CHAPTER 1

SOIL CLASSIFICATION,
MOISTURE and FROST in the SUBSOIL

1
1.1 Introduction:

The embankment is a very important part of every road and railway structure. The
embankment has to support the road pavement or railway structure and shall further
distribute the forces, applied onto the pavement or railway structure, over the subsoil
without exhibiting unacceptably large deformations. When constructing an
embankment one should take into account a great number of variable properties of
both the construction materials to be applied and the subsoil.
The stability of the embankment determines the performance of the overlying road
pavement or railway structure. As the embankment consists of soil, in road and
railway engineering soil is an essential construction material.
The stability of the embankment is influenced by many factors. Some of these factors
have to be accepted and the structural design of the road pavement or the railway
structure has to include these factors. However, the negative effects of other factors
can be limited through a solid structural design and an adequate construction of the
road or railway.
It follows that insight into the behavior of soil is necessary for the design and
construction of roads and railways. It has to be known how this behavior must be
analyzed and how should be anticipated on this behavior. In this chapter the most
essential aspects of the design and construction of embankments will be discussed.

1.2 Soil Classification:

1.2.1 Introduction:

Soil classification in road and railway engineering means the ranking of different soils
with respect to their useability in mechanical and mechanical-physical way related to
the long term performance of the road pavement or railway structure. A number of
soil classification systems are available such as the “Casagrande Classification
System” and the “Unified Soil Classification System”. Nearly all the systems are
based on the determination of the grain size distribution (grading) and the so-called
consistency limits. With these simple tests one already gets quite a good idea about
various soil properties such as the permeability, the frost susceptibility, the shrinkage
and swell properties, the ease of handling and the compactibility of the soil. On the
basis of the classification one also gets an idea about the bearing capacity of the soil
as a global relation has been found between the composition of the soil, expressed
as a certain classification description, and the bearing capacity of the soil, expressed
e.g. as the CBR-value (see chapter 4 for a description of the CBR-test).
When using a soil classification system one always has to realize that the standards
for the suitability of the soil as construction material are dependent on the climate.
Therefore additional tests have sometimes to be done which are directly related to
the specific local conditions. The following paragraphs deal with those tests that
together enable the identification of a certain type of soil.

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1.2.2 Grain size distribution (grading):

In paragraph 1.2.1 it is stated that soil classification means the determination of the
soil properties in relation to their effects on the long term on the performance of e.g. a
road pavement. This statement means the following.
It is obvious that the grain skeleton has a great effect on the strength, the porosity,
the permeability, etc. Therefore let’s assume that the soil under consideration
consists of grains that all have the same dimensions, that all are perfectly round balls
and that all have an extreme smooth surface. In that case the grain skeleton can be
packed in two different ways (see figure 1.1).

Figure 1.1: Most lose packing of balls (left) and most dense packing of balls (right).

It might be clear that in the case of a lose packing there are much less contact points
between the grains compared to the most dense packing. If an external load is
applied onto the lose packing, normal and shear stresses develop in the contact
points between the grains. When the shear stresses become greater than those that
can be taken through friction between the grains, shear failure occurs and the grain
skeleton re-orientates. In that case the grains fall into the most dense packing as
then more friction can be mobilised because of the greater number of contact points.
The shear resistance between the grains is further increased if smaller grains are
present in the pores between the coarser grains as the number of contact points
further increases. This means that a soil containing grains with different diameters,
enabling a dense grain packing, has a greater bearing capacity than a soil that
contains grains of the same diameter. For this reason it is important to know the grain
size distribution (the grading) of a soil.

The grain size distribution can be determined by means of a sieve analysis (grains ≥
63 µm) and a sedimentation test (grains < 63 µm). Depending on the grain size a
number of soil fractions can be distinguished (table 1.1).

Range [mm]
Netherlands United Kingdom USA
Clay < 0.002 < 0.002 < 0.005
Silt 0.002 - 0.063 0.002 – 0.060 0.005 - 0.075
Sand 0.063 – 2 0.060 – 2 0.075 - 4.75
Gravel 2 – 63 2 - 60 4.75 - 76.2
Cobbles > 63 60 - 200 > 76.2
Boulders - > 200 -

Table 1.1: Soil fractions in different countries.

Table 1.1 contains three divisions in soil fractions to make clear that especially “sand”
is not uniquely defined, which has to be taken into account when working abroad.

