Competencies of Hotel

International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management
Competencies of hotel general managers: a conceptual framework

Sonia Bharwani Parvaiz Talib
Article information:
To cite this document:
Sonia Bharwani Parvaiz Talib , (2017),"Competencies of hotel general managers: a conceptual
framework ", International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol. 29 Iss 1 pp. 393 -
418
Permanent link to this document:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/IJCHM-09-2015-0448
Downloaded on: 02 February 2017, At: 01:22 (PT)
Downloaded by Fudan University At 01:22 02 February 2017 (PT)
References: this document contains references to 64 other documents.

To copy this document: permissions@emeraldinsight.com
The fulltext of this document has been downloaded 55 times since 2017*
Users who downloaded this article also downloaded:
(2017),"Customer satisfaction, service quality, and customer value: years 2000-2015", International
Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol. 29 Iss 1 pp. 2-29 http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/
IJCHM-10-2015-0594
(2017),"Transformational leadership and employee voices in the hospitality industry", International
Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol. 29 Iss 1 pp. 374-392 http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/
IJCHM-07-2015-0364
Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by emerald-
srm:543096 []
For Authors
If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please use our Emerald
for Authors service information about how to choose which publication to write for and submission
guidelines are available for all. Please visit www.emeraldinsight.com/authors for more information.
About Emerald www.emeraldinsight.com
Emerald is a global publisher linking research and practice to the benefit of society. The company
manages a portfolio of more than 290 journals and over 2,350 books and book series volumes, as
well as providing an extensive range of online products and additional customer resources and
services.
Emerald is both COUNTER 4 and TRANSFER compliant. The organization is a partner of the
Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and also works with Portico and the LOCKSS initiative for
digital archive preservation.
*Related content and download information correct at time of download.

The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available on Emerald Insight at:
www.emeraldinsight.com/0959-6119.htm
Competencies of hotel Competencies

of hotel
general managers: general
managers
a conceptual framework
Sonia Bharwani and Parvaiz Talib 393
Department of Business Studies, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India
Received 1 September 2015
Revised 10 December 2015
11 March 2016
Abstract Accepted 19 June 2016
Purpose – It is crucial for hospitality organisations to develop sustainable leadership by regularly
re-evaluating the competencies and skills required by their senior managers and leaders. In the context of this
strategic talent management imperative, this paper aims to identify and map competencies required for the
pivotal position of a hotel general manager to develop a holistic and relevant leadership competency
framework.
Design/methodology/approach – Through secondary research, this study undertakes a detailed
literature review of competency and leadership studies in the context of the hospitality industry to distil the
essential competencies and skills required by a general manager.
Findings – This study proposes a leadership competency model for hospitality organisations in the form of
a 43-item competency framework for hotel general managers categorised into four broad dimensions –
cognitive competencies (knowledge), functional competencies (skills), social competencies (attitudes and
behaviours) and meta competencies (motives and traits).
Practical implications – The proposed competency model, once empirically tested for robustness, could
serve as a blueprint for hospitality organisations to develop their own organisation-specific competency
framework for senior leadership that could prove to be a keystone for integrated talent management practices.
Further, educationists and trainers could use the findings of this study as inputs in designing curricula and
pedagogical interventions to meet the industry’s future needs and expectations with regards to competencies
of senior managers.
Originality/value – By aggregating competencies from earlier studies and synthesising and categorising
them in accordance with a contemporary, hospitality industry-relevant typology, a comprehensive
competency model specific for hotel general managers has been proposed.
Keywords Leadership development, Talent management, Competencies, Hospitality management,
General manager
Paper type Conceptual paper
Introduction
As economic growth gathers momentum globally, companies are increasing their spending
on business travel. Simultaneously, leisure travel is also experiencing a boost due to
increasing levels of importance being attributed to leisure time pursuits and greater amounts
of discretionary income at the disposable of the consumer. This two-pronged growth in
travel has influenced demand levels in the tourism sector, as well as the hospitality sector,
which shares a fairly symbiotic relationship with the travel and tourism industry. As a
result, hospitality and tourism have emerged as two of the most rapidly growing industries International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
in the world, accounting for more than a third of the total global services trade (ILO, 2010). Management
Vol. 29 No. 1, 2017
Hospitality and tourism together contributed approximately 9.8 per cent to the worldwide pp. 393-418
gross domestic product in 2014 and employed nearly 277 million people, creating 9.4 per cent © Emerald Publishing Limited
0959-6119
of the overall number of jobs worldwide, both direct and indirect (WTTC, 2015). DOI 10.1108/IJCHM-09-2015-0448
IJCHM Globally, the hospitality industry is witnessing increasingly sophisticated guests with
29,1 heightened expectations, high workforce diversity, the constant emergence of new
technologies and unyielding cost pressures in the wake of intense competition. Thus, hotel
management as a process is becoming exceedingly dynamic and highly complex. Hospitality
players have to grapple with rapid change and the challenges of functioning in an
information-based, knowledge-intensive, service-driven economy. Such challenges have
394 brought about a dramatic shift in the strategic imperatives of hospitality organisations and
thrown up a new set of role demands and professional challenges for senior managers and
leaders in the industry. Hospitality organisations, therefore, must develop leaders with
competencies that correspond with and are specific to their distinct business challenges and
goals.
Rationale of the study

Being in the service industry, a hotel has unique characteristics which can place stringent
demands on its employees and, of course, the managerial cadre. As entities that function
around-the-clock, hotels are highly labour intensive and contain a diverse complement of
employees (Blayney, 2009). Senior managers and particularly general managers play a
pivotal role in hospitality operations. As a leader of the hospitality unit in charge of
operations, the general manager of a hotel is ultimately responsible for the entire property
including supervision of all its employees. He or she is “held directly accountable by the
corporation or owners for the operation’s level of profitability, too” (Walker, 2004, p. 747).
Further, hospitality leaders are central to creating a culture of service excellence within the
organisation and play a crucial role in shaping service delivery systems and driving the
overall service quality to enhance customer experience (Walsh and Koenigsfeld, 2015).
In the hospitality industry, it is relatively easy for competition to imitate the tangible
aspects of the product and service offerings of an organisation. With this convergence of the
tangibles, the key to success lies in the intangibles. This includes elements of both human
capital (employee knowledge, experience, skills, competencies and commitment) and social
capital (relationships among employees and employees’ relationships with others outside the
firm). The ability of an organisation to differentiate on the basis of its talent pool, especially
its senior management and leadership, can provide it with a consistent edge over the
competition (Bharwani, 2014).
This calls for integrated talent management practices to serve as a blueprint for strategic
human resource management in hospitality organisations. Any coordinated or strategic
effort for talent management requires a lingua franca – a common language. Competency
models can serve as the lingua franca for strategic human resource management. A holistic
and salubrious organisational system is created when different talent management practices
are designed and implemented on the basis of a common underlying model. For example,
when an organisation recruits, develops, appraises and promotes employees based on the
same repertoire of competencies, the consistency clearly communicates the strategic
importance of these competencies to its employees (Orr et al., 2010). This produces greater
homogeneity of perceptions and behavioural responses in the employees and engenders a
robust organisational climate that is conducive to the creation of high-performance work
systems (Bowen and Ostroff, 2004).
The general manager’s role demands sophisticated talent, with global acumen,
multi-cultural perspective, people-handling skills, technological proficiency, strategic and
entrepreneurial skills and the ability to manage an increasingly delayered organisation.
Despite the significance of his role, there is limited research undertaken to understand the
essential competencies and capabilities required by the general manager for leadership and
management success in the context of the hospitality sector. As effective leadership is central Competencies
to organisational success, “the ability to identify the skills and competencies required for of hotel
tomorrow’s hospitality industry leaders is essential for companies that hope to remain
competitive in the business” (Chung-Herrera et al., 2003, p. 17). In an attempt to address this
general
important research area, this study undertakes a detailed literature review of competency managers
and leadership studies in the context of the hospitality industry and distils the essential
competencies and skills required by a hotel general manager to propose a sustainable
leadership competency-model for hospitality organisations. 395
Leadership competencies
Researchers have, over the years, endeavoured to understand what enables a business
manager to deliver superior performance and be successful. These researchers and
management thinkers have postulated as to what contributes to the effectiveness of chief
executives, general managers and senior managers (Mintzberg, 1975; Kotter, 1999; Gosling
and Mintzberg, 2003; Drucker, 2004).
Mintzberg (1975) described a manager’s job in terms of ten managerial roles that he
performs which were broadly categorised as interpersonal, informational and decisional
roles. This was done to provide managers with an insight into the managerial skills
required to carry out their work, as well as to deal with the dilemmas and pressures
associated with the job. Understanding their job roles and introspecting about their work
would enable managers to improve their job effectiveness and performance (Mintzberg,
1975). Kotter (1999) explained what effective general managers do, based on a detailed
study of the typical workday routine of 15 successful executives from nine different
US-based organisations.
Gosling and Mintzberg (2003) suggested five mindsets that a manager can adopt and
integrate to interpret the world around them and function effectively. These include the
reflective mindset for self-management, the analytic mindset for managing the
organisation, worldly mindset for managing context, the collaborative mindset for
managing relationships and the action mindset for managing change. These mindsets
allude to the competencies and skills required by managers for effective functioning.
Drucker (2004) encapsulated what made executives effective by putting forward eight
practices commonly adopted by them. Besides these seminal leadership studies several
pan-industry as well as country-specific studies have been undertaken in the past to
throw light on leadership roles and challenges and identify some basic leadership
competencies and traits. However, in view of the growing popularity in the use of
competency-based approach in integrated talent management, it is useful to examine the
origins of this approach and its importance in leadership development in the present
business context.
The competency-based approach

