492

Democr
it
us-BCE

Democr
it
us-BCE

Democr
it
usbel
i
evedt
hatal
lmat
terweasmadeofoutsubst
ancest
hatcoul
dnotbe
di
vi
ded.Hewasoneoft
hecr
eat
ersoft
heat
om,
andnamedi
tan"
atom"becauseoft
he
gr
eekwor
d"At
omos"
,whi
chmeansi
ndi
vi
sbl
e.ThoughDemocr
it
uswasoneoft
he
cr
eat
ersoft
heat
om,
hist
heor
ywasof
tenquest
ioned.

Jan1,
1803

JohnDal
ton

JohnDal
ton

JohnDal
tonf
oundt
hatwhenel
ement
ssuchashy
drogenandoxy
gencombi
ne,
they
al
way
scombi
nei
ncer
tai
nrat
ios.Hi
stheor
ywast
hatal
lmat
teri
smadeofi
ndi
vi
dual
par
ti
clescal
l
edat
oms,
whi
chcannotbedi
vi
ded,
heal
sot
houghtt
hatachemi
cal
r
eact
ionwasar
ear
rangementofat
oms.

Dal
ton'
stheor
ywassuppor
tedbyot
hersci
ent
ist
sandbecamet
het
heor
eti
cal
f
oundat
ioni
nchemi
str
y.

Adv
ert
isement
s

Jan1,
1897

JJThomson
JJThomson

Thomsondi
dexpi
rement
swi
thgl
owi
nggasesofbeamsandshowedt
hatchar
ged
obj
ect
s;Heshowedt
hatchar
gedobj
ect
scoul
ddef
lectt
hebeam.Thomsonbel
i
eved
t
hatal
lmat
teri
smadeofi
ndi
vi
dual
par
ti
clescal
l
edat
oms,
whi
chcannotbedi
vi
ded.He
al
sodi
scov
eredt
heel
ect
roni
n1906.Hi
sdi
scov
eryandt
heor
ywaspr
ovedt
hroughhi
s
expi
rement
s.

Jan1,
1898

Mar
ieCur
ie

Mar
ieCur
ie

Mar
iehy
pot
hesi
zedt
hatr
adat
iondoesn'
tcomef
rom t
hemol
ecul
e,i
tcomesf
rom t
he
at
om.Mar
ieCur
iehadat
heor
yofr
adi
oact
ivi
ty,
thatt
heor
ywast
hatr
adi
oact
ivi
tybr
oke
downat
oms,
inr
etur
nrel
easedr
adi
ati
oni
nener
gyandsubat
omi
cpar
ti
cles.Shef
ound
t
hist
heor
ybydoi
ngdi
ff
erentexpi
rement
s.

Mar
ieCur
ieal
sof
acedmanyst
ruggl
esal
ongwi
thbecomi
ngaat
omi
csci
ent
ist
,shehad
af
ami
l
yal
ongt
heway
,thusshehadt
obeamot
her
,andwi
fe.Sheal
sohadt
obea
nur
sedur
ingWW1.

Jan1,
1900

MaxPl
anck

MaxPl
anck

Hebecameconsi
der
edt
hei
nvent
oroft
hequant
om t
heor
y.Pl
anck'
slawofbl
ackbody
r
adi
ati
onwast
hebasi
sforquant
om t
heor
ywhi
chmeantt
heamountofel
ect
romagnet
ic
ener
gywi
thacer
tai
nwav
elengt
hradi
atedbyabl
ackbodyi
nther
mal
equi
l
ibr
ium.

Pl
anck'
sli
fewast
ough,
hiswi
fe&daught
ersdi
edi
nchi
l
dbi
rt
h,hi
ssonsdi
eddur
ing
WW1andEr
win'
s(hi
sfr
iend)deat
h"dest
roy
ed"Pl
anck'
swi
l
ltol
i
ve.Pl
anck'
stheor
ywas
pr
ovedbyhi
smanyexpi
rement
s.