3
The grain size distribution curve can most easily be presented as a so-called sieve
curve (figure 1.2).

Figure 1.2: Some examples of sieve curves (1).

The material with a grain size distribution according to sieve curve A is called a
uniformly graded material. Such a material resembles the system of equally sized
balls shown in figure 1.1. Material B is called a continuously graded material because
a great range of grain diameters is present. Material C is a discontinuous grading,
often called a “gap graded” material, because the sieve curve is nearly horizontal
between 0.6 mm and 3 mm which means that there are hardly any grains of such
sizes.

Figure 2.1 also shows the Fuller curve. If the grain size distribution approaches the
Fuller curve, this means that the most dense packing is approached. The equation
for the Fuller curve is:

D
P = 100
Dmax

where P denotes the percentage (by mass) of the grains with a diameter smaller than
D while Dmax is the maximum grain diameter. In the example in figure 1.2 the
maximum grain diameter is 75 mm.

Until now it has been assumed that the grains are perfectly round balls which in
reality of course is not the case. Normally the grains don’t have a round but a cubical
shape, and sometimes they are somewhat oval. Furthermore, the surface of the
grains may be smooth or rough. If we want to obtain a grain skeleton with a high
bearing capacity, obviously cubical grains with a rough surface are to be preferred.
Although the grain size distribution (grading) is of great importance, one other aspect
related to construction must always be taken in mind, and that is compaction.
Compaction is crucial to obtain a grain skeleton with high bearing capacity.

4
The sieve curve also yields information about the amount of fine material (< 63 µm),
the clayey material, which is present in the soil. From experience we know that clay
can be hard as rock when dry and that it becomes mud with a low bearing capacity
when wet. We also know that a certain type of clay is different from another type. It is
therefore important to know not only the amount of fine particles in the soil but also
the nature of those fine particles, especially their reaction with water. That insight is
gained through the determination of the so-called consistency limits.

1.2.3 The consistency limits:

It is important to know how cohesive soils, with a high amount of fine particles (< 63
µm), behave when the moisture content changes. For that reason, from cohesive
soils not only the sieve curve is determined but also the consistency limits. These
consistency limits represent the extreme moisture contents between crumbling
(plastic limit) and liquidity (liquid limit).

The liquid limit

The boundary between the liquid and the plastic state of the soil is called the liquid
limit (wL). This liquid limit is determined by means of the apparatus of Casagrande
(figure 1.3). The liquid limit is defined as the moisture content at which a V-shaped
groove in a cup of soil closes over a length of 12.7 mm after the cup has been
dropped 25 times over a height of 10 mm onto a base plate.

Figure 1.3: The Casagrande apparatus.

The plastic limit

The boundary between the plastic and the solid state of the soil is called the plastic
limit (wp). The plastic limit is the moisture content at which it is just not possible
anymore to roll on a glass plate the fraction < 500 µm of the soil into threads with a
diameter of 3 mm. One starts testing with soil that has a higher moisture content than
the plastic limit to be determined.

The Plasticity Index

The difference in moisture content between the liquid limit and the plastic limit is
called the Plasticity Index PI: PI = wL - wp. Depending on the PI-value the soil can be
qualified as being more or less plastic (table 1.2).

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Plasticity Index PI Rate of plasticity Dry strength
0-5 Non-plastic Very low, can be crumbled between
thumb and finger
6 - 15 Medium plastic Moderate to low, can be broken with
the hands, but hardly between thumb
and finger
16 - 35 Plastic Moderate to low, can hardly be broken
with the hands
> 35 Very plastic Very high, can be broken under the
palm of the hand

Table 1.2: Plasticity and dry strength related to Plasticity Index PI.

As already mentioned the Plasticity Index PI gives an indication about the

possibilities to handle the soil in relation to the moisture content. Soil with a moisture
content greater than the liquid limit cannot be handled anymore and does not have
any bearing capacity. When the moisture content is lower than the plastic limit the
compaction is difficult. One prefers to stabilize a cohesive soil with a low PI-value to
decrease the moisture-susceptibility during construction and thus to increase the
continuity of the works.