The roots of the competence movement can be traced back to the work of Katz in the
1950s. Though he did not use the terms competence or competency, Katz (1955, 1974)
proposed a framework for distinguishing the performance of effective managers on the
basis of skills. Katz (1974, p. 91) defined a skill as “an ability which can be developed, not
necessarily inborn, and which is manifested in performance, not merely in potential”.
Skills were divided into three categories, i.e. technical skills, human skills and
conceptual skills. As one moved up the managerial hierarchy, conceptual and human
skills played a dominant role in the effectiveness of the manager as compared to
technical skills. Katz (1974) contended that for the purpose of executive recruitment,
training and promoting, instead of merely evaluating the individual traits of a manager
IJCHM to determine his latent potential, it was important to focus on skills that could be
29,1 developed through training and resulted in effective performance. Thus, the work of
Katz (1955, 1974) was an important contribution in the foundation of the competency
approach that sought to establish a causal link between the skills, knowledge and
underlying characteristics of an individual and effective performance.
White (1959) introduced the term competence to encompass personality traits that lead to
396 superior performance and higher levels of motivation. However, it was McClelland (1973,
p. 11) who pioneered its popular use in management literature. He questioned the predictive
validity of traditional intelligence and aptitude tests in determining vocational success. He
argued that proxies such as scholastic grades were poor predictors of job performance and
instead advocated testing for competencies through careful analysis and sampling of
“operant as well as respondent behavio(u)r” of an individual.
However, competency models gained popularity in the 1980s and are being increasingly
used since then as a key tool in human resource management and development to improve
both individual job performance and overall organisational effectiveness. Competency
research is generally initiated for certain pivotal job positions that have high salience in
context of an organisation’s strategic plans. Such job roles are strategic in nature and
contribute to the overall success and the bottom-line of the organisation. The
competency approach advocates observing and studying individuals who are successful
and effective job performers so as to ascertain what sets them apart from less successful
performers (Delamare Le Deist and Winterton, 2005). Therefore, human resource
management consultants and practitioners have been increasingly using the terms
competence and competency in the context of managerial performance assessment and
managerial development.
Conceptual framework
Boyatzis (1982) has been credited with developing the first comprehensive management
competency framework grounded in the work of classical management theorists. Using the
Job Competence Assessment Method, 2,000 managers were studied to determine generic
competencies that were relevant to performance at various hierarchical levels of
management. A total of 21 competencies related to managerial effectiveness were put
forward and organised around six clusters – goal and action management, leadership,
human resource management, directing subordinates, focus on others and specialised
knowledge. Boyatzis (1982) defined competency in a generic form as any underlying
characteristic an individual possesses and uses which leads to successful performance in a
job-related context.
Competencies refer to behavioural dimensions that an individual brings to a position to
enable him to perform the job competently. It is frequently used as an over-arching term to
include almost anything that might directly or indirectly have a bearing on job performance
(Woodruffe, 1993). Competencies could, thus, include motives, traits, self-concepts, attitudes
or values, knowledge of specific content areas as well as cognitive, behavioural or physical
skills (Boyatzis, 1982; Spencer and Spencer, 1993). It refers to the willingness and capability
(motive and traits) to behave in a competent manner and incorporates knowledge, skills,
behaviours and attitudes into a single core unit.
Competencies can be classified into broad categories based on whether they are related to
the functional aspects of a particular job or to an individual’s personality. Competencies can
also be categorised on the basis of whether they are associated with mental aptitude or with
operational abilities to perform in a given job role. Thus, individual competencies can be
broadly categorised as depicted in the typology given in Figure 1:
Competencies
of hotel
general
managers
397
Figure 1.
Typology of
dimensions of
competencies
• Cognitive Competencies (Knowledge) are related to the conceptual knowledge of an

individual.
• Functional Competencies (Skills) are related to the job-specific technical skills of an
individual.
• Social Competencies (Attitudes and Behaviours) are related to the interpersonal
attitudes and behaviours of an individual and their ability to effectively interact with
others.
• Meta Competencies (Motives and Traits) are higher-order personal competencies
concerned with the ability to understand the situation on hand, adapt and apply
existing competencies or acquire new competencies as and when required.
Of the enumerated competency types, knowledge and skills are relatively surface
characteristics and hence easier to observe. They also have a trainability dimension and can
be developed. Individual attitudes and their manifest behaviours can also be modified or
moulded to some extent and are more susceptible to learning. Thus, the knowledge, skills
and attitudes (KSA) aspects of competencies are useful in managerial development.
However, the underlying characteristics, self-concept, traits and motives of an individual are
more covert and intrinsic to an individual’s personality and hence enduring and more stable.
These competencies are related to the personality and core traits and motives of an
individual. They are more difficult to assess and develop but are useful during the
recruitment and hiring process, while determining the fit between a job profile and an
individual (Spencer and Spencer, 1993).
To develop a comprehensive competency framework that would be useful in recruiting
and selecting hotel general managers as well as in their leadership and managerial
development, all the four aforementioned dimensions of competencies were included in the
framework. Based on an extensive review of literature, the knowledge, skills, attitudes,
behaviours and motives and traits required by a general manager of hotel which contribute
to a superior level of performance at the workplace were identified and categorised into the
four dimensions discussed earlier.
Knowledge-related competencies were categorised as Cognitive Competencies, technical
skills were categorised as Functional Competencies and behaviour and attitudes as Social
Competencies. To make the framework more holistic, the fourth higher-order dimension of
Meta Competencies was also included. The concept of Meta Competency was initially
proposed by Briscoe and Hall (1999) as a competency that is so powerful that it influences an
individual’s ability to apply and acquire other competencies. Meta Competencies are
IJCHM overarching personal competencies concerned with the ability to understand the situation on
29,1 hand, adapt and apply existing competencies or acquire new competencies as and when
required (Delamare Le Diest and Winterton, 2005).
Studies on general managers in the hospitality industry

