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Eva Yu

Mr. Acre

AP Calculus

10 February 2020

Solids of Revolution

There are objects in this world that are not of a typical shape such as a sphere, cube, or

any other figures that can be easily measured, but rather it is a combination of many merged

together. A prime example would be a vase where its sides are curved differently on both ends.

These objects can also consist of a shape within another shape or the objects’ design can be

designed using intricate edges such as a tire. In order to find the exact area and volume of the

peculiar shaped objects, definite integrals, solids of revolutions, and cross-sections are used

along with the mathematical functions that define part of the shape.

To find the area under a curve, integrals are used because they are the antiderivative of a

function. Antiderivatives are the opposite of derivatives where instead of finding the slope or

differentiating a function, integrals are used to go backwards. This is similar to how the velocity

equation is the derivative of the distance equation while the distance equation is the

antiderivative of the velocity equation. To explain further, in a distance-time graph, the slope of

the distance over the time (d/t) is used to find velocity (v) because the equation “v=d/t” is

represented by the slope of the graph. As for finding distance from a velocity-time graph, the

integral is taken where the area under would be the velocity multiplied by the time (v*t) because

of the distance (d) equation “d=v*t”. The proper notation for a definite integral is shown in

Figure 1 below.
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b
∫ f (x)dx
a
Figure 1. Definite Integral Notation

The “a” and “b” represents the desired interval, or domain, used for when finding the area where

“a” would be the lower boundary and “b” is the higher boundary. The “f(x)”, also known as the

integrand, is the function of the graph that the area is being computed under for while the “dx” is

the differential in which indicates that the variable integrated is x. When finding the area under

the curve, it can either become negative or positive depending if the section of graph in the

interval is below or above the x-axis respectively. It is important to be cautious when the section

is both below and above, so the integration must be separated with one integration dedicated to

the section under the x-axis while the other integration is above.

Dawkins, Paul. “Calculus I - Area Between Curves.” Paul's Online Notes, tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/CalcI/AreaBetweenCurves.aspx.

Figure 2. Finding the Area Between Two Curves

Another usage of integrals is finding the area between two curves, as shown in Figure 2

above. When the functions lay on top of one another, as shown on the left graph, the function

f(x) that is above is subtracted by the function g(x) below it because the first function must have
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a larger area in order to avoid a negative area because the area between the curves are always

positive. This is the same for when the two functions are next to each other where the right

function is subtracted by the left function, but instead the interval is based on the range from the

y-axis. The interval is the intersection points between the two functions, so if “dx” is used then

the interval will be from the x-axis.

There are three methods used for finding the volumes of solids of revolutions: disk, ring,

and shell. All involve the concept of ​slicing​ where a narrow strip is sliced from the figure and

rotated around the axis of rotation of either x or y, forming a three-dimensional figure. From this,

the total volume of a solid can be found from finding the volume of each of the slices then

adding them together, similar to a sliced loaf of bread.

Paul A. Foerster “Calculus: Concepts and Applications ​Second Edition”​ Textbook

b d
v olume = ∫ πr dx
2
v olume = ∫ πr2 dy
a c
Figure 3. Disk Method for Finding Volume of a Solid

Figure 3 displays the sliced section rotated around the x-axis (shown left) and the y-axis

(shown right) appearing as a ​disk​ along with their integrals displayed below respectively. Each of

the disks are similar to a cylinder where its volume is found by the product of the area of the

circle and the height ( π r2 h ). In this case, the height (h) is replaced by “dx” when rotating around
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the x-axis because the thickness goes along the x-axis while also appearing as the height of a

cylinder on a sideways viewpoint. This is the same for the rotation around the y-axis where the

height is replaced by “dy” because its thickness goes along the y-axis. The interval from “a” to

“b” relates to the x-axis while the interval from “c” to “d” relates to the y-axis in which the

interval of the integral is set similar to when finding the area between two curves depending on

what section of the figure is desired to be found. The “r” in both integrals represents the radius

which is the function of the graph that the region is rotated from. It is important to remember that

the variable that is being integrated is denoted by the differential “dx” where the function must

be in terms of x or “dy” with the function in terms of y.

The ring method, shown in Figure 4, is similar to the disk method, but its radius is the

difference between the two functions, similar to the area between two curves. The “larger”

function represented by “R” is subtracted by the “smaller” function represented by “r” because

“R” is extended the furthest from the center which then ensures that the volume will stay

positive. This method is used when there is a hole in the figure, appearing as a ​ring​, created from

the difference of the functions when rotating around the axis.

University of Bakersfield
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b
v olume = ∫ π(R2 − r2 )dx
a

Figure 4. Ring Method for Finding Volume of a Solid

The equation displayed under Figure 4 is for the rotation around the x-axis and the equation for

the y-axis rotation is the same except for the interval being from “c” to “d” and the differential is

of “dy”.