1.2.4 Activity of clay:

In general soils with a high PI-value are problematic soils. However, not only the PI-
value of the fine particles is important but also the amount of fine particles. Therefore
the term “Activity” (Ac) has been developed that is the ratio:

PI
Ac =
C

where PI = Plasticity Index

C = percentage of particles < 2 µm

The development of Ac is given in figure 1.4 for three types of clay. The type and the
amount of the fine particles effect the liquid limit. The activity of the clay also effects
the mechanical properties of the soil. When the amount of fine particles is the same,
an increasing activity results in an increasing liquid limit and e.g. increasing
compressibility constants.
An increasing Plasticity Index PI due to a greater activity of the clay leads to a
decrease of the cohesion.
A very great activity (as e.g. is found for montmorillonite clay, see figure 1.4) makes
the soil unsuitable for application in road construction.

1.2.5 Classification based on the grain size distribution:

Based on the grain size distribution a soil can be classified by means of a

classification triangle. As an example figure 1.5 shows one of many possible
classification triangles.

6
 Figure 1.4: Relation between Plasticity Index PI and amount of clay particles.

Figure 1.5: Classification triangle for mixtures with a gravel, a sand and a silt/lutum
fraction according to the Dutch Geological Department (2).

In the Netherlands sand is an important building material and therefore in this country
sand is further classified by means of the sand classification triangle shown in figure
1.6.

1.2.6 Classification based on the consistency limits:

By means of Casagrande’s “plasticity-chart” soil can be classified based on the

Plasticity Index and the liquid limit (figure 1.7). One has however to realize that the
soil fraction > 500 µm is not taken into account.

7
 Figure 1.6: Sand classification triangle.

Figure 1.7: Plasticity chart according to Casagrande.

Classification of Soils
A variety of classification systems has been developed to enable the classification of
soils with respect to their mechanical physical/chemical properties. The most
important and best known systems are the AASHTO and the U.S.C.S. system. In
both systems the soil is classified on the basis of the grain size distribution and the

8
consistency limits. Some knowledge of these systems is important as they are used
worldwide to classify soils and because they enable to quickly get an idea about the
suitability of the soil as road building material.
The application of both classification systems is briefly explained hereafter.

The AASHTO system has been developed by the American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials. It is especially used in road engineering. The
AASHTO system is based on “performance”, which means that the suitability of a
certain type of soil as road base and sub-base material is indicated.
Seven main soil groups are distinguished (A1 to A7) where a A1 soil has the best
and a A7 soil the worst characteristics.
Some main soil groups are further divided in sub-groups. The main and sub-groups
are described as follows:

A-1 well graded, essentially non-plastic

A-1-a more gravelly (stoney) with or without fine particles
A-1-b more sandy with or without fine particles
A-3 uniformly graded sand, non-plastic
A-2 granular material not being a A1 or A3 material; a distinction is made
between:
A-2-4 relatively coarse graded mixtures with a substantial amount
A-2-5 of fine particles; the fine particles have the properties of a
A-2-6 A-4, A-5, A-6 or A-7 soil
A-2-7
A-4 loam soil
A-5 loam soil containing mica’s; this causes a rather elastic behavior of the
soil that makes the soil difficult to compact; this behavior can
furthermore lead to cracking in overlying bound layers
A-6 clay
A-7 clay; a further distinction is made between a A-7-5 and a A-7-6 clay

When applying the AASHTO system a number of rules have to be obeyed:

„ Sieve analysis: if 35% (by mass) or less passes through sieve # 200 (75 µm) then
the soil is a A-1, A-2 or A-3 soil; if more than 35% passes through sieve # 200 then
the soil is a A-4, A-5, A-6 or A-7 soil.
„ In the case of a coarse graded mixture (≤ 35% through sieve # 200) it has to be
determined whether the soil is a A-1 or A-3 soil; if not, then the soil is a A-2 soil.

For the classification A-1-a the soil must fulfill the following requirements:
15% or less through sieve # 200 ( 75 µm)
30% or less through sieve # 40 (425 µm)
50% or less through sieve # 10 ( 2 mm)
PI < 6

For the classification A-1-b the soil must fulfill the following requirements:
25% or less through sieve # 200
50% or less through sieve # 40
PI < 6

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If the coarse graded soil is not a A-1 soil, it may be a A-3 soil. In that case the soil
must fulfill the following requirements:
25% or less through sieve # 200
more than 50% through sieve # 40
less than 10% through sieve # 200
the fine particles should be non-plastic

If the coarse graded soil is not a A-1 or A-3 soil, then by definition the soil is a A-2
soil.
The nature of the fine particles is classified by means of the plasticity chart (figure
1.8).