398 Perusal of literature shows that several studies have been carried out on hotel general
managers ranging from those focussing on their demographics and career paths, (Guerrier,
1987; Nebel et al., 1995; Woods et al., 1998; Ladkin and Juwaheer, 2000; Ladkin, 2002; Li et al.,
2007; Akrivos et al., 2007), their educational qualifications (Harper et al., 2005; Moncarz and
Kay, 2005; Kay and Moncarz, 2007; Kralj et al., 2009), their job demands (Nebel and Ghei,
1993), models for benchmarking and evaluating their performance (Morey and Dittman,
2003) to examining their leadership profiles and leadership styles (Cichy et al., 1992; Greger
and Peterson, 2000).
Several of the aforementioned studies have examined the career paths of general
managers in a particular cultural context. Guerrier’s (1987) work was conducted in the UK
context, whereas Nebel et al.’s (1995) study investigated the demographics and career paths
of 114 general managers in the USA using parameters similar to Guerrier’s (1987) study.
Food and beverage emerged as the most important stepping stone in a general manager’s
career path in both these studies. Woods et al. (1998) sought to update Nebel et al.’s (1995)
research by focusing on general managers of large hotels (with at least 500 rooms). The study
collated a list of specific skill areas needed to attain GM (General Manger) status that
included financial management, team building, community involvement, empowerment and
total quality management. Ladkin and Juwaheer (2000) researched the career paths of
general managers in Mauritius. Again, Ladkin (2002) carried out a similar research to
conduct a career analysis of general managers of hotels in Australia. These studies, too,
reaffirmed the important role of food and beverage management in the career progression of
general managers.
Li et al. (2007) examined the demographics and career paths of general managers of
economy and budget hotels in the Guangdong province in China and concluded that sales
and marketing was a salient career stage that acts as a training ground for the development
of hotel general managers. In the same year, Akrivos et al. (2007) examined the career
strategies of general managers in Greece. This paper focused on certain attributes that
profile a general manager rather than their demographic backgrounds. The research
construed that typically general managers had an internal locus of control and engaged in
continuous self-development. They were adept at managing diversity, had good
communication and presentation skills and were excellent people managers. In addition,
they were strategic thinkers, active learners and had the flexibility to adapt to the
continuously changing internal and external environments.
On the basis of the analysis of these studies, it is evident that each of the studies had
country-specific focus, and as such, their findings regarding demographics, attributes and
career paths of general managers cannot be generalised across the global hospitality
industry. However, experience in the traditional operations function of food and beverage did
emerge as an important stepping-stone in the career progression of a hotel general manager.
Further, there seems to be a gradual shift in the skills type required of general managers –
from traditional hospitality operations-oriented skills to general business management-
oriented skills.
Another area of investigation was concerned with examining the importance of the role of
educational qualifications on hospitality management success. Harper et al. (2005) examined
the significance of formal qualifications in a general manager’s career progression in
Scotland. The findings of this study indicated that formal educational qualifications did Competencies
enable managers to fast-track to general management positions and were slowly but steadily of hotel
becoming an integral part of a hotel manager’s career development. However, it was reported
that formal educational qualifications played a more significant role in developing functional
general
managerial competencies like sales and marketing and strategic thinking rather than managers
personal competencies. Moncarz and Kay (2005) carried out a similar study in the US context
and reported that overall hospitality managers perceived that formal education had only a
moderate impact on their level of industry-required competencies. 399
Kralj et al. (2009) also carried out research to gain renewed insight into formal education
influences on competency levels of hospitality professionals and revalidated the studies of
Harper et al. (2005) and Moncarz and Kay (2005). However, the scope of all these studies was
rather narrow in the sense that they all evaluated the impact of an isolated variable of
qualifications on career progression and competency development. But they did revalidate
McClelland’s (1973) contention that scholastic grades and level of formal education are poor
predictors of overall job competence, making the case for utility of competency framework in
the hospitality industry even stronger.

Harper et al. (2005) identified an important trend regarding change in the perception of the
job role of a general manager, i.e. a shift in the focus from an operational perspective to a
business perspective. Further, some of the above research contributions provided valuable
insight into specific skill areas (Woods et al., 1998) and attributes (Akrivos et al., 2007)
required to attain GM status. In a follow-up study, Kay and Moncarz (2007) endeavoured to
widen the scope of their work to examine the influence personal antecedents and situational
influencers on the management success of hospitality professionals. Their research brought
into focus the greater importance of intrinsic attributes, personal character and strategic
positioning on lodging management success as compared to academic achievements.
It can be surmised from the above discussion that the earlier studies brought out that
experience in the traditional operations function of food and beverage was an important
springboard in the career progression of a hotel general manager. However, over the recent
decade, there seems to be a shift in focus in the skills type required of general managers –
from operations-oriented skills to management-oriented skills. The importance of formal
education in developing competencies needed by hospitality managers is also on the rise.
However, formal education is more focused on developing competencies in functional areas
such as financial management, strategic thinking and sales and marketing than in
developing personal competencies and human relations management skills which are
considered to be equally if not more important in the increasingly customer-focused,
employee-centric hospitality industry. Thus, these studies offered valuable insights into the
skills and competencies that are important for career progression and performance of the role
of a general manager in the hospitality industry.
Competency-focused research in the hospitality industry

The literature discussed hitherto focused on general managers in the hospitality industry but
not particularly in direct relation to the competencies required by them. An in-depth review
of competency-focused literature, specifically in the domain of the hospitality industry, was
carried out. The search was restricted to papers published between 1988 and 2015. The year
1988 was chosen as the baseline, as this was when the first paper related to competencies
required by hospitality employees and managers was published by Tas (1988).
A pioneering and extensive study of managerial competence in context of the US
hospitality industry was undertaken by Tas (1988). It compiled a list of 36 specific
competencies required for general manager trainees in the hospitality industry. Baum (1990)
IJCHM replicated this study in the United Kingdom and then compared the findings of the two
29,1 surveys. Both the studies identified human relations-associated competencies as essential.
But these studies are more than two decades old. Thus, their findings, while immensely
valuable, need updating in the modern context. The dynamic changes that have occurred in
the recent years, in the global economy in general and the hospitality sector in particular,
warrant a more contemporary study in this context.
400 Christou and Eaton (2000) replicated the Tas (1988) and the Baum (1990) studies in the
context of the Greek hospitality industry to examine the European dimension regarding the
industry expectations of competencies of hotel management graduates. Soft competencies
associated with guest care and employee relations emerged as most significant in this study,
too. Hsu and Gregory (1995) surveyed industry professionals in the hospitality industry in
Taiwan to identify competencies needed for entry-level hotel managers. Again, in this study
too, human relations skills such as communication and leadership skills emerged as
important competencies for hotel managers. Tas et al. (1996) identified and ranked the most
important property-management competencies required by entry-level hotel manager

trainees. The highest-rated competencies fell in the interpersonal and leadership domains,
followed by conceptual and administrative competencies. Technical competencies while still
important were the lowest evaluated.
A detailed review of literature helped locate studies which compared the skills and
competencies considered important to be successful as entry level managers in the
hospitality industry from the perspective of hospitality educators and students besides
industry professionals and recruiters. Okeiyi et al. (1994) carried out a study to investigate
the competencies required by entry-level food and beverage managers from three different
perspectives, that of industry practitioners, educators and students in the US context. Mayo
and Thomas-Haysbert (2005) also investigated relevant competencies needed by graduates
of hospitality and tourism programs by surveying industry professionals including
recruiters and hospitality educators. Staton-Reynolds et al. (2009) examined skills required
for success by an entry level hospitality manager from the recruiters’ as well as the
educators’ viewpoints.
Raybould and Wilkins (2006) investigated the industry’s expectation of skills required by
hospitality graduates and compared it with students’ perceptions of skills valued by
hospitality managers in the Australian context. Tsai et al. (2006) investigated the differences
between the perceptions of hospitality managers and hospitality educators regarding the
competencies of entry-level managerial trainees in the Taiwanese hospitality industry.
While the above studies analysed competencies required by entry-level hospitality
managers, Sui (1998) investigated the managerial competencies essential for middle-level
hotel managers in Hong Kong using 11 clusters of competencies derived from the
Management Development Centre in Hong Kong. This study, too, corroborated the earlier
studies by Tas (1988), Baum (1990) and Okeiyi et al. (1994) by identifying soft competencies
such as communication, concern for customers and leadership as the essential competencies
required by middle managers. Competencies such as personal drive, decision-making and
commercial concern were perceived to be comparatively less important for middle managers
than for general managers. Brophy and Kiely (2002) carried out a similar study examining
the competencies required by middle level managers in the Irish hospitality industry.
Customer care, managing staff and maintenance of quality and standards were considered as
important key result areas for middle managers, whereas strategic competencies such as
achieving profitability and growing the business were more relevant in the context of general
managers.
Kay and Moncarz (2004) surveyed both senior and middle level hospitality managers to Competencies
examine the importance of KSAs in the four areas – human resource management, of hotel
marketing, financial management and information technology – for the success of
hospitality executives. The findings indicated that senior executives accorded highest
general
importance to and ranked themselves superior in human resource management KSAs. managers
However, it was observed that there was a significant positive correlation between financial
management knowledge and increased monetary compensation. The authors suggested that
competence in human resource management may be more beneficial for and more frequently
401
used by entry-level and middle managers, whereas executives with strong financial
management competence may be in demand for senior-level positions. These findings
corroborated the observations of Sui (1998) and Brophy and Kiely (2002) who identified
commercial concern and profitability focus as important competencies for senior-level
positions such as general managers.
Kay and Russette’s (2000) study built on the work of the researchers discussed above
(Tas, 1988; Okeiyi et al., 1994; Tas et al., 1996) to explore not only the core essential
competencies that were required by hospitality managers in general, but also the specific
competencies that may be needed at a given level of hierarchy, for example, entry or middle
level or in a particular functional area such as food and beverage, front office or sales. This
piece of work was rather comprehensive in identifying competencies required in key
functional areas. However, it did not assess the competencies required by a top-level general
manager.
Agut et al. (2003) developed a construct for analysing managerial competency needs as
well as studying the gaps in competencies in the context of the Spanish hospitality industry.
The construct consists of 15 technical managerial competencies and 22 generic managerial
competencies. The study went a step ahead and also explored the relationship between
competency gaps and training demands to address those gaps. Cizel et al. (2007) replicated
Agut et al.’s (2003) study in the Turkish context by using the same methodology and
instruments to facilitate direct comparison. With respect to generic managerial
competencies, both the surveys showed evident similarities that could be attributed to the
similar cultural background shared by the two Mediterranean countries.
Lenehan (2000) used the critical incident technique to identify 67 dominant competencies
of general managers in the Irish hospitality industry. These competencies were grouped into
five main clusters – personal attributes, interpersonal skills, intellectual and cognitive
abilities, commercial and business skills and professional and technical abilities. The
emerging profile of the general manager suggested a strong operational competence with the
ability to relate well to people, the ability to communicate, the ability to motivate staff and to
apply leadership. It was also observed that senior managers within the hotel industry in
Ireland tend to be more focused on getting things right operationally rather than on adopting
a business perspective and thinking in strategic terms to expand business.
Chung-Herrera et al. (2003) presented a future-based leadership-competency framework
for hospitality leaders based on responses of 137 senior managers and leaders from some of
the most prominent international hotel companies. A comprehensive list of 99 competencies
that contribute to leadership success was developed. Competency in self-management
emerged as the most important overarching factor followed by strategic positioning. Other
factors like critical thinking and communication were also considered to be very important
but had lower scores. Industry knowledge was ranked last, which could allude to the trend of
diminishing importance of industry-specific expertise in hospitality industry in the recent
past. The competency framework developed by Chung-Herrera et al. (2003) provides a good
starting point for identifying competencies that may be relevant for top-level executives like
IJCHM general managers in the industry. Indeed, Ryan et al. (2009) conducted a study of the
29,1 leadership competencies required by hotel general managers in Thailand using a research
questionnaire adapted from the Chung-Herrera et al. (2003) study.
Brownell (2004) surveyed 111 general managers from luxury hotels based in the USA, to
determine the skills and personal characteristics considered most critical to their success and
career development. The respondents ranked leading teams, effective listening and coaching
402 employees as the top three skills, while hard work, trustworthiness and integrity emerged as
the most important personal characteristics which contributed to the effectiveness and
success of hotel general managers.
Jeou-Shyan et al. (2011) studied the perceived competency requirements of top managers
who were hotel unit leaders in Taiwan. The competencies were divided into generic and
technical dimensions. The study established that Taiwanese senior managers focused more
on generic practice-oriented competencies rather than technical competencies. Leadership,
crisis management and problem-solving (all generic competency domains) emerged as the
high-priority competency domains in the study.

