Calcium and Phosphorus Homeostasis in Horses

R. A. ARGENZIO, J. E. LOWE, H. F. HINTZ

ANDH. F. SCHRYVER
Equine Research Program, New Yorfc State Veterinary College,
Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14850

ABSTRACT A study with horses was undertaken to determine if an abnormal

calcium homeostasis, due to nutritional or hormonal imbalance, would be present fol
lowing induction of either hypo- or hypercalcemia. This response was studied in 12
horses fed diets containing four different ratios of calcium to phosphorus (Ca:P).
Animals fed the high phosphate diet (Ca:P = 0.5) demonstrated an impairment in

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returning serum Ca to normal following Ca infusion but recovered from ethylene-
diaminetetraacetate (EDTA) induced hypocalcemia significantly faster than control
animals (Ca:P=1.2). Thyroidectomized horses showed a significant impairment in
recovering normocalcemia from both a hyper- and hypocalcémieinduction. However,
the responses were completely corrected with thyroxine treatment. The response to Ca
infusion was examined in two ponies during the stage of compensatory adaptation to a
higher level of phosphate (Ca:P = 0.2) than used in the first study. Serum Ca and P
and the Ca tolerance times were acutely affected and only began to return towards
normal after the ponies had been fed the diet for 6 weeks. Biopsies taken from the
frontal bone indicated increased osteoblastic and osteolytic activity, suggesting an in
creased bone turnover. It is suggested that Ca infusion studies may be useful in estab
lishing a diagnosis of nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism (NSH) in horses.
Possible roles of the thyroid and parathyroid gland in NSH are discussed. J. Nutr.
104: 18-27, 1974.
INDEXING KEY WORDS bone turnover •parathyroid hyperplasia •com
pensation •nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism

Imbalance of the dietary Ca:P ratio with
diets high in P and/or low in Ca have been
shown to induce parathyroid hypertrophy
and hyperplasia accompanied by increased
bone résorption (1, 2). This metabolic
bone disease known as nutritional sec
ondary hyperparathyroidism ( NSH ) occurs
in horses fed high levels of grain without
Ca supplementation (2, 3).
Because of the nature of compensatory
adjustments by the metabolic hormones,
the onset of clinical signs is usually slow
to occur, while anatomical lesions may
already be well established (2). Further
more, the efficiency by which the serum Ca
and P are regulated makes it difficult to
assess the nutritional status with conven
tional blood chemistry analysis. Although
urinary PO* determinations appear to be
useful in establishing a diagnosis (3), this
18
procedure cannot always be done routinely
because total (24-hour) urinary collections
should be obtained.
The purpose of the present study was to
determine if high calcium or high phos
phorus feeding resulted in abnormal re
sponses to hyper- or hypocalcemia induced
by intravenous Ca or EDTA infusions.
These responses were further studied and
compared in horses which were thyroidec-
tomized, as the thyroid hormones are well
known to affect Ca homeostasis (4). The
thyroid glands in the horse are distinctly
separate from the lower parathyroids (2),
which enables us to use this animal in
studying the effect of complete thyroid re
moval without damage to the lower para
thyroids or their blood supply.
Received for publication January 2, 1973.

. .ÕÀ
 CA AND P IN KOKSES 19
TABLE 1
Ingredients and composition of experimental diets
high
IngredientHay, Ca332620251 High
P% P3329202__12 P3446122_510.41.90.2

timothyCora1Soybean 332420251
meal1MolassesLimestoneDicalcium

phosphate
Monosodium phosphate 2
Trace
saltÇa"PCa:PBasal3331202_1
mineralized 10.7O.C1.2High
12.80.64.7HighCa
12.71.12.5High
10.71.40.5Extra

1The soybean meal content of the diets was decreased to 12% when the horses were 12 months old. The corn content was in

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creased accordingly. The protein content of the diets was then 12%. ¡Percentage of 90% dry matter feed.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Calcium tolerance tests were conducted