Figure 1.8: Plasticity chart of the AASHTO system.

The soil classification in the U.S.C.S. system (Unified Soil Classification System) is
somewhat different.
First it is determined whether the soil is coarse graded or fine graded. In a coarse
graded soil 50% or less passes through the sieve # 200.
The coarse graded soils are then classified as gravel or sand on the basis of the
amount of particles passing through the sieve # 4 (4.76 mm).

The coarse graded soils are further classified on the basis of their grain size
distribution curve which is characterised by the coefficient of uniformity U and the
coefficient of curvature C. If these coefficients comply with the values given below,
then the coarse graded material is well graded (= W).

Gravel Sand

U = D60/D10 ≥4 ≥6
2
C = (D30) /(D10 x D60) 1 - 3 1-3
Dy = sieve diameter through which y percent (by mass) passes

In all other cases the coarse graded material is poorly graded (= P).

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For characterization of the fine particles the U.S.C.S. system uses the same plasticity
chart that already is shown in figure 1.8.

The used indices are:

G = gravel P = poor graded O = organic

S = sand W = well graded
M = silt H = highly compressible
C = clay L = low compressibility

For reasons of practical use the U.S.C.S. system is interesting because a global
relation between the classification and the behavior of the material was developed.
This relation is given in table 1.3.

It appears from a comparison between the AASHTO system and the U.S.C.S. system
that there are quite some differences. A unique comparison of the soil classifications
according to both systems therefore is not possible. A global comparison is however
possible and that is shown in table 1.4.

AASHTO classification Most probable U.S.C.S. classification

A-1-a GW, GP
A-1-b SW, SP, GM, SM
A-3 SP
A-2-4 GM, SM
A-2-5 GM, SM
A-2-6 GC, SC
A-2-7 SM, SC. GM. GC
A-4 MC, OL
A-5 OH, MH, ML, OL
A-6 CL
A-7-5 OH, MH
A-7-6 CM, CL

Table 1.4: Relation between the AASHTO and U.S.C.S. systems.

In table 1.3 it is shown that there exists a global relationship between the soil
classification and the bearing capacity of the soil. In table 1.5 this relationship is
presented in a different way.
In table 1.5 not only the relation of the soil classification with the CBR-value is given
but also with the k-value (modulus of subgrade reaction) that is determined through
static plate bearing tests. The k-value is calculated as the ratio of the applied stress
(1 psi = 7 kPa) and the vertical plate deformation. The k-value is used in the
structural design of concrete pavements.

11
Table 1.3: Coherence between soil characteristics and suitability of the soil in road construction.

12
 Table 1.5: Relationship between bearing capacity of the soil and the soil
classification.

It is finally worth mentioning that the U.S.C.S. classification system also forms
the basis for a system describing the traffic-ability of soils. Such information is
relevant to make the right choices with respect to the types of soil handling
equipment to be used for the road construction works.

1.3 Shrinkage and swell of soil:

1.3.1 Introduction:

Shrinkage and swell of soils containing a relative large clay fraction (< 2 µm)
can lead to severe damage on road pavements. Unequal swell can result in
serious cracking and unevenness of the pavement. Shrinkage may cause loss
of support resulting in greater stresses in the pavement structure due to the
traffic loadings and thus a shorter pavement life. For the occurrence of swell
and shrinkage the combined action of two factors is necessary:
1. soil that is susceptible for swell
2. long dry and wet periods.

In a moderate climate drying of the soil under a road pavement hardly occurs.
As compaction is done at a moisture content that is usually lower than the
equilibrium moisture content, swell however can occur with all related
problems. These problems can be solved through stabilisation of the soil. The
application of layers impermeable for water can also provide a solution.

13
This paragraph will not deal with the chemical-physical backgrounds of the
swell mechanism. It will however be discussed how the swell potential can be
measured en how it can be influenced.

1.3.2 The shrinkage limit:

When a soil specimen is dried it will shrink, depending on the moisture

content. By measuring during drying both the volume and the mass at various
moisture contents, a relation is found as shown in figure 1.9.

Figure 1.9: Volume change of a soil specimen during drying.

Figure 1.9 shows that that the volume does not change anymore when the
specimen is dried below a certain moisture content. This specific moisture
content is called the shrinkage limit. The value of the shrinkage limit is a
measure for the swell potential of the soil.