Suh et al. (2012) surveyed hospitality managers and students in the USA and used factor
analysis to cluster 44 competencies for hospitality managers under six factors: interpersonal
skills, supervisory skills, hospitality skills, leadership, communication skills and food and
beverage management skills. Within these broad domains, listening skills, tolerance for
change, effective guest interaction and leadership skills were identified as the top
competencies for hospitality managers.
Testa and Sipe (2012) studied leadership behaviours that facilitate and enhance employee
service performance and customer satisfaction by proposing a hospitality service-leadership
competency model. The competencies were clustered into three high-order categories –
business savvy, people savvy and self savvy. Business savvy included competency areas such
as planning, strategic decision-making, systems thinking that facilitate efficient operations and
profitability. People savvy was related to interpersonal skills and included communication skills,
team orientation and coaching and training. The third category, i.e. self-savvy clustered around
self-management and development and included competencies like accountability,
professionalism, self-development and time management.
Bharwani and Jauhari (2013) mapped competencies necessary for co-creating memorable
experiences for hospitality guests. They proposed the broad construct of Hospitality
Intelligence which included competencies in three main domains. The domain of Emotional
Intelligence encompassed interpersonal (or social) competencies as well as intrapersonal
competencies which were considered crucial for self-management. Cultural Intelligence
included competencies like cultural sensitivity and mindfulness. Experiential Intelligence
comprised competencies like generosity and creativity which enable hospitality employees
to understand nuances of host-guest relationship and innovatively interpret guest needs to
personalise guest experiences. While this study proposed pertinent competencies for
hospitality employees, it mainly focused on competencies required for engendering
memorable service experiences and was based on secondary data rather than empirical
findings.
Tavitiyaman et al. (2014) also explored the leadership competencies necessary for general
managers in Thailand hotels using 98 specific behavioural leadership competencies, adapted
from Chung-Herrera et al. (2003). Team building and ethics, leadership and communication
skills emerged as the most important factors for general managers. In contrast, flexibility
and strategic orientation were the least important competencies for them.
Shariff and Abidin (2015) studied competencies required by hospitality graduates in
Malaysia and developed a competency index populated with 40 competencies under eight
broad domains. Communication skills, business skills and interpersonal skills were among Competencies
the graduate competencies that were regarded as most important by industry experts. of hotel
Table I summarises these important studies carried out over the past 25 years on
competencies required in the hospitality industry. The area of focus, nature and size of the
general
sample and the key findings of these studies are highlighted in the Table I. managers
It is evident from the above discussion and summary in Table I that while researchers had
investigated career paths, demographic profiles, attributes and leadership styles, and
profiles of general managers in context of the hospitality industry, limited work has been
403
done on the competencies required by senior managers, particularly hotel general managers,
despite the pivotal role they play in hospitality operations. The role of a general manager, as
the operational head of a hotel unit, is distinct from the roles of other senior-level hospitality
leaders who may hold corporate positions such as directors or chief executives of hospitality
chains, and thus, a general manager may require a distinct set of competencies. Of the
competency studies reviewed, only three studies – Lenehan (2000), Brownell (2004) and
Tavitiyaman et al. (2014) – specifically focused on general managers. Further, two of these
studies were in specific cultural contexts – Lenehan’s (2000) research was in the context of
the Irish hospitality industry, whereas Tavitiyaman et al. (2014) focused on competencies of
general managers of Thai hotels. Brownell’s (2004) study examined the contributors to the
effectiveness and success of hotel general managers under two broad categories – skills and
personal competencies. While relevant managerial and functional competencies were
included under the “skills” category, “personal competencies” also included gender and
lucky breaks. Though these two factors may have an impact on the performance of general
managers, the predetermined nature of the first and the randomness in occurrence of the
second preclude them from being considered as competencies. In view of the foregoing
observations, the literature review has buttressed the need for an industry-specific
competencies framework for hotel general managers to succeed in a knowledge-intensive,
service-driven, dynamic global economy.
Thus, in an effort to generate a list of competencies relevant for contemporary hotel
general managers, it was decided to narrow the consideration to include only those studies
which were based on empirical evidence, as such studies derive knowledge based on
observed and measured phenomena rather than theory or belief. Conceptual studies based on
secondary data, review of literature and opinion articles were not included. Studies which
were not related to general hospitality management competencies but specifically related to
competencies for particular hotel departments (such as F&B, Front Office) were excluded, as
were those which were focused only on entry-level or middle management competencies.
Further, it was also decided to exclude those papers which revalidated competency
frameworks that had been devised in previous studies.
By adapting competency statements identified as important in the earlier studies which
met the inclusion criteria (Lenehan, 2000; Brophy and Kiely, 2002; Agut et al., 2003;
Chung-Herrera et al., 2003; Brownell, 2004; Kay and Moncarz, 2004; Jeou-Shyan et al., 2011;
Suh et al., 2012; Testa and Sipe, 2012), a list of competencies for general managers was
developed. To bring in a measure of validity and reliability to increase the credibility and
generalisability of the results, selection of a competency for inclusion in the framework was
contingent on its repetition frequency in the above studies (Golafshani, 2003). A competency
statement was included in the framework only if it was listed in at least three of the studies
which met the inclusion criteria. Some of the competency statements selected were rephrased
to better reflect the inherent meaning, and a final competency list was created with 43 items.
These competency statements were then categorised under four distinct heads according to
the typology of competencies presented in Figure 1. Cognitive or Conceptual Competencies
29,1
404
Table I.
IJCHM
research in the
hospitality industry
Competency-focused
No. Author(s) Focus of study Sample Key findings of the study
1 Tas (1988) Hotel manager trainees 75 general managers This pioneering study identified 36 specific competencies
(USA) required for hotel manager trainees. Human relations
skills emerged as the most essential competencies
2 Baum (1990) Hotel managers 118 general managers Replicated the Tas (1988) study in the UK context.
(UK) Similar findings to the Tas study except that UK
managers rated legal/regulatory competencies higher
than their US counterparts
3 Okeiyi et al. (1994) Entry-level F&B 20 food service Investigated competencies required by entry-level F&B
managers managers managers. Human relations and managerial skills were
30 hospitality rated higher than technical competencies
educators
222 hospitality
students
4 Hsu and Gregory (1995) Entry-level hotel 30 industry Identified competencies needed for entry-level hotel
managers professionals managers in Taiwan. Communication and leadership
skills were rated as most important
5 Tas et al. (1996) Entry-level hotel 107 lodging managers Study based on Sandwith’s (1993) five-domain
manager trainees managerial competency model. Interpersonal and
leadership competencies rated as most important.
Technical competencies rated as least important
6 Christou and Eaton (2000) Hospitality graduate 91 general managers Tas’ (1988) and Baum’s (1990) studies were replicated in
trainees the Greek hospitality industry context. Soft skills related
to guest care and employees emerged as the most
important competencies
7 Sui (1998) Middle-level hotel 145 senior hotel This study conducted in Hong Kong identified human
managers managers relations skills as essential competencies for middle-level
hospitality managers
(continued)
8 Kay and Russette (2000) Hotel management 52 hospitality Identified the core essential competencies required by
competencies (F&B, managers hospitality managers based on hierarchical level and
Front Office, Sales) functional area. Customer-centred leadership
competencies rated as most important
9 Lenehan (2000) General managers 48 general managers The study used the Critical Incident Technique to
identify 67 dominant competencies of GMs in the Irish
hospitality industry. GMs were found to have a more
operational rather than a strategic business focus
10 Brophy and Kiely (2002) Middle-level managers 21 general managers Customer care and managing staff were identified as key
General managers 38 middle managers competencies for middle-level managers in the Irish
hospitality industry. Strategic competencies were found
to be more relevant for GMs
11 Agut et al. (2003) Hotel and restaurant 80 Hotel and Identified and analysed technical and generic
managers restaurant managers competency needs and gaps in the context of the Spanish
hospitality industry. Economic-financial management
and computing emerged as key gaps
12 Chung-Herrera et al. Senior hospitality 137 senior hospitality A leadership-competency framework comprising of 99
(2003) managers and leaders executives competencies which contributed to leadership success
was formulated. Self-management competencies emerged
as the most important
13 Kay and Moncarz (2004) Hospitality managers 82 senior managers The general beliefs regarding KSAs required for lodging
102 middle managers professionals and actual knowledge associated with
lodging management success were compared
14 Brownell, (2004) General managers 111 general managers Skills such as leading teams, effective listening and
coaching employees were identified as critical to the
success of GMs of luxury and upscale hotels
15 Mayo and Thomas- Hospitality and tourism 24 industry Revenue management, communication and change
Haysbert (2005) management graduates professionals management were rated as top competencies for
36 hospitality hospitality and tourism management graduates
educators
(continued)
Table I.
405
managers
general
of hotel
Competencies
29,1
406
Table I.
IJCHM
16 Tsai et al. (2006) Entry-level hotel 47 industry Interpersonal competencies identified as most important
managers professionals and technical competencies as least important for entry-
57 hospitality level hotel manager trainees in Taiwan
educators
17 Raybould and Wilkins Hospitality graduates 371 Industry Problem-solving, interpersonal skills and teamwork and
(2006) Managers leadership were rated as top skills required by
211 undergraduates hospitality graduates in the Australian context by both,
students students and hospitality professionals
18 Cizel et al. (2007) Middle-level managers 168 middle-level Replicated Agut et al.’s (2003) study in the Turkish
managers hospitality industry. Human resource management
identified as greatest skill need in Turkey
19 Staton-Reynolds et al. Entry-level hotel 127 hospitality Recruiters gave importance to emotional intelligence,
(2009) managers recruiters whereas educators emphasised on the technical skill set
161 hospitality and traditional KSAs. The top three competencies for
educators both groups were integrity, enthusiasm and ability to
learn
20 Jeou-Shyan et al. (2011) Senior managers 25 senior managers Competencies of top managers in the Taiwanese hotel
industry were divided into generic and technical
dimensions. Leadership, crisis-management and
problem-solving emerged as most important
21 Testa and Sipe (2012) Service leadership 110 industry Developed a Service Leadership Competency Model
managers comprising 100 behaviours, clustered into three broad
areas–business savvy, people savvy and self-savvy
22 Suh et al. (2012) Hospitality managers 147 hospitality Identified listening, effective guest interaction and
managers leadership as important competencies for hospitality
149 students managers and investigated differences in perceptions
between managers and students regarding the
importance of the identified competencies
23 Bharwani and Jauhari Frontline hospitality – Proposed the construct of Hospitality Intelligence (HI)
(2013) employees which included Emotional Intelligence, Cultural
Intelligence and Experiential Intelligence
(continued)
24 Tavitiyaman et al. (2014) General managers 503 general managers Explored competencies for GMs in Thailand based on
Chung-Herrera et al.’s, (2003) study. Team building,
ethics, leadership and communication skills emerged as
the most important competencies
25 Shariff and Abidin (2015) Hospitality graduates 30 industry experts Developed a competencies index for Malaysian
116 hospitality hospitality graduates. 40 competencies were clustered
graduates under eight broad domains. Communication skills,
business fundamental skills and interpersonal skills were
among the top-rated competencies
Table I.
407
managers
general
of hotel
Competencies
IJCHM related to knowledge covered nine competency statements, Functional or Technical
29,1 Competencies related to skills included 12 competency statements, Social or Interpersonal
Competencies related to attitude and behaviours comprised nine competency statements
and, finally, Meta Competencies related to personality traits were captured in 13 competency
statements. The Appendix details each of the 43 competencies under the four distinct heads
along with the references of the studies from which they have been drawn.
408 Conceptual competencies that help in understanding and responding to complexities and
challenges that are inbuilt in the operating environment and are gathered through
systematic knowledge acquisition were categorised as Cognitive Competencies. These
included competencies like decision-making, strategic thinking, critical thinking and
analytical skills. Technical competencies that help in performing concrete activities for
running day-to-day business operations were grouped under Functional Competencies.
These included job-specific skills such as revenue management skills, employee
performance appraisal skills and IT skills. Interpersonal competencies that are useful in
establishing and maintaining relationships with others were categorised as Social
Competencies and included people skills like effective communication, teamwork