Twelve horses (2 years of age) were
used to study the effect of a long-term di
etary treatment on Ca homeostasis. The ex
perimental diets (table 1) had been fed
to the animals for 18 months. In a second
series of experiments, two mature ponies
(5 years of age) were used in a short-term
study to evaluate the response to induced
hypercalcemia during the period of com
pensatory adaptation to an experimental
extra high phosphate (XHiP) diet (table
1). Animals were fed the rations twice a
day and were housed in an open barn with
free access to water. Experiments were al
ways conducted after the morning meal.
Calcium infusion experiments were also
conducted on six stallions and six mares
( 2 years of age ). Three animals of each sex
were thyroidectomized at least 6 months
prior to the experiment. Two additional
horses (2 years of age) and one pony (4
years of age), thyroidectomized 6 months
previously, were used for both Ca and
EDTA infusion experiments before and
after thyroxine replacement. Total thy-
roidectomy was confirmed by measuring
serum thyroxine levels by competitive pro
tein binding (5). These animals were fed a
commercial, pelleted hay-grain ration* con
taining 0.6% Ca and 0.5% P. Synthetic
L-thyroxine was administered intravenously
to the two horses and pony daily at the
rate of 4 jug/100 kg. This dosage was found
to produce normal T4 levels for horses of 2
to 4 jag/100 ml (6).
by a jugular vein infusion of a 20% solu
tion of Ca gluconate at the rate of 1.8 mg
Ca/kg/minute during a 10-minute period.
Blood samples were taken at 15-minute in
tervals for 2.5 hours postinfusion by jugular
vein catheter. The samples were allowed to
clot and were then centrifuged; the serum
was removed and frozen for subsequent
analysis.
Hypocalcemia was induced by intra
venous infusion of a 4% solution of EDTA
over a 30-minute period at the rate of 2.16
mg EDTA/kg/minute. Blood samples were
collected at intervals from the contralateral
jugular vein for a period of 6 hours and
treated as described above.
A 10-day balance trial was conducted
with the two ponies after they had been
fed the XHiP ration (Ca:P = 0.2) for two
weeks. Feed, urinary and fecal samples
were analyzed for Ca by atomic absorption
spectrophotometry and for P by an auto-
analyzer method.2 Biopsies of the frontal
bone were taken under local anesthesia at
4 and 11 weeks for histological observa
tions. The sections were stained with hema-
toxylin and eosin, and toluidine blue. Sec
tions from two mature ponies fed the con
trol commercial diet were taken under
identical conditions for comparison.
Serum Ca and inorganic P were analyzed
by an autoanalyzer method. Although this
1 Choice. Agway, Inc., Syracuse, N. T.
2 Technlcon AutoAnalyzer, Technlcon Corp., Tarry-
town, N. T.
 20 ARGENZIO, LOWE, HINTZ AND SCHRYVER

TABLE 2
Effect of diet on serum calcium and phosphorus levels and calcium tolerance times
change
serum serum in serum P
treatmentBasal
Dietary animals3 Camg/100 Pmg/100 tolerancemin86.0i afterinfusionma/100
Ca

ml12.70iO.16"- ml4.30Ì0.13"3.63Ì0.14"3.93Ì0.34" ml+0.14Ì0.14»

l12.20i0.25b12.70iO.16" 6.9"
High calcium 333Basal 66.8Ì
6.2"76.9 +0.02Ì0.07"+0.12Ì0.06"
High calcium
High phosphorus i 7.9»
High
phosphorusLevel 13.13iO.ll"<0.01Basal
5.11i0.35b<0.01Ca131il6.8b<0.05Mean4-0.01iO.03">0.05
of significanceNo.
1 Values are mean ±SE.Basal serum Ca and P determinations were made at weekly intervals for 3 weeks after the morning
feeding. Ca tolerance time is the time required for serum Ca to return to within 1 mg/100 ml of the preinjection level. Values with
different superscripts in comparable columns are significantly different at the level indicated. The composition of the diets is as given
in table 1.