1.3.3 The swell potential:

The swell potential, the ability for swelling, is dependent on the amount of clay
and the type of clay in the soil. The Plasticity Index PI is a rough measure for
the swell potential as PI is determined by the fine fraction of the soil (table
1.6).
Shrinkage limit Plasticity Index PI Swell potential

> 18 < 15 small

12 - 18 15 - 24 moderate
8 - 12 25 - 46 great
<8 < 46 great

Table 1.6: Relation between shrinkage limit, Plasticity Index and swell
potential.

The various clay types behave differently in water. Therefore the Plasticity
Index PI does not yield a complete picture of the behavior of clay in water and
for that reason it is better to correlate the swell potential to the activity of the
clay (figure 1.10).

14
The swell potential is defined as the swell of a confined specimen due to a
surcharge of 0.007 N/mm² after that the specimen was compacted according
to the standard AASHTO-method at the moisture content that yields the
maximum dry density.

Figure 1.10: Relation between the swell potential, the activity and the
percentage of fine particles.

1.3.4 The occurring swell:

The extent to which swell will occur depends on the moisture content during
compaction, the degree of compaction and the way of compaction. Soils with
the same swell potential therefore can exhibit a different swell in practice. The
effect of the degree of compaction and the moisture content during
compaction is shown in figure 1.11.

As a conclusion it is stated that the moisture content during compaction and

the way of compaction have a great effect on the shrinkage and swell
behavior of swell-susceptible soil. Sometimes it is possible to prevent
substantial volume changes by the right choice of the above-mentioned
influence factors. Stabilisation of the soil or the application of membranes
impermeable for water are other possibilities. Of course such membranes
have to function well.

15
Figure 1.11: Relation between the degree of compaction, the moisture content
and the swell.

1.4 Moisture in the embankment:

1.4.1 Appearance of water in the soil:

The moisture content of the soil is an important factor as it determines to a

great extent the bearing capacity and the shrinkage and swell behavior. As an
example, the bearing capacity of both saturated and dry sand is very low to
that of moist sand and the variation of the moisture content determines a.o.
the shrinkage and swell of clay soils.
Table 1.7 shows the way of occurrence of water in the subsoil.

16
 Water in subsoil

Groundwater Gravitational water Hanging water

This is the water below the
grounwater table.
All pores are completely filled
with water; water flow
according to Darcy’s law.
gravitational
water
This is water that falls onto This is water that does not
the ground and sinks to the sink to the groundwater. It
groundwater through can be divided into:
seepage. a. capillary water; pores
completely filled with
water; water flow accord-
ing to Darcy’s law;
b. funicular and pendular
water; pores not complete-
ly filled with water.
ground level
pendular water

funicular water

capillary rise

groundwater table
capillary water

groundwater

Table 1.7: Way of occurrence of water in the subsoil.

1.4.2 Groundwater:

The road engineer is especially interested in the variation of the groundwater

table. In polder areas in the Netherlands this variation is very small because
the groundwater table has to be controlled; in some cases, e.g. at road
crossings, it sometimes is decided to artificially lower the groundwater table.
In mountainous areas the groundwater is very important and sometimes
extensive measures have to be taken to ensure the stability of the total road
embankment and/or parts of it (slopes).
The main problems can mostly be overcome by means of an adequate
drainage.

1.4.3 Gravitational water:

The most severe effects of gravitational water are moistening and softening of
the soil. The bearing capacity decreases and the various layers can be mixed
with each other, e.g. the sand embankment and the ballastbed of a railway
structure. Another effect of moistening is pumping that may occur on plain
concrete pavements without an adequate base: when loading the edge of a
concrete slab a mixture of water and soil is pressed out through the joints.
This leads to cavities under the edge of the slab and subsequently to more
severe loading conditions.

17
Above-mentioned saturation effects can occur if rainwater or melting water
cannot flow away fast enough. Severe damage can be prevented through a
good drainage system.

1.4.4 Hanging water:

Depending on the height above the groundwater table the hanging water is
totally or partly filling the pores between the soil particles (figure 1.12). The
height of the hanging water above the groundwater table is a measure for the
under-pressure. The prevailing definition for the under-pressure is the suction
(pF): pF = log h, where h is the under-pressure in centimeters watercolumn.

Figure 1.12: Relation between the under-pressure, the filling of the pores and
the suction pF (4).