orientation, developing and coaching others. Finally, Meta Competencies included
overarching personal competencies such as self-awareness, self-management and
achievement orientation which enable an individual to understand, monitor and manage
their own performance. They refer to abilities that underpin the development of other
competencies, as well as intrinsic personality traits. Meta competencies, along with key
cognitive abilities, technical skills and interpersonal skills, help an individual to deliver
superior performance. Figure 2 presents the competency framework model for general
managers in the hospitality industry.
Discussion
Traditionally, technical savvy in the field of hospitality operations and adequate people
management skills constituted the primary the gamut of a general manager’s skill repertoire.
But the vicissitudes in the global economic scenario in general, and its impact on the business
Figure 2.
A competency
framework for hotel
general managers
environment in which the hospitality sector operates in particular, have highlighted the gap Competencies
between management rhetoric and reality. Globalisation of travel, intensifying competition of hotel
due to international expansion and consolidation of hospitality businesses, the impact of the
disruptive “sharing economy”, innovative technological developments and the emergence of
general
experience-seeking, tech-savvy millennial travellers, have all thrown up a new set of job managers
demands and professional challenges for the general manager. The role of a general manager
has transitioned from operational to strategic leadership. The general manager is now also
responsible for achieving longer-term strategic business results, maximising employee 409
commitment and competence, ensuring enhanced customer service experience and driving
organisational transformation and culture change. This role transition necessarily warrants
an updating of the repertoire of competencies of the incumbent, too.
Theoretical implications
The review of extant literature in this study revealed that while several studies have been
carried out separately on general managers and hospitality industry-specific competencies,
only a limited number of them focus on competencies required by a successful hospitality

general manager. By aggregating competencies from earlier studies and categorising them
in accordance with a contemporary, hospitality industry-relevant typology, this study
makes a valuable theoretical contribution by proposing a holistic competency framework for
hospitality leaders. The framework has been populated with 43 competencies under four
broad dimensions: cognitive competencies, functional competencies, social competencies
and meta competencies.
Thus, the study has brought into focus the importance of developing competencies other
than only those related to core hospitality operations. Besides functional competencies,
contemporary hospitality leaders have to also develop cognitive competencies which play a
crucial role in strategically responding to complexities and challenges of the operating
environment. Further, teams are an integral part of service delivery systems in hospitality
organisations. General managers require social competencies to handle the unique
challenges of leading teams and effectively engage with increasingly discerning hospitality
guests to enhance customer service experience. Last, but not the least, the competencies
repertoire of a general manager must also include meta competencies which are overarching
personal competencies and intrinsic personality traits which enable an individual to
understand, monitor and manage her/his own performance and allow her/him to
dynamically respond to on-going business challenges.
Practical implications
From the practical perspective, the proposed competencies framework could prove to be a
keystone for integrated talent management practices in hospitality organisations. The
framework can provide a common language to ensure consistency, transparency and
fairness in talent identification, performance management and developmental opportunities.
Using this framework as a blueprint, organisations can customise their own strategically
driven competency model to identify the mix of competencies (KSAs) which reflect the level
of proficiency required by their hotel general managers for effective performance to meet the
organisational goals.
For complex and pivotal job roles like the general managers’, it is more likely that the
superior performance is driven by their meta competencies which are deep-rooted and innate
and hence enduring and more stable. These are more difficult to assess and develop as
compared to task-related skills and knowledge. However, it is imperative to identify these
intrinsic competencies during the recruitment process to make an apt selection of
high-potential candidates who present the best fit for the job. The model can also help
IJCHM aspirant general managers to benchmark their own abilities with the sets of competencies
29,1 and skills required for their individual career progression and turn job descriptions into
useful development tools. Thus, from a diagnostic perspective, a robust competency model
can provide an excellent framework for assessing the core strengths of an individual during
executive selection as well as for performance management, training needs assessment,
succession planning and career development. Further, educationists and trainers could use
410 the findings of this study as inputs in designing curricula and pedagogical interventions to
meet the industry’s future needs and expectations with regards to competencies of senior
managers.
Limitations and future research directions