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method measures total Ca, the renal clear
ance of Ca-EDTA is rapid (7) and would
therefore lower total serum Ca. However,
the initial Ca values reported following
EDTA infusion would be higher than the
level of ionized Ca in the blood. For this
reason, statistical comparisons were limited
to samples taken 2 hours postinfusion and
should indicate relative recovery rates be
tween groups of animals.
Plasma Ca clearance was analyzed by
plotting the Ca increment against time on
semilogarithmic coordinates. The Ca incre
ment was defined as Ca(t) —Ca(0), where
Ca(t) is the plasma Ca concentration at
time t and Ca«» denotes the preinjection
plasma Ca concentration. The plasma Ca
clearance data obtained from thyroidec-
tomized horses were described as the sum
of two exponential terms, whereas control
data followed a single exponential decline.
Therefore, in an attempt to make compari
sons among animals, the time required for
plasma Ca to return to 1 mg/100 ml above
preinjection values was calculated (toler
ance time) by integration of the Ca incre
ment over time. This procedure allowed a
more accurate and useful comparison
among animals than the usual reference to
"half-times."
An analysis of variance was used to com
pare treatment means (8).
RESULTS
Results of the Ca infusion studies in
horses fed the high phosphate ration dem
onstrated a significant impairment ( P <
0.05) in returning serum Ca to normal
(table 2). No additional significant effect
was noted in the horses fed higher levels of
Ca; however, the tolerance time tended to
decrease as the Ca:P ratio in the diet in
creased.
It may also be seen from table 2 that
basal serum Ca levels in animals fed the
experimental diets were inversely propor
tional to the Ca:P dietary ratio. For ex
ample, serum Ca in animals fed the high

TABLE 3
Effect of thyroidectomy on serum calcium and phosphorus levels
and calcium tolerance times
serum serum
TreatmentThyroidectomy animalsG Camg/100 Pmg/100

ml12.10iO.33-- ml3.66Ì0.21"
' Ì23.7»
ControlLevel 6Basal 11.40i0.26">0.05Basal 63.2i
8.3"<0.005
4.62i0.31b<0.01Catolerancemin173

of significanceNo.
1Values are mean ±SE.Basal serum Ca and P represent preinjection values. Values with different superscripts in comparable
columns are significantly different at the level indicated. Animals were 2-year-old horses fed a commercial pelleted diet containing
0.6% Ca and 0.57»P.

Vii..
 CA AND P IN HORSES 21
Ca diet was significantly lower ( P < 0.01 ) 30i +
than that of the control group. Serum PO4,
however, appeared to reflect the dietary +7C£
level more closely than serum Ca. Animals
fed the high phosphate diet demonstrated
significantly higher serum PO4 concentra +10
tions than the control group ( P < 0.01 ). Ó.".S

Thyroidectomy also markedly increased

the Ca tolerance time (table 3). The effect
in these animals was more pronounced than
in the high phosphate group, and the toler -'of.,W—30•"--\iIT/••SJ\1ri.•v1
ance time increased threefold over the con
trol group (P < 0.005). Furthermore, a CONTROLro

marked increase in serum inorganic PO4

concentration was noted after Ca infusion
in the thyroidectomized horses, whereas a

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decrease was observed in the controls
(fig. 1). However, the serum phosphate
changes observed following Ca infusion in
animals fed the experimental diets were
highly variable and nonsignificant (table
2). Mean serum phosphate changes re
corded for these animals was + 0.07 ±0.03
mg/100 ml.
Since the impaired Ca and P homeostasis
in the thyroidectomized group could be
due to the absence of either thyroxine or
calcitonin, further studies were conducted
in three thyroidectomized horses with re
placed thyroxine. The results of these stud
ies, shown in table 4, indicate that thyrox
ine treatment for 1 week completely re
versed the impaired tolerance to Ca infu
sion. Subsequent studies after 4 weeks of
treatment showed no further change in dis
posing of the Ca load. However, thyroxine
treatment had no effect in reversing the
serum PO4 increase observed in these ani-
!>"hi-(,^<30 t
, 60
1TIME 90 120
(min)TX11
Fig. l Serum phosphate changes following the
intravenous infusion of Ca gluconate in control
and thyroidectomized (Tx) horses. Values repre
sent the mean ±SE change in serum PCX from six
animals on each treatment. The changes in serum
PO»between control and Tx horses were signifi
cantly different at the 0.5% level.
mais after Ca infusion. Serum PO4 again
showed a mean increase of 0.20 ±0.04
mg/100 ml.
The effect of the XHiP diet on Ca and
P homeostasis was next studied in two ma
ture ponies during the compensatory period
of adaptation. The initial serum Ca levels
were only depressed by 20% but an in
crease of 350% in serum PO4 was observed
(fig. 2). An initial impairment in the Ca
tolerance time was noticed in 1 week and
this response continued to a maximum at