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The shape of the pF-curve of a soil gives an indication of the stability of the
soil at different moisture contents (w). On stretch 1-2 (figure 1.13) the suction
forces increase with decreasing moisture content. As σ = σe + u (σ = soil
pressure, σe = grain pressure, u = water pressure which is negative because it
is a suction stress) σe increases with decreasing moisture content. On stretch
2-3 pF increases very strongly. However, the total grain skeleton is hardly
strengthened because the amount of water is so small that the local
‘prestressing’ has hardly any effect on the total grain skeleton. In fact the
stability decreases because now is valid: σ = σe. This relationship can be
observed in figure 1.13, where also the bearing capacity of the soil (sand) is
related to the moisture content. The bearing capacity is expressed in terms of
the CBR-value that is a measure for the resistance against shear failure (see
also chapter 4)

pF
3

1 w

CBR

Figure 1.13: Relation between the moisture content w, the suction pF and the
bearing capacity (CBR-value in %) of sand.

1.4.5 The movement of moist:

Moist in the soil can move as water but also as damp.

Movement of water
When moist moves as water, then the difference in suction is the driving force.
In principle the water movement can be described by Darcy’s law:

S1 − S 2
v = k0
x

19
where:
k0 = the permeability of unsaturated soil
S1 = the suction in point 1
S2 = the suction in point 2
x = the distance between the points 1 and 2

The moist profile in a soil profile, build up of different soil types, can be
derived from the suction characteristics of the soil types. Assume a soil profile
as drawn in figure 1.14a and with suction profiles as shown in figure 1.14b.
On the basis of these suction profiles the progress of the moisture content as
given in figure 1.14c can be deducted in the following way: determine the
distance h (in cm) of a certain point to the groundwater table; next pF is
calculated from log h; then in figure 1.14b the belonging moisture content is
searched and drawn in figure 1.14c.

A C W5

clay
W4

loam W3
W1

W2
groundwater
table
wo
klei

pF
B

clay
loam
log h3

log h2

log h1 w

w3 w5 w2 w4 w1 w o

Figure 1.14: Principle of the determination of the equilibrium moisture content.

Movement of damp
Usually the movement of damp in the soil is limited. However the possibilities
for movement of damp increase with increasing temperature.

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In dry, warm regions moist will mostly move as damp. During the night the
accumulated damp will condensate below the pavement structure, possibly
resulting in structural damage to the pavement.

1.4.6 The design moisture content:

It already has been mentioned that the moisture content effects the bearing
capacity of the soil. When designing a road pavement structure, the moisture
content thus has to be known. It also has been shown that the moisture
content below the pavement structure can be determined, provided that the
groundwater table and the pF-curve of the soil are known.
When no pF-curves are available one can use the moisture content below
existing road pavements on similar soils. Another possibility is to estimate the
moisture content, and in this case the following is valid:
1. Regions with a high groundwater table (e.g. 1 m below the ground level
in sand, 3 m below the ground level in sandy clay). The moisture
content is mainly determined by the distance to the groundwater table.
One may use the moisture content that is present at about 60 cm
above the groundwater table.
2. Regions with a low groundwater table. In this case the moisture content
is determined by the seasonal variation. One may use the moisture
contents below existing road pavements. It has been found that for the
same climatic region the ratio of moisture content and plastic limit is
about constant.
3. Dry regions. One may use the moisture content at the depth equal to
the bottom of the road base.

1.5 Frost in the embankment:

1.5.1 Introduction:

Frost may have three detrimental effects on the road pavement structure, i.e.:
1. The upper pavement layer (the ‘wearing course’) freezes to pieces; this
may occur when the water in the pores of the wearing course has not
enough space to expand when freezing.
This phenomenon can to a great extent be prevented through a good
mix composition (such as dense asphalt concrete, cement concrete
with air entraining admixture).
Freezing to pieces of the wearing course hardly gives any structural
damage to the road pavement.
2. Heave damage; this means that the total pavement structure is pushed
upward through the accumulation of water in the form of ice lenses that
grow at the freezing plane in the subsoil (or frost-susceptible pavement
layers). In the case of a uniform heave this phenomenon is not
detrimental in itself. Through the heave the density of the grain
skeleton however decreases, resulting in a lower bearing capacity.
3 Thaw damage; this is the most serious type of frost damage. As
thawing begins, the ice melts primarily from the top down. This excess
melt water may be trapped between the pavement structure above and

21
 the still frozen soil beneath. The pavement structure is then resting on
a subsoil (or pavement layer) with a very low bearing capacity and the
(heavy) traffic may then easily cause serious structural damage to the
pavement.