Jan1,
1909

Er
nestRut
her
for
d

Er
nestRut
her
for
d

Rut
her
for
dfi
redat
omst
hroughgol
dfoi
landf
oundoutt
hatat
omshav
epar
tsofat
oms
t
hatar
efr
eeandsomepar
tst
hatar
esol
i
d.Hef
oul
dthatat
omsar
emadeofat
hick-
heav
ymasspar
tandat
hin-l
owmasspar
t,buti
tismai
nlyempt
yspace.Rut
her
for
d's
model
oft
heat
om hasel
ect
ronsci
rcul
i
ngar
oundt
henucl
eus.Hewentt
owi
nanobl
e
peacepr
izeduet
ohi
stheor
yandexpi
rementoft
heat
om.

Adv
ert
isement
s

Jan1,
1913

Nei
l
sBohr

Nei
l
sBohr

Bohr
'st
heor
ywast
hatel
ect
ronshav
ecer
tai
namount
sofener
gy.El
ect
ronssur
rounded
t
henucl
eusi
nri
ngsandt
heycanj
umpf
rom al
evel
toanot
her
.Hecompar
edt
he
el
ect
ronf
unct
iont
othepl
anet
sor
bit
ingar
oundt
hesun.Thepr
obl
emswi
thBohr
's
t
heor
ywast
hati
tvi
olat
edt
heHei
senber
gUncer
tai
ntyPr
inci
ple.Thet
heor
yconsi
der
s
el
ect
ronst
ohav
eaknownr
adi
usandor
bit
.

Jan1,
1932

JamesChadwi
ck
JamesChadwi
ck

Chadwi
ckpr
ovedt
heexi
stenceofneut
ronsi
nat
oms.Hi
stheor
ywast
hatt
henuet
ral
par
tofat
omswascal
l
edanuet
ron,
andi
twasakeypar
tinspl
i
tti
ngat
oms.Chadwi
ck
wasabl
etohel
pot
hersci
ent
ist
sunder
standt
hest
ruct
ureofanat
omsnucl
eus.Dur
ing
WW1JamesChadwi
ckwasi
mpr
isonedi
nager
mancamp,
butwhi
l
ebei
ngi
mpr
isoned,
hewor
kedonhi
stheor
yoft
heat
om.

Adv
ert
isement
s

Oct19,
1936

Hi
deki
Yukawa

Hi
deki
Yukawa

Hi
deki
Yukawahadat
heor
yofmesons(hadr
oni
csubat
omi
cpar
ti
cles)
.Thet
heor
y
expl
ainedt
hei
nter
act
ionofnuet
ronsandpr
otons.I
n1936hi
stheor
ywaspr
oved
becauseCar
lDav
idAnder
son&ot
her
sobser
vedchar
gedpi
mesons.Themechani
sms
ofnucl
earbi
ndi
nganddecaybecamepr
obl
emsi
nthet
heor
y,buti
twaspr
ovedaf
tert
he
obser
vat
ion(
s).

Per
iod:
450t
oOct16,
2012

Begi
nni
ng
Model
soft
heat
om (
ESAAN)

I
tisi
mpor
tantt
oreal
i
set
hatal
otofwhatweknowaboutt
hest
ruct
ureofat
omshas
beendev
elopedov
eral
ongper
iodoft
ime.Thi
sisof
tenhowsci
ent
if
icknowl
edge
dev
elops,
wit
honeper
sonbui
l
dingont
hei
deasofsomeoneel
se.Wear
egoi
ngt
olook
athowourmoder
nunder
standi
ngoft
heat
om hasev
olv
edov
ert
ime.

Thei
deaofat
omswasi
nvent
edbyt
woGr
eekphi
l
osopher
s,Democr
it
usandLeuci
ppus
i
nthef
if
thcent
uryBC.TheGr
eekwor
dατoμoν(
atom)meansi
ndi
vi
sibl
ebecauset
hey
bel
i
evedt
hatat
omscoul
dnotbebr
okeni
ntosmal
l
erpi
eces.

Nowaday
s,weknowt
hatat
omsar
emadeupofaposi
ti
vel
ychar
gednucl
eusi
nthe
cent
resur
roundedbynegat
ivel
ychar
gedel
ect
rons.Howev
er,
int
hepast
,bef
oret
he
st
ruct
ureoft
heat
om waspr
oper
lyunder
stood,
sci
ent
ist
scameupwi
thl
otsofdi
ff
erent
model
sorpi
ctur
est
odescr
ibewhatat
omsl
ookl
i
ke.