TABLE 4
Effect of thyroxine replacement on Ca tolerance times in thyroidectomized horses
No. Ca Mean change in serum P
Treatment animals tolerance after Ca infusion

ml+0.25
ThyroidectomizedThyroidectomized ±24.2«.»73.0± ±0.03«+0.20±0.04»>0.05

wk)Thyroidectomized
plus thyroxine (1 7.8b88.5±

wk)Level
plus thyroxine (4 8.5b<0.005maflOO
of significance333min161
1Values represent mean ±SE.Values with different superscripts in comparable columns are significantly different at the level
indicated. Animals were two mature horses and one pony fed a commercial, pelleted diet containing 0.6% Ca and 0.5% P. Note
that the Ca tolerance time of the thyroidectomized animals is not signißcantlydifferent from the 2-year-old thyroidectomized horses
(table 3). Also, note that the tolerance times with thyroxine present were not significantly different from the control group (table 3).
 22 ARGENZIO, LOWE, HINTZ AND SCHRYVER

cated a compensatory adjustment by the

Ci TOI««««
kidney in conservation of Ca and elimina
tion of P.
In an attempt to correlate changes in
blood parameters with metabolic activity
in bone, biopsy sections were taken after 4
and 11 weeks from the frontal bone of the
ponies. These are compared with a section
taken from a mature pony fed the basal
diet (fig. 3). At week 4, many large osteo-
clasts and Howship's lacunae were present
in the biopsy from pony 46 (fig. 4). These
were not evident in pony 19; however, in
Fig. 2 Relative changes in sérumÇaand P tense osteolysis, as demonstrated by meta-
and in Çatolerance times in ponies 19 and 46 chromatic staining around large osteocytes

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after feeding the XHif diet. The zero time refer was present in both animals. Invasion of
ence represents mean values from two determina bone spaces by young fibrous tissue was
tions when the animals were fed the basal diet. evident in both sections and, in addition,
These values for the Ca tolerance time, serum Ca
and serum P were 88 ±3 minutes, 12.9 ±0.1 and rows of large osteoblasts were seen at sur
2.8 ±0.2 mg/100 ml, respectively. During the faces of osteoid. The picture in general ap
first week, Ca tolerance increased to 243 ±18 peared to be one of greater than normal
minutes, serum Ca decreased to 10.2 ±0.2 mg/ activity. The sections taken at week 11 in
100 ml and serum P increased to 6.5 ±0.4 mg/
100 ml. dicated relatively greater activity (fig. 5).
Fibrous tissue invasion was much more
4 weeks and then began to decline (fig. 2). extensive than at 4 weeks and osteoblastic
A compensatory increase in serum Ca did proliferation was dominant at bone sur
not occur by week 11. However, at this faces. No osteoclasts were seen in these
time one of the ponies refused to eat and sections; however, internal résorptionwas
the experiment was terminated. The ani occurring which can be seen in greater de
mals were then changed to a diet contain tail with polarized light ( fig. 6 ).
ing 0.7% Ca and 0.6% P and blood sam Induction of hypocalcemia by EDTA in
ples taken to evaluate the recompensatory fusion was used as a second criterion in
response. Serum Ca increased to normo- establishing information on Ca homeostatic
calcemic values. A marked decrease in mechanisms. Figure 7 compares changes in
serum PO4 was observed, which continued serum Ca which were observed for 6 hours
for 2 weeks, at which time it began to in following EDTA infusion in horses fed the
crease towards normal. high phosphate or basal diet. Statistical
Results of the balance trial conducted comparisons were made between serum Ca
after the ponies had been fed the XHiP values during the period of 2 to 6 hours
diet for two weeks indicated that the ani after EDTA infusion, because the first 2
mals were in a negative Ca but positive P hours of induction and recovery from hypo
balance (table 5). The marked difference calcemia are complicated by rapidly ex
in the urinary excretion of Ca and P indi changing Ca pools and by renal Ca excre-

TABLE 5
Calcium and phosphorus balance in ponies fed a high phosphorus diet
Pony
no.19 (kg)223 Urine1Ca4.31 Fèces1 absorptionCa-0.16 levelsCa11.1serum

Ca20.3 Ga4.89
4.47 0.50 ±0.34
219Intake1
46Weight 4.26P 20.0 4.20P 4.66 0.47P6.59
6.80Apparent1
0.06P15.4 -0.41P8.82
15.3Retained1Ca-0.6611.8±0.24P6.88±0.32
8.54Mean1 9.80±0.32
1g/day/100 kg. »
mg/100 ml.
 ÇAAND P IN HORSES 23

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Fig. 3 Frontal bone, periosteal area at top, from control pony fed the basal diet ( 0.6% Ca,
0.5% P). Osteocytic osteolysis, evidenced by enlarged and rounded osteocytes (in front of
horizontal arrows), occurs only in a restricted area in center of lamellae at maximal distance
from apposition (vertical arrows) along the surfaces. There is balance between résorption
and apposition with small fibrovascular spaces and densely packed lamellae. H&E, X 120.