The phenomena related to heave and thaw damage are explained below.
Later it is discussed how frost resistant wearing courses can be obtained.

1.5.2 The frost mechanism:

Frost damage to pavement structures is only possible if three conditions are

fulfilled:
a. the temperature must be below 273 K (0°C)
b. the transport/accumulation of water to the freezing plane must be
possible
c. the soil or pavement material must be frost-susceptible, which means
that the material has both a great capillary rise and a sufficient
permeability.

1.5.3 Frost penetration depth:

Due to the low air temperature, in winter heat is extracted from the soil. The
amount of heat transport from the soil to the air depends on the thermal
properties of the soil and the temperature difference. The frost penetration is
mainly determined by the yearly variation in temperature. Figure 1.15 gives an
indication of the frost penetration depth in a sand subsoil. The frost
penetration depth is not only dependent on the air temperature but also on the
length of the frost period and the thermal properties of the soil or pavement
layers. Because frost damage to pavement structures can be very substantial,
in the design of pavement structures one applies a frost penetration depth that
has a probability of exceeding of 1 time in 20 years. In the western parts of
the Netherlands that frost penetration depth is 0.7 m and in the eastern and
north-eastern parts it is 1.0 m.

1.5.4 Heave damage:

Heave is the phenomenon that the pavement structure is pushed upward

through the formation of ice lenses in the soil (or frost-susceptible pavement
materials).
The freezing plane, i.e. the 0°C-isotherm, may manifest itself in the soil in two
ways:
1. the freezing plane moves downward at continuing temperatures below
0°C; in this case no ice lenses grow and thus no heave occurs
2. the freezing plane remains about on the same depth and water is
transported to the freezing plane due to gradients in pressure and
temperature; in this case ice lenses are formed.

The behavior of the 0°C-isotherm is mainly determined by the amount of

water that can be transported to the freezing plane and the speed of
transportation.

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 Figure 1.15: The development of temperatures in a sand subsoil due to the
average yearly climatic conditions in the Netherlands (5).

Frozen soil (or pavement materials) has an excellent bearing capacity. If

however a substantial heave occurs during freezing, after thawing the soil has

23
a less dense packing and thus a lower bearing capacity. In the case of a very
non-uniform heave also during the freezing period serious damage can occur.

1.5.5 Thaw damage:

Thaw damage means the decrease of the bearing capacity of the subsoil due
to a great amount of melt water that still can not drain off because of the
underlying ice lenses. The phenomenon of thaw damage is best explained by
figure 1.16.

Figure 1.16: The development of the deflection level and the moisture content
during the frost and thaw period.

1.5.6 Criteria for frost-susceptibility:

Soils are called frost-susceptible when during the frost period there is a
substantial transport of water to the freezing plane. The effect of the frost-
susceptibility of the soil thus is connected to both climatic factors and the
amount of damage one is willing to accept. The acceptable damage depends
on the type of road and the amount of money that is available for road
maintenance. Because of all these factors a great number of criteria with
respect to the frost-susceptibility of the pavement structure are available. Most
of these criteria are related to the grain size distribution of the subsoil. Figure

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1.17 shows which grain size distribution curves are considered to be frost-
susceptible in Great Britain (4). The British guidelines are shown because the
winters in Great Britain are comparable to those in the Netherlands.
The area of the fine fractions is not problematic because the transport of
water to the freezing plane goes very slowly (permeability is very small), the
capillary rise is however very great. The coarse fractions don’t give problems
because the capillary rise is very small, the permeability is however great.

Figure 1.17: Area of grain size distribution curves where the soils are frost-
susceptible (Great Britain).

1.5.7 Measures to limit the frost-susceptibility and the design

level of the road surface:

The following measures can be taken to limit the frost-susceptibility of soils:

1. lowering and controlling the groundwater table,
2. replacing the present frost-susceptible material by non-frost-susceptible
material,
3. raising the level of the road surface relative to the groundwater table by
increasing the thickness of the non-frost-susceptible embankment,
4. for cohesive soils:
a. increasing the degree of compaction,
b. stabilisation with lime and/or cement,
5. for granular (non-cohesive) soils: stabilisation with cement or bitumen,
6. application of isolating layers (in countries with very cold winters).