Model

Amodel
isar
epr
esent
ati
onofasy
stem i
nther
eal
wor
ld.Model
shel
pust
ounder
stand
sy
stemsandt
hei
rpr
oper
ti
es.

Forexampl
e,anat
omi
cmodel
repr
esent
swhatt
hest
ruct
ureofanat
om coul
dlookl
i
ke,
basedonwhatweknowabouthowat
omsbehav
e.I
tisnotnecessar
il
yat
ruepi
ctur
eof
t
heexactst
ruct
ureofanat
om.

Model
sar
eof
tensi
mpl
i
fied.Thesmal
ltoycar
sthaty
oumayhav
epl
ayedwi
thasachi
l
d
ar
emodel
s.Theygi
vey
ouagoodi
deaofwhatar
eal
carl
ooksl
i
ke,
butt
heyar
emuch
smal
l
erandmuchsi
mpl
er.Amodel
cannotal
way
sbeabsol
utel
yaccur
ateandi
tis
i
mpor
tantt
hatwer
eal
i
set
his,
sot
hatwedonotbui
l
dupani
ncor
recti
deaabout
somet
hing.

Dal
ton'
smodel
oft
heat
om (
ESAAO)

JohnDal
tonpr
oposedt
hatal
lmat
teri
scomposedofv
erysmal
lthi
ngswhi
chhecal
l
ed
at
oms.Thi
swasnotacompl
etel
ynewconceptast
heanci
entGr
eeks(
not
abl
y
Democr
it
us)hadpr
oposedt
hatal
lmat
teri
scomposedofsmal
l
,indi
vi
sibl
e(cannotbe
di
vi
ded)obj
ect
s.WhenDal
tonpr
oposedhi
smodel
elect
ronsandt
henucl
euswer
e
unknown.

30132f
894232ba12ad4c711d40181ed0.
png

Fi
gur
e4.
2:Theat
om accor
dingt
oDal
ton.

Thomson'
smodel
oft
heat
om (
ESAAP)

Af
tert
heel
ect
ronwasdi
scov
eredbyJ.
J.Thomsoni
n1897,
peopl
ereal
i
sedt
hatat
oms
wer
emadeupofev
ensmal
l
erpar
ti
clest
hant
heyhadpr
evi
ousl
ythought
.Howev
er,
the
at
omi
cnucl
eushadnotbeendi
scov
eredy
etandsot
he“
plum puddi
ngmodel
”wasput
f
orwar
din1904.I
nthi
smodel
,theat
om i
smadeupofnegat
iveel
ect
ronst
hatf
loati
na
“
soup”ofposi
ti
vechar
ge,
muchl
i
kepl
umsi
napuddi
ngorr
aisi
nsi
naf
rui
tcake(
Figur
e
4.
3).I
n1906,
Thomsonwasawar
dedt
heNobel
Pri
zef
orhi
swor
kint
hisf
iel
d.Howev
er,
ev
enwi
tht
hePl
um Puddi
ngModel
,ther
ewasst
il
lnounder
standi
ngofhowt
hese
el
ect
ronsi
ntheat
om wer
ear
ranged.
90cf
fe92260bc3815a6825cbb0d87b39.
png

Fi
gur
e4.
3:Theat
om accor
dingt
othePl
um Puddi
ngmodel
.

Thedi
scov
eryofr
adi
ati
onwast
henextst
epal
ongt
hepat
htobui
l
dinganaccur
ate
pi
ctur
eofat
omi
cst
ruct
ure.I
ntheear
lyt
went
iet
hcent
ury
,Mar
ieandPi
err
eCur
ie,
di
scov
eredt
hatsomeel
ement
s(t
her
adi
oact
iveel
ement
s)emi
tpar
ti
cles,
whi
char
eabl
e
t
opasst
hroughmat
teri
nasi
mil
arwayt
oX–r
ays(
readmor
eaboutt
hisi
nGr
ade11)
.It
wasEr
nestRut
her
for
dwho,
in1911,
usedt
hisdi
scov
eryt
orev
iset
hemodel
oft
heat
om.