Fig. 4 Biopsy from frontal bone of pony 46 after 4 weeks on high PO«diet (HOLE,X 120).
Bone is being dissolved by large multinucleated osteoclasts. Resorption cavity being replaced
by poorly collagenized fibrous tissue.
 ARGENZIO, LOWE, HINTZ AND SCHRYVER

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Fig. 5 Frontal bone, periosteal area at top, from pony 46 after 11 weeks on high PO4 diet.
Osteocytic osteolysis, evidenced by enlarged and rounded osteocytes (in front of horizontal
arrows), occurs in a large portion of the diagonal lamella; only in the periphery are the
osteocytes small and elongated. Osteocytic osteolysis is of greater intensity than apposition
(vertical arrows) along the surfaces which therefore recede centrally. The lost bone tissue is
replaced by fibrovascular tissue. In front of oblique arrows there is a cementing line formed
by merging of diffuse basophilia, another criterion of deep-seated internal résorption.
H&E, X 120.

tion. The horses fed the high P:Ca diet
recovered with significantly higher Ca val
ues than the control horses ( P < 0.005 ).
The two horses and pony which had been
thyroidectomized were also subjected to
EDTA infusion studies before and after 2
weeks of thyroxine replacement. These
data, shown in figure 8, demonstrate that
thyroidectomy prevented a recovery of
normocalcemia during the 6-hour period.
They also show that in the presence of
thyroxine, the impaired recovery was com
pletely reversed (P < 0.005).
DISCUSSION
Nutritional secondary hyperparathyroid-
ism (NSH) has been attributed to high
phosphorus feeding which secondarily re
sults in a lowering of the serum Ca (2).
This effect then stimulates the parathyroid
gland to increase serum Ca by résorptionof
the bone and to increase renal PO4 excre
tion (4). Conversely, hypercalcemia re
portedly increases calcitonin secretion (9)
and in some cases results in increased bone
density (10). Short-term kinetic studies
using 47Ca in horses have shown increased
deposition of Ca in bone when the animals
were fed high levels of Ca (11), whereas
high phosphorus feeding resulted in an in
creased turnover of bone Ca (12). Long-
term studies have demonstrated only slight
changes in body composition in horses fed
high levels of calcium.3 The difference be
tween the short-term kinetics trial and the
long-term body composition trial may be
clue to either errors inherent in balance
trials or adaptive mechanisms in the horse,
or both. Nevertheless, it would be antici
pated that Ca and P homeostasis, as dem
onstrated by induction of a hyper- or hypo-
calcemia, would be at least temporarily up
set in response to the dietary treatment.
«H. F. Schryver, H. F. Hintz. J. B. Lowe, R. L.
Hlntz, R. B. Harper and J. T. Reid. Mineral composi
tion of the whole body, liver and bone of young
horses. Submitted to J. Nutr.
 CA AND P IN HORSES 25

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Fig. 6 Same area and magnification as figure 5. Polarized light. Note diffuse résorptionin
central area.

Figure 9 shows a linear increase in the phosphate group. Similar findings were ob
Ca tolerance time, when the data were ex tained in dogs treated with thyroxine (13)
pressed as a function of the P:Ca dietary and it was shown that thyroxine substan
ratio. The response suggests that the P:Ca tially increased the turnover of bone Ca.
ratio of the diet was directly related to the
impairment of Ca homeostasis. High Ca £DMInfusion
feeding did not appear to significantly af
fect the Ca tolerance time; however, exami
nation of figure 9 shows that extrapolation
of the curve to the zero ordinate gives a
minimum tolerance time of 60 minutes.
This minimum value may be the result of
the time the injected Ca is being distrib
uted throughout the exchangeable Ca pool.
For this reason, increased rates of Ca clear
ance or decreased bone Ca removal, which
may have been due to a hypersécrétion of
calcitonin, would not be reflected in the
present analysis. 30 6O 90 120 ISO ISO" 2OO 280 360
Figure 9 also shows the impaired re TIME (min)
sponse due to thyroidectomy. However,
Fig. 7 Serum Ca response to EDTA infusion
thyroxine treatment completely reversed in horses fed the high PO»or the control diet.
the impaired Ca clearance, suggesting that Serum Ca values taken between 2 and 6 hours
an absence or deficiency of calcitonin was show significantly higher (P < 0.005) values for
animals fed the high PO«diet compared with
not responsible for the abnormal response those fed the control diet. Vertical fines repre
in either the thyroidectomized or the high sent SE.
26 ARGENZIO, LOWE, HINTZ AND SCHRYVER