The proposed competency framework is based on a detailed review of extant literature and
needs to be empirically tested for robustness. Empirical studies could be carried out in
diverse geographic and cultural milieus and across different industry segments to test the
proposed framework. This could be done through a Delphi study with a panel of hospitality
experts or through a broader industry survey. As a preliminary framework, the proposed

model contains 43 competencies which may prove to be unwieldy in practical application.
Factor analysis could be carried out to ascertain the underlying factor model and arrive at a
more parsimonious conceptual understanding of the variables. Thus, a more succinct and
robust competency model could be developed. A practical Competency Assessment
Instrument based on the competencies identified in this research could also be devised which
could prove to be a valuable tool for hospitality general managers and aspirants to verify and
validate their competencies and use the information for planning professional development
and career progression.
References
Agut, S., Grau, R. and Peiro, J.M. (2003), “Competency needs among managers from Spanish hotels and
restaurants and their training demands”, Hospitality Management, Vol. 22 No. 3, pp. 281-295.
Akrivos, C., Ladkin, A. and Reklitis, P. (2007), “Hotel managers’ career strategies for success”,
International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol. 19 No. 2, pp. 107-119.
Baum, T. (1990), “Competencies for hotel management: industry expectations of education”,
Bharwani, S. (2014), “Hospitality innovations in the emerging experience economy: a case study of the
Oberoi Resorts”, in Goyal, A. (Ed.) Innovations in Services Marketing and Management:
Strategies for Emerging Economies, IGI Global, Hershey, PA, pp. 307-328.
Bharwani, S. and Jauhari, V. (2013), “An exploratory study of competencies required to co-create
memorable customer experiences in the hospitality industry”, International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol. 25 No. 6, pp. 823-843.
Blayney, C. (2009), “Management competencies: are they related to hotel performance?”, International
Journal of Management and Marketing Research, Vol. 2 No. 1, pp. 59-71.
Bowen, D.E. and Ostroff, C. (2004), “Understanding HRM-firm performance linkages: the role of the
‘strength’ of the HRM system.”, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 29 No. 2, pp. 203-221.
Boyatzis, R. (1982), The Competent Manager: A Model for Effective Performance, John Wiley & Sons,
New York, NY.
Briscoe, J.P. and Hall, D.T. (1999), “Grooming and picking leaders using competency frameworks: do
they work? An alternative approach and new guidelines for practice”, Organisational Dynamics,
Vol. 28 No. 2, pp. 37-52.
Brophy, M. and Kiely, T. (2002), “Competencies: a new sector”, Journal of European Industrial Training,
Vol. 26 Nos 2/4, pp. 165-176.
Brownell, J. (2004), “Ingredients for success in career development”, FIU Hospitality Review, Vol. 22 Competencies
No. 2, pp. 1-17.
of hotel
Christou, E. and Eaton, J. (2000), “Management competencies for graduate trainees of hospitality and
tourism programs”, Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 27 No. 4, pp. 1058-1061.
general
Chung-Herrera, B.G., Enz, C.A. and Lankau, M.J. (2003), “Grooming future hospitality leaders: a
managers
competencies model”, Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, Vol. 44 No. 3,
pp. 17-25.
Cichy, R., Sciarini, M. and Patton, M.E. (1992), “Food service leadership: could Attila run a restaurant?”,
411
Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, Vol. 33 No. 1, pp. 46-56.
Cizel, B., Anafarta, N. and Sarvan, F. (2007), “An analysis of managerial competency needs in the
tourism sector: the case of Turkey”, Tourism Review, Vol. 62 No. 2, pp. 14-22.
Delamare Le Deist, F. and Winterton, J. (2005), “What is competence?”, Human Resource Development
International, Vol. 8 No. 1, pp. 27-46.
Drucker, P. (2004), “What makes an effective executive”, Harvard Business Review, June, pp. 16-21.
Golafshani, N. (2003), “Understanding reliability and validity in qualitative research”, The Qualitative
Report, Vol. 8 No. 4, pp. 597-606.
Gosling, J. and Mintzberg, H. (2003), “The five minds of a manager”, Harvard Business Review,
November, pp. 54-62.
Greger, K.R. and Peterson, J.S. (2000), “Leadership profiles for the new millennium”, Cornell Hotel and
Restaurant Administration Quarterly, Vol. 41 No. 1, pp. 16-28.
Guerrier, Y. (1987), “Hotel managers’ careers and their impact on hotels in Britain”, International Journal
of Hospitality Management, Vol. 6 No. 3, pp. 121-130.
Harper, S., Brown, C. and Wilson, I. (2005), “Qualifications: a fast-track to hotel general manager?”,
Hsu, J. and Gregory, S. (1995), “Developing future hotel managers in Taiwan: from an industry
viewpoint”, International Journal of Hospitality Management, Vol. 14 Nos 3/4, pp. 261-269.
ILO (2010), Developments and Challenges in the Hospitality and Tourism Sector, International Labour
Organization, Geneva.
Jeou-Shyan, H., Hsuan, H., Lin, L., Chih-Hsing, L. and Chang-Yen, T. (2011), “Competency analysis of top
managers in the Taiwanese hotel industry”, International Journal of Hospitality Management,
Vol. 30 No. 4, pp. 1044-1054.
Katz, R.L. (1955), “Skills of an effective administrator”, Harvard Business Review, Vol. 33 No. 1,
pp. 33-42.
Katz, R.L. (1974), “Skills of an effective administrator”, Harvard Business Review, Vol. 52 No. 5,
pp. 90-102.
Kay, C. and Moncarz, E. (2004), “Knowledge, skills, and abilities for lodging management success”,
Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, Vol. 45 No. 3, pp. 285-298.
Kay, C. and Moncarz, E. (2007), “Lodging management success: personal antecedents, achievements,
KSAs and situational influencers”, International Journal of Hospitality Management, Vol. 26
No. 1, pp. 33-48.
Kay, C. and Russette, J. (2000), “Hospitality-management competencies: identifying manager’s essential
skills”, Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, Vol. 41 No. 2, pp. 52-63.
Kotter, J. (1999), “What effective general managers really do”, Harvard Business Review, March-April,
pp. 146-159.
Kralj, A.L., Downey, J.F., Solnet, D.J. and Brown, K. (2009), “Formal education and lodging manager’s
competence: an industry update”, The International CHRIE Conference-Refereed Track,
available at: http://scholarworks.umass.edu/refereed/Sessions/Wednesday/20 (accessed 12 July
2015).
IJCHM Ladkin, A. (2002), “Career analysis: a case study of hotel general managers in Australia”, Tourism
Management, Vol. 23 No. 4, pp. 379-388.
29,1
Ladkin, A. and Juwaheer, T.D. (2000), “The career paths of hotel general managers in Mauritius”,
Lenehan, T. (2000), “A study of management practices and competences within effective organisations
in the Irish tourism industry”, The Service Industries Journal, Vol. 20 No. 3, pp. 19-42.
412 Li, L., Tse, E. and Xie, L. (2007), “Hotel general manager profile in China: a case of Guangdong province”,
McClelland, D.C. (1973), “Testing for competence rather than for intelligence”, American Psychologist,
Vol. 28 No. 1, pp. 1-14.
Mayo, C. and Thomas-Haysbert, C. (2005), “Essential competencies needed by hospitality and tourism
management graduates as determined by industry professionals and hospitality educators”, The
Consortium Journal, Vol. 9 No. 2, pp. 5-17.
Mintzberg, H. (1975), “The manager’s job: folklore and fact.”, Harvard Business Review, July-August,
pp. 49-61.
Moncarz, E. and Kay, C. (2005), “The formal education and lodging management success relationship”,
Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Education, Vol. 17 No. 2, pp. 36-45.
Morey, R.C. and Dittman, D.A. (2003), “Evaluating a hotel GMs performance: a case study in
benchmarking”, Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, Vol. 44 No. 4, pp. 53-59.
Nebel, E. and Ghei, A. (1993), “A conceptual framework of a hotel manager’s job”, Journal of Hospitality
& Tourism Research, Vol. 16 No. 3, pp. 27-38.
Nebel, E., Lee, J. and Vidakovic, B. (1995), “Hotel general manager career paths in the United States”,
International Journal of Hospitality Management, Vol. 14 No. 3, pp. 246-260.
Okeiyi, E., Finley, D. and Postel, T.R. (1994), “Food and beverage management competencies: educator,
industry and student perspectives”, Hospitality & Tourism Educator, Vol. 6 No. 4, pp. 37-40.
Orr, J.E., Sneltjes, C. and Guangrong, D. (2010), Best Practices in Developing and Implementing
Competency Models, The Korn/Ferry Institute, New York, NY.
Raybould, M. and Wilkins, H. (2006), “Generic skills for hospitality management: a comparative study
of management expectations and student perceptions”, Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
Management, Vol. 13 No. 2, pp. 177-188.
Ryan, B., Tavitiyaman, P. and Weerakit, N. (2009), “The impact of gender, age and education related to
leadership competencies needed for success as hotel general manager”, The International CHRIE
Conference-Refereed Track, available at: http://scholarworks.umass.edu/refereed/Sessions/
Saturday/6 (accessed 7 July 2015).
Sandwith, P. (1993), “A hierarchy of management training requirements: the competency domain
model”, Public Personnel Management, Vol. 22 No. 1, pp. 43-62.
Shariff, N.M. and Abidin, A.Z. (2015), “Developing an index of the Malaysian tourism and hospitality
graduates competencies”, International Journal of Business and Society, Vol. 16 No. 3,
pp. 422-435.
Spencer, L.M.J. and Spencer, S.M. (1993), Competence at Work: Models for Superior Performance, John
Wiley & Sons, New York, NY.
Staton-Reynolds, J.A., Ryan, B. and Scott-Halsell, S. (2009), “A comparison of skills considered
important for success as an entry level manager in the hospitality industry vs.the skills recent
graduates possess”, The International CHRIE Conference-Refereed Track, available at: http://
scholarworks.umass.edu/refereed/Sessions/Wednesday/20 (accessed 1 August 2015).
Suh, E., West, J.J. and Shin, J. (2012), “Important competency requirements for managers in the
hospitality industry”, Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport & Tourism Education, Vol. 11 No. 2,
pp. 101-112.
Sui, V. (1998), “Managing by competencies : a study on the managerial competencies of hotel middle Competencies
managers in Hong Kong”, International Journal of Hospitality Management, Vol. 17 No. 3,
pp. 253-273.
of hotel
Tas, R.F. (1988), “Teaching future managers”, Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly,
general
Vol. 29 No. 2, pp. 41-43. managers
Tas, R.F., LaBrecque, S.V. and Clayton, H.R. (1996), “Property-management competencies for
management trainees”, Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, Vol. 37 No. 4,
pp. 90-96. 413
Tavitiyaman, P., Weerakit, N. and Ryan, B. (2014), “Leadership competencies for hotel general
managers: the differences in age, education, and hotel characteristics”, International Journal of
Hospitality & Tourism Administration, Vol. 15 No. 2, pp. 191-216.
Testa, M.R. and Sipe, L. (2012), “Service-leadership competencies for hospitality and tourism
management”, International Journal of Hospitality Management, Vol. 31 No. 3, pp. 648-658.
Tsai, F.C., Goh, B.K., Huffman, L. and Wu, C.K. (2006), “Competency assessment for entry-level lodging
management trainees in Taiwan”, Chinese Economy, Vol. 39 No. 6, pp. 49-69.