Hill, David R., and Lila F. Roberts. “Mathdemos.” SHELL METHOD DEMO GALLERY,
mathdemos.org/mathdemos/shellmethod/gallery/gallery.html.
b
v olume = ∫(2πx)(y)dx
a
Figure 5. Shell Method for Finding Volume of a Solid

The shell method consists of finding the volume of cylindrical shells Figure 5 by the

product of the circumference, height, and thickness ( 2πrh ). In Figure 5, the figure is rotating

around the y-axis in which the green slice is parallel to the axis of rotation. The radius is

represented by “x” and the height is represented by “y” which is the function of the graph, shown

in purple. As for the thickness, it is represented by “dx” since it goes along the x-axis and this

also means that the function used in this integral must be in terms of x. If the axis of rotation is
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c
around the x-axis, then the volume equation would be “ ∫ (2πx)(y)dy ”. The interval and function
d

“y” would be in terms of y since the thickness goes along the y-axis.

The axis of rotation is not always around the x-axis or y-axis so the radius of the figure

would change. The axis of rotation and the function are either added together or subtracted from

one another depending on which is larger and which quadrant the new rotated figure is. To

combat this, there is a trick to change the radius in the three methods discussed. Rotating the

figure around an axis is the same as reflecting the two-dimensional graph over the axis. If the

reflected figure is above or to the right of the axis, then the radius would be “# - x”. The radius

would be “x - #” if the figure reflects below or to the left of the axis. In both cases, the “#”

represents the number from the axis of rotation (i.e. if the axis of rotation is y=2 then “#” would

be 2). As for the “x”, it is the functions “R” and “r” in the disk and ring method while it is the

radius “x” in the shell method. The axis of rotation can also help determine which of the three

methods to use since it is based on the ability to manipulate the function in order for it to be in

the right terms of either x or y.

One method for finding the volume without an axis of rotation is using the cross-section

method, also known as the slab method. The equation to find the volume of each cross section is
b
“ ∫(area of cross section)dx ” in which the total volume of the solid is calculated by adding all of
a

the cross sections’ volumes together. An example of when the slab method is used is shown in

Figure 6 below with the figure cut into a square cross section.
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“Accumulated Cross-Sections.” Ximera, ximera.osu.edu/mooculus/calculus2/accumulatedCrossSections/digInAccumulatedCrossSections.

Figure 6. Slab Method for Finding Volume of a Solid

Now that the methods for finding the area of curves and volume of solids, it is time to

solve some example problems.

Figure 7. The Graph of the Region R bounded by the Two Functions

This graph displays the region R in the first quadrant that is bounded by the two functions. First,

find the area of R. The integral for finding the area between two curves must be used:

b
This is the integral for finding the area
∫ f (x) − g(x) dx between two curves (remember: the interval is
a
from the x-axis with the intersection points
between the two functions and the function
with the larger area is subtracted by the
smaller function).
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9 In this problem, the interval is from x=0 to

∫(√x) − ( 3x ) dx x=9. The f1 function is subtracted by the f2
0
function since it is the function above.

= 4.5 u2 The area of R

Next, find the volume of the solid generated when R is rotated about the horizontal line y=-2.

Figure 8. Solid Generated After Rotation Around the Line y=-2

After the rotation, it can be depicted from Figure 8 that the f1 function has a greater radius than

the f2 function. To solve for the volume, the ring method will be used:

b
The integral for the ring method (remember:
∫ π(R2 − r2 )dx the thickness correlates to the axis of
a
rotation).
9 As mentioned before, the radius of the f1
∫ π(√x − (− 2))2 − ( 3x − (− 2))2 dx function is greater so it is being subtracted by
0
the smaller function. Also, the trick
mentioned earlier is used here (“x-#”).

=98.96 u3 The volume of the solid after rotation

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Finally, the region R is the base of a solid. For this solid, the cross-sections perpendicular to the

x-axis are isosceles right triangles with one leg on the base. Find the volume of this solid.

Figure 9. The Isosceles Right Triangles Cross-Sections

The figure above represents the cross-sections perpendicular to the x-axis. To find the volume:

b
The integral to find the volume of a cross
∫(area of cross − section)dx section is of its area, which is a triangle in this
a
b problem. Since it is an isosceles triangle, two
∫ 12 l2 dx of the legs are the same length. Its thickness is
a
also represented by “dx”.
9 The two lengths are the difference between
∫ 12 (√x − 3x )2 dx the two functions.
0

= 1.35 u3 The volume of the cross-section

There are many peculiar objects in this world. Now, the concepts learned can be applied

to finding the area and volume of those objects.