COM Infusion

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30 60 90 120 ISO
r/ME (min)

Fig. 8 Serum Ca response to EDTA infusion in Tx horses and Tx horses with replaced
thyroxine (Tx + T4). Thyroxine treatment significantly increased the ability to recover normo-
calcemia (P < 0.005). Vertical Unes represent SE.

The increase observed in serum phos tomized horses, however, cannot be di

phate following Ca infusion in thyroidec- rectly attributed to thyroxine and directs
attention to a possible role of calcitonin in
200-1 phosphate homeostasis. The discrepancy
Tx-
between the control and thyroidectomized
group confirms similar observations noted
in the rat by Kennedy and Talmage ( 14 ),
who. concluded that calcitonin may pri
marily inhibit phosphate release from the
bone. However, the nonsignificant serum
phosphate changes noted in animals fed
100
the experimental diets indicated that it was
not possible to determine the relative im
portance of calcitonin in the present study
from these results alone.
The histological evidence from the two
ponies fed the XHiP ration appeared to
support the blood changes (fig. 2) indicat
ing that the impaired Ca tolerance may
1.0 2.0 3.0
have been due, at least in part, to an in
creased résorptionor turnover of bone Ca.
Fig. 9 Ca tolerance times vs. the dietary P/Ca Osteoclastic as well as osteolytic activity
ratio in horses fed the experimental diets (table 1). accompanied by fibrous invasion of bone
The tolerance time of the Tx group has been in spaces are signs of an active resorptive
cluded for comparison. The regression equation is: process (2). Furthermore, osteoblastic pro
y (tolerance time) = 60+35.2 x, r = 0.99, P<
0.005. The standard errors for the tolerance times liferation is a compensatory stimulus to re-
are shown. sorbing bone (2). These results are further
 ÇAAND P IN HORSES
supported by results of the balance trial,
wJ indicated a negative Ca balance in
these same animals.
If the high phosphate diets resulted in a
hypersécrétionof parathyroid hormone
with increased bone turnover or résorption,
recovery of induced hypocalcemia would
be expected to be faster than in control
animals. The significantly higher serum Ca
levels observed during recovery in animals
fed the high phosphate diet as compared
with animals fed the control diet, suggests
that this was so.
The influence of thyroxine was again
noted in these studies, confirming results
observed by Jowsey and Detenbeck with
dogs (13). In addition, these workers ex
amined microradiographs of bone which
clearly demonstrated an influence of thy
roxine on increasing bone turnover.
The present study with horses indicates
that both thyroxine and a low Ca, high P
diet influence Ca homeostasis, as defined by
the response to induced hypo- or hyper-
calcemia. Results from the high phosphorus
feeding strongly suggest the presence of a
hypersecreting parathyroid gland. There
fore, these tests may be useful in the evalu
ation of the parathyroid status in animals
suspected of NSH. The serum Ca adjust
ments in the long-term experiment and 10. Krook, L., Lutwak, L., McEntee, K., Henrik-
even the relatively small depression of
serum Ca concentration in the short-term
study despite excessive levels of serum P, 11. Schryver, H. F., Craig, P. H. & Hintz, H. F.
not only emphasize the fact that a major
compensatory adjustment is present, but
also that little reliability can be placed on 12. 964.
measurements of serum Ca and P alone.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to acknowledge the
technical assistance of Miss J. Cooper, Miss
J. Williams, Mr. P. Daniluk, Mr. C. Mar
quis and Mrs. S. Hallett. We also greatly
appreciate the assistance of Dr. L. Krook
in photographing the bone sections.
27
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