— . A, Ans. As the input impedance of the OP pe nay Ag = infinite, i ial V, = 2 = >, ite, the point 5 has the potential V, Rik a" r 2 Ee a S nS ae The voltage gain of the OP AMP being infinite, t - AI the potential of the point a is V, = V, = “®. The ; current i shown in Fig. 14.26E is = 4 Fig. 14.26 jo VizYe_Vo~Ve 7 1 so that the potential of the point X is Vy=2V, -V,=V-Vy. Applying Kirchhoff's current law at X, we get Vi=8¥i-V, =9¥,-V,)- 2-8 V,-3V,. Bees ret: of Fig. 14.26F, collet the current through the resistance R,,, Hence show tha Serves as a voltage-controlled current source. What is t i ; ES a pean is the maximum value of the loa ths load ee ae. t sarrent anal R,, If i, and i, are the currents indicated in Fig. 14.26 isi ti, Scanned with CamScanner357 R . where v, is the voltage across Rand v, in " {ithe OP AMP. The voltage v, at the node a nba t ‘ ode «is obtained by the voltage-divider action: we get v, = v,/2. Substituting in Eq. (i) “* fi fan? R ilen, cr, ipa ct iL (ii) Fig. 14.26F uation (ii) SS eS Perscaractt ae et i, is controlled by the voltage v, and that i, is —_ 1: Hence the circuit serves as a voltage-controlled current The maximt = 4 ; ee Bre of Ry is set by the condition that v, cannot exceed the maximum aa» ined by the power supply voltages. Hence 2Rj, | iz! = | Vina ! = Ry, = Wass! Vina! fr liz | Ty; t (a) What is an integrated circuit? (C.U. 1990) (6) Classify the integrated circuits according to fabrication’ and mode of operation. (c) What are the advantages of integrated circuits? (C.U. 1990) ved in fabricating a monolithic 2. Starting from a substrate, describe the five basic processes invol integrated circuit. (C.U, 1990, '94) 3, Draw a circuit containing a transistor with a resistor connected to the collector. Sketch a sche- hhen it is transformed into a monolithic form. (cf. C.U. 1985) matic view of the configuration w 4. (a) What is the significance of the name monolithic 1C? (6) How is a thin layer of silicon dioxide formed on the surface of the substrate in the IC fabriea- __ tion? What is the utility of this layer? (c) How are the different components of an integrated circuit electrically isolated? Describe the photolithographic etching process used in IC fabrication. diodes built in a monolithic circuit? are transistors and p-n junction ean resistors and capacitors be accommodated in a monolithic IC desi into small substrates? limitations of integrated circuits is an operational amplifier? (C.U. 1989) a few applications of OP AMP. the advantages of using OP AMPs? ircuit symbol of an OP AMP. be the input resistance, output resistance, amplifier? istics of an ideal OP AMP. i ies of a practical OP AMP ign? Can inductors be jwidth of an (C.U. 1993) (Burd. U. 1996, C.U. 2002) differ from those of the ideal OP AMP? voltage gain, and band Scanned with CamScanner