Walker, J.R. (2004), Introduction to Hospitality Management, Pearson Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River,
NJ.
Walsh, K. and Koenigsfeld, J.P. (2015), “A competency model for club leaders”, Cornell Hospitality
Reports, Vol. 15 No. 8, pp. 6-16.
White, R.W. (1959), “Motivation reconsidered: the concept of competence”, Psychological Review, Vol. 66
No. 5, pp. 297-334.
Woodruffe, C. (1993), “What is meant by a competency?”, Leadership & Organization Development
Journal, Vol. 14 No. 1, pp. 29-36.
Woods, R., Rutherford, D., Schmigdall, R. and Sciarini, M. (1998), “Hotel general managers: focused on
the core business”, Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, Vol. 39 No. 6,
pp. 39-44.
WTTC (2015), Travel & Tourism – Economic Impact 2015 India, World Travel & Tourism Council,
London.
IJCHM Appendix
29,1
No. Cognitive or conceptual competencies References
1 Strategic thinking
Ability to scan the business environment and anticipate Lenehan, 2000; Brophy and Kiely,
414 emerging opportunities and challenges to develop well- 2002; Chung-Herrera et al., 2003;
informed strategies Brownell, 2004; Jeou-Shyan et al.,
2011; Suh et al., 2012
2 Decision-making skills
Ability to make well-informed, effective and timely Chung-Herrera et al., 2003;
decisions, while keeping in mind the impact and Brownell, 2004; Jeou-Shyan et al.,
implications of the decision 2011; Suh et al., 2012; Testa and
Sipe, 2012
3 Creativity and Innovation

Ability to develop new insights into situations, question Lenehan, 2000; Chung-Herrera
conventional approaches and design and implement et al., 2003; Brownell, 2004; Jeou-
new or cutting edge initiatives Shyan et al., 2011; Suh et al., 2012
4 Systems thinking
Ability to see the big picture and focus on the root Lenehan, 2000; Chung-Herrera
cause of a problem by examining the linkages and et al., 2003; Testa and Sipe, 2012
interactions between components of a defined entity or
a system
5 Information gathering skills
Ability to gather relevant information and business Lenehan, 2000; Kay and Moncarz,
intelligence required for decision-making by skilfully 2004; Testa and Sipe, 2012
probing multiple sources for facts and details
6 Planning prowess
Ability to establish a systematic course of action to Brophy and Kiely, 2002; Chung-
ensure accomplishment of specific objectives by setting Herrera et al., 2003; Brownell,
priorities, goals and timetables 2004; Testa and Sipe, 2012
7 Critical thinking and analytical skills
Ability to reach well-reasoned conclusions and Lenehan, 2000; Chung-Herrera
solutions, grounded in logic, on the basis of et al., 2003; Jeou-Shyan et al., 2011
observation, interpretation, inference, analysis and
evaluation
8 Risk taking
Ability to take calculated risks to achieve Lenehan, 2000; Chung-Herrera
organisational goals by pushing forward with et al., 2003; Testa and Sipe, 2012
important initiatives in the face of uncertainty
9 Change management
Table AI. Ability to deal with change, articulate a compelling Lenehan, 2000; Brophy and Kiely,
Framework for change vision, manage the change process and energise 2002; Chung-Herrera et al., 2003;
competencies of it by removing barriers and/or accelerating its pace Suh et al., 2012; Testa and Sipe,
general managers of 2012
hotels (continued)
No. Functional or technical competencies References
Competencies
of hotel
10 Service orientation general
Attentiveness and willingness to deal with guest Brophy and Kiely, 2002; Chung-
requests, complaints and problems promptly Herrera et al., 2003; Jeou-Shyan managers
et al., 2011; Suh et al., 2012; Testa
and Sipe, 2012
11 Business and Industry expertise 415
Ability to understand and keep abreast of business Lenehan, 2000; Chung-Herrera
trends that affect the organisation and its stakeholders et al., 2003; Brownell, 2004; Jeou-
Shyan et al., 2011; Suh et al., 2012
12 Revenue management skills
Ability to understand customers’ perception of product Brownell, 2004; Kay and
value and optimise product availability and price Moncarz, 2004; Jeou-Shyan et al.,
within each customer segment to maximise revenue 2011;
13 Interviewing and selection skills