The following procedure can be applied to obtain a non-frost-susceptible road

pavement structure:
a. determine the frost penetration depth,
b. determine the level of the groundwater table and the level of the plane
of capillary rise (till that level above the groundwater table all the pores
are filled with capillary water),

25
c. the distance (height) from the lowest point of the road surface (taking
into account the crossfall or any other transverse slope) to the capillary
plane must be at least equal to the frost penetration depth.

This procedure is explained with two examples. In figure 1.18 the subsoil
consists of loam. Assume that this material has such a pore structure that the
plane of capillary rise is 0.8 m above the groundwater table. In the case of a
frost penetration depth of 1.0 m the lowest point of the road surface has to be
0.8 m above the ground level.

Figure 1.18: Example of the determination of the road surface level.

A second example is given in figure 1.19. Because of a cutting the thickness

of the loam above the groundwater table is only 0.6 m. In this case the
capillary water certainly rises up to the top surface of the loam layer. The
question is whether the capillary water rises further into the sand sub-base.
The answer is “no” because in sand (that is a coarser material than loam) the
capillary rise is limited to 0.1 - 0.2 m above the groundwater table.
In the example the bottom of the sand sub-base is already 0.6 m above the
groundwater table and the pores between the sand grains can not deliver the
capillary force that is needed to rise the water up to 0.6 m above the
groundwater table. In this case the lowest point of the road surface thus
should be 1.0 m above the loam subsoil.

The solutions given in the figures 1.18 and 1.19 are not fully correct as
seepage of rainwater into the verges is not taken into account. Such seepage
may result in a pseudo groundwater table if the permeability of the loam
subsoil is low. A natural flow off of that pseudo groundwater is obtained
through a crossfall at the top of the loam subsoil (see figure 1.20).

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 Figure 1.19: Example of the determination of the road surface level.

Figure 1.20: Flow off of penetrated rainwater by means of a crossfall of the

top of the impermeable layer.

1.5.8 The filter laws:

Thaw damage may not only lead to loss of bearing capacity but also to
‘pumping’, i.e. due to traffic loadings a water-soil mixture is pressed out
through joints in the pavement (concrete pavements and small element
pavements). Furthermore, if the diameters of the particles of the various
layers do not match, these layers can mix with each other resulting in a partial
loss of the original good properties. To prevent this the grain size distributions
must fulfill the so-called filter laws.
Under the combined action of water and traffic loadings two layers of unbound
materials with different particle diameters will not mix with each other if the
sieve curves meet the following requirements (figure 1.21):

D15 filtermatieraal
>5
D15 fijnkorrelig materiaal

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 D15 filtermatieraal
≤5
D85 fijnkorrelig materiaal

D50 filtermatieraal
≤ 25
D50 fijnkorrelig materiaal

In the case of drain pipes there is an additional requirement:

D85 filtermatieraal
≤1 to prevent blockage of the holes in the drain pipe
Dgaten drainagebuis

Figure 1.21: Design of the grain size distribution curve for a filter layer.

The filter laws also have to be obeyed on railway structures where a

ballastbed is applied on top of the embankment. Because of the huge
difference in particle size between the material used for the embankment
(sand) and the material used for the ballastbed (crushed stone), mixing of the

Figuur 1.22: Toepassingsmogelijkheid van de filterwetten op het grensvlak

aardebaan - ballastbed bij een spoorbaan.

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two layers occurs in zone A under the combined action of the train loadings
and the penetrated rainwater (figure 1.22). In fact the filter laws also have to
be obeyed in the examples given in the figures 1.18 to 1.20.

1.6 References:

1. Head, K.H.
Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing
Vol. 1: Soil classification and compaction tests
Pentech Press; Plymouth - 1980

2. Classification of sediments (in Dutch)

Dutch Geological Department; Haarlem - 1977

3. Wiegers, H.
S.C.W. Classification of sand (in Dutch)
Publication 38; S.C.W.; Arnhem - 1975
(since 1985 S.C.W. is part of CROW, Ede)

4. Transport and Road Research Laboratory

Soil Mechanics for road engineers
Her Majesty’s Stationery Office; London - 1974

5. Beyers, G.
Physical basics applied on some aspects in road engineering (in
Dutch)
Delft University of Technology, Section Road and Railway Engineering;
Delft - 1974

6. Vertical Drainage (in Dutch)

Publication 77; CROW; Ede – 1993

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