Agency

of economic institution, which in the contemporary world consists of

a range of organisations, one of which, of course is the multi-national
corporation. Although some organisations can become institutions, it is
often complexes of organisations that constitute an institution. However,
not all institutions are composed of organisations. The English language
is an institution, but not an organisation.
The relationship between individuals, social groups, organisations
and institutions is important to understanding the issue of social agency,
and these distinctions are crucial in correcting a range of misunderstand-
ings concerning the ‘state-as-agent’ thesis. First, when an organisation
is understood as a set of embodied positions, roles and structures, it is
easy to appreciate how organisations have a temporal existence beyond
that of the individuals who occupy the roles. Oxford University, for
example, is, to all intents and purposes, the same organisation it was
fifty years ago, even though few, if any, of the individuals occupying
the roles are the same as fifty years ago. When considered as a set of
particular individuals standing in certain relations – a social group –
however, it is clear that Oxford University is not the same as it was
fifty years ago. Other examples of organisations are governments, busi-
ness corporations, armies and so on and these all have this same dual
existence.
If organisations could function without embodiment then the possi-
bility of treating an organisation as a person (agent) might be feasible.
However, organisations cannot function without human individuals, or
social groups, occupying the positions and roles. Since these positions
and roles in any given organisation stand in complex relations they are
structured. Hence an organisation can itself be considered a structured
structure. The structure of organisations varies enormously. Some are
extremely hierarchical with an emphasis on controlling the behaviour of
the individuals occupying the roles. Military organisations, for example,
are structured in such a way to ensure behavioural compliance. The rela-
tions (structures) of organisations are governed by a range of differing
mechanisms. These range from clearly formulated and regulated rules
to informal rules and social norms. Moreover, the structure of organi-
sations is also governed by sets of rules, regulations and laws that are
external to the organisation. Hence, whilst a multi-national corporation
has its own internal set of rules and norms, it is also governed by a set
of rules and norms originating in the wider field of activity of which it
is a part: contract law, for example, and legislation relating to employ-
ment rights. This means that no organisation can be considered wholly

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