Twoot
hermodel
spr
oposedf
ort
heat
om wer
ethecubi
cmodel
andt
heSat
urni
an
model
.Int
hecubi
cmodel
,theel
ect
ronswer
eimagi
nedt
oli
eatt
hecor
ner
sofacube.I
n
t
heSat
urni
anmodel
,theel
ect
ronswer
eimagi
nedt
oor
bitav
erybi
g,heav
ynucl
eus.

Rut
her
for
d'smodel
oft
heat
om (
ESAAQ)

Rut
her
for
dcar
ri
edoutsomeexper
iment
swhi
chl
edt
oachangei
nideasar
oundt
he
at
om.Hi
snewmodel
descr
ibedt
heat
om asat
iny
,dense,
posi
ti
vel
ychar
gedcor
ecal
l
ed
anucl
eussur
roundedbyl
i
ght
er,
negat
ivel
ychar
gedel
ect
rons.Anot
herwayoft
hinki
ng
aboutt
hismodel
wast
hatt
heat
om wasseent
obel
i
keami
nisol
arsy
stem wher
ethe
el
ect
ronsor
bitt
henucl
eusl
i
kepl
anet
sor
bit
ingar
oundt
hesun.Asi
mpl
i
fiedpi
ctur
eof
t
hisi
sshownal
ongsi
de.Thi
smodel
issomet
imesknownast
hepl
anet
arymodel
oft
he
at
om.

7af
a6c93a48f
b5596b12dc6012b47645.
png

Fi
gur
e4.
4:Rut
her
for
d'smodel
oft
heat
om.
Bohr
'smodel
oft
heat
om (
ESAAR)

Ther
ewer
e,howev
er,
somepr
obl
emswi
thRut
her
for
d'smodel
:forexampl
eitcoul
dnot
expl
aint
hev
eryi
nter
est
ingobser
vat
iont
hatat
omsonl
yemi
tli
ghtatcer
tai
n
wav
elengt
hsorf
requenci
es.Ni
elsBohrsol
vedt
hispr
obl
em bypr
oposi
ngt
hatt
he
el
ect
ronscoul
donl
yor
bitt
henucl
eusi
ncer
tai
nspeci
alor
bit
satdi
ff
erentener
gyl
evel
s
ar
oundt
henucl
eus.

b1d7b05867833151f
26940c1c3449a04.
png

Fi
gur
e4.
5:Bohr
'smodel
oft
heat
om.

JamesChadwi
ck(
ESAAS)

Rut
her
for
dpr
edi
cted(
in1920)t
hatanot
herki
ndofpar
ti
clemustbepr
esenti
nthe
nucl
eusal
ongwi
tht
hepr
oton.Hepr
edi
ctedt
hisbecausei
fther
ewer
eonl
yposi
ti
vel
y
char
gedpr
otonsi
nthenucl
eus,
theni
tshoul
dbr
eaki
ntobi
tsbecauseoft
her
epul
siv
e
f
orcesbet
weent
hel
i
ke-
char
gedpr
otons!Tomakesur
ethatt
heat
om st
aysel
ect
ri
cal
l
y
neut
ral
,thi
spar
ti
cl
ewoul
dhav
etobeneut
ral
itsel
f.I
n1932JamesChadwi
ck
di
scov
eredt
heneut
ronandmeasur
edi
tsmass.

Ot
hermodel
soft
heat
om (
ESAAT)

Al
thought
hemostcommonl
yusedmodel
oft
heat
om i
stheBohrmodel
,sci
ent
ist
sar
e
st
il
ldev
elopi
ngnewandi
mpr
ovedt
heor
iesonwhatt
heat
om l
ooksl
i
ke.Oneoft
he
mosti
mpor
tantcont
ri
but
ionst
oat
omi
ctheor
y(t
hef
iel
dofsci
encet
hatl
ooksatat
oms)
wast
hedev
elopmentofquant
um t
heor
y.Schr
odi
nger
,Hei
senber
g,Bor
nandmany
ot
her
shav
ehadar
olei
ndev
elopi
ngquant
um t
heor
y.