Ability to assess potential candidates’ job-fit and Lenehan, 2000; Kay and Moncarz,
organisation-fit based on their knowledge, skills, 2004; Jeou-Shyan et al., 2011; Suh
attitudes (KSA) and personality et al., 2012
14 Commitment to quality
Promotion of a strong internal culture of quality with Lenehan, 2000; Kay and Moncarz,
the ultimate responsibility for implementing quality 2004; Jeou-Shyan et al., 2011
standards within the organisation
15 Resource allocation skills
Ability to develop and use criteria for ensuring the Lenehan, 2000; Jeou-Shyan et al.,
optimal use of available resources 2011; Testa and Sipe, 2012
16 Crisis management skills
Ability to maintain calm in the midst of chaos and Lenehan, 2000; Brownell, 2004;
handle the pressures of a crisis through multitasking Jeou-Shyan et al., 2011
and delegation
17 Employee performance appraisal skills
Ability to implement employee performance Lenehan, 2000; Brownell, 2004;
management systems to align employee performance Kay and Moncarz, 2004
with performance targets
18 Ability to manage stakeholders
Ability to effectively engage with internal and external Chung-Herrera et al., 2003; Suh
stakeholders, i.e. employees, management, shareholders et al., 2012; Testa and Sipe, 2012
by appropriately managing their expectations
19 IT (computer) skills
Basic computer literacy skills and knowledge of Lenehan, 2000; Agut et al., 2003;
operations management systems such as hotel property Brownell, 2004; Kay and
management systems and POS systems Moncarz, 2004
20 Financial analysis and cost control
Ability to monitor expenditures and utilise cost-benefit Lenehan, 2000; Brophy and Kiely,
analysis to vet financial plans and decisions 2002; Agut et al., 2003; Kay and
Moncarz, 2004; Jeou-Shyan et al.,
2011; Testa and Sipe, 2012
21 Knowledge of statutory compliances
Knowledge of statutory requirements related to the Lenehan, 2000; Jeou-Shyan et al.,
establishment and operation of hotels such as licenses, 2011; Suh et al., 2012
permissions and other legal compliances
(continued) Table AI.
IJCHM No. Social or interpersonal competencies References
29,1
22 Effective communication skills
Ability to express oneself clearly to get the message Lenehan, 2000; Brophy and Kiely,
across succinctly and effectively 2002; Chung-Herrera et al., 2003;
Brownell, 2004; Kay and
Moncarz, 2004; Jeou-Shyan et al.,
416 2011; Suh et al., 2012; Testa and
Sipe, 2012
23 Cultural intelligence
Knowledge about diverse cultures and intrinsic desire Brownell, 2004; Jeou-Shyan et al.,
and ability to engage in cross-cultural encounters while 2011; Suh et al., 2012
displaying cultural sensitivity and mindfulness
24 Networking skills
Ability to develop and maintain contacts, partnerships Lenehan, 2000; Chung-Herrera
and alliances through a personalised approach and use et al., 2003; Testa and Sipe, 2012
this network to advance work-related goals
25 Conflict management and resolution skills
Ability to negotiate differences in a calm, non-defensive Agut et al., 2003; Chung-Herrera
manner and resolve matters by devising creative et al., 2003; Brownell, 2004
resolutions to problems
26 Teamwork orientation
Ability to co-ordinate the efforts of team members and Lenehan, 2000; Brophy and Kiely,
work effectively to advance the collective goals through 2002; Agut et al., 2003; Chung-
collaboration and co-operation Herrera et al., 2003; Brownell,
2004; Kay and Moncarz, 2004;
Jeou-Shyan et al., 2011; Testa and
Sipe, 2012
27 Diversity management skills
Ability to reduce discrimination and promote equal Chung-Herrera et al., 2003;
opportunity for all regardless of race, gender, lifestyle Brownell, 2004; Jeou-Shyan et al.,
or disability 2011
28 Fostering motivation
Ability to create conducive ambience at the workplace Brophy and Kiely, 2002; Chung-
by inspiring and empowering others to take purposeful Herrera et al., 2003; Kay and
action Moncarz, 2004
29 Active listening skills
Ability to listen to and understand spoken and Lenehan, 2000; Chung-Herrera
unspoken concerns and thoughts of others et al., 2003; Brownell, 2004; Suh
et al., 2012
30 Developing others
Ability to guide others to develop and contribute to the Lenehan, 2000; Chung-Herrera
organisation by providing constructive feedback and et al., 2003; Brownell, 2004; Kay
offering formal and informal learning opportunities and Moncarz, 2004; Jeou-Shyan
et al., 2011; Testa and Sipe, 2012
Table AI. (continued)
No. Meta competencies References
Competencies
of hotel
31 Emotional resilience and composure general
Ability to remain calm and confident in face of Lenehan, 2000; Agut et al., 2003;
provocation and adversity Jeou-Shyan et al., 2011 managers
32 Optimism
Positive outlook and the ability to create a feeling of Agut et al., 2003; Brownell, 2004;
bonhomie Jeou-Shyan et al., 2011; Testa and 417
Sipe, 2012
33 Achievement orientation
Passion for work, driven by motivations other than Lenehan, 2000; Agut et al., 2003;
money or status, such as genuine hospitality towards Testa and Sipe, 2012
guests
34 Self-awareness
Ability to reflect and introspect on various aspects of Lenehan, 2000; Jeou-Shyan et al.,
one’s personality, behaviour, emotions, motivations and 2011; Testa and Sipe, 2012
thought processes
35 Self-confidence
Belief in one’s abilities to handle routine as well as Lenehan, 2000; Agut et al., 2003;
challenging tasks and work situations Brownell, 2004; Testa and Sipe,
2012
36 Self-management
Ability to regulate rational and emotional operations of Agut et al., 2003; Jeou-Shyan
the mind in a balanced way and think before acting et al., 2011; Testa and Sipe, 2012
37 Initiative
Propensity to do more than is minimally required by Lenehan, 2000; Agut et al., 2003;
the job description by seeking out and/or accepting Testa and Sipe, 2012
additional responsibilities in the context of the job
38 Diplomacy
Ability to navigate complex, sensitive situations with Lenehan, 2000; Chung-Herrera
internal and external stakeholders with tact and savvy et al., 2003; Testa and Sipe, 2012
39 Time management
Ability to manage one’s time through self-discipline, Lenehan, 2000; Agut et al., 2003;
controlling interruptions, setting priorities and meeting Chung-Herrera et al., 2003;
deadlines Brownell, 2004; Testa and Sipe,
2012
40 Ethics and integrity
Propensity to act in an honest and trustworthy manner Lenehan, 2000; Agut et al., 2003;
based on moral conviction to do the right thing Chung-Herrera et al., 2003;
Brownell, 2004; Suh et al., 2012
41 Adaptability and flexibility
Ability to change behavioural style or method of Lenehan, 2000; Agut et al. 2003;
approach as appropriate to meet the needs of the Chung-Herrera et al., 2003;
situation Brownell, 2004
42 Tenacity and perseverance
Mental strength to persistently pursue long-term goals Agut et al., 2003; Chung-Herrera
despite occasional failure or adversity et al., 2003; Brownell, 2004
43 Openness and willingness to learn
Commitment to personal and professional development Lenehan, 2000; Chung-Herrera
and the drive to update one’s knowledge and skills et al., 2003; Suh et al., 2012; Testa
and Sipe, 2012 Table AI.
IJCHM About the authors
Sonia Bharwani received her MBA in International Business, from Manchester Business School in
29,1 the UK. She was an MBA Exchange Student at the Fuqua School of Business, Duke University,
North Carolina, USA. A university topper in M.Com, Sonia has over 12 years of experience teaching
management in premier colleges in Mumbai, Gurgaon, Ahmedabad and Shimla, and nine years
industry experience in the area of finance in a Mumbai-based private trading organisation. She has
submitted her PhD thesis in Business Administration to Aligarh Muslim University. She has to her
418 credit publications and research papers presented at international forums. Her areas of interest
include general management, hospitality management, human resource management and
marketing. Sonia Bharwani is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: sondav100@
gmail.com
Parvaiz Talib holds an MBA and PhD in the area of Stress Management. He has teaching experience
of more than 25 years. His areas of research are stress management, strategy, CSR and human resource
management. He has published papers in national and international journals such as Vikalpa, Indian
Police Journal and International Journal of Logistics Systems and Management.
For instructions on how to order reprints of this article, please visit our website:
www.emeraldgrouppublishing.com/licensing/reprints.htm
Or contact us for further details: permissions@emeraldinsight.com

Competencies of Hotel

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Competencies of Hotel

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management

Competencies of hotel general managers: a conceptual framework

References: this document contains references to 64 other documents.

*Related content and download information correct at time of download.

Competencies of hotel Competencies

Rationale of the study

The competency-based approach

• Cognitive Competencies (Knowledge) are related to the conceptual knowledge of an

Studies on general managers in the hospitality industry

the hospitality industry even stronger.

Competency-focused research in the hospitality industry

important property-management competencies required by entry-level hotel manager

high-priority competency domains in the study.

No. Author(s) Focus of study Sample Key findings of the study

No. Author(s) Focus of study Sample Key findings of the study

No. Author(s) Focus of study Sample Key findings of the study

Competencies and included people skills like effective communication, teamwork

only a limited number of them focus on competencies required by a successful hospitality

Limitations and future research directions

experts or through a broader industry survey. As a preliminary framework, the proposed

management trainees in Taiwan”, Chinese Economy, Vol. 39 No. 6, pp. 49-69.

3 Creativity and Innovation

13 Interviewing and selection skills

You might also like