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    Open Henderson

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    sinagestnnnisiateeeeesiCe Open Channel Flow MAcvatLan Senies 1s Civ. ENaINteRING—Gene Nordby, Editor Computer Methods in Solid Mechanics by Joseph J. Gennaro Construction and Professional Management: An Introduction by Hatty Rubey and Walker W. Milner Introduction to Soil Behavior by Raymond N. Jong and Benno P. Warkentin Open Channel Flow by FM. Henderson ‘Structural Mechanies and Analysis by James Michalos and Edward N. Wilson (Other titles in preparation) Open Channel Flow F.M, HENDERSON Professor of Civil Engineering MACMILLAN PUBLISHING CO,, INC. New York COLLIER MACMILLAN PUBLISHERS London 1966 Feserved No pat ofthis book may be reproduced oF t iny form or by any mea ing Co, fe. 66 Thicd Avenue, New York. New York 10022 Collier Macmillan Canad, Le Printed in the United Printing a9 To My Wife Preface Although this book was original ing student in advanced s0 designed to have some appeal ine techniques devised for dealing wi remembered s of any other, demands a grasp of basie prin engineer is reminded of this fact whenever he turns from the fami of backwater curves and flood-routing procedures to some unusual transition problem whose solution requires a good grasp of fu importance of basic principles is recognized i 1g the opening chapters to a fairly leisurely discussion of intro- es, including a re of the underlying arguments |, and a compensation for the fac through every possible variant that occurs in practice. Ful {also hoped, be found in the fairly complete sy in the unusually large number of applied topics deal This in the importance of principles does n should be given a status and significance independent of possess. The en} invokes principles in order to deal with problems that arise in practice, and when dealing with these general principles he remains in touch with the physical events which have prompted the need to wi Paerace generalize. This notion has dictated the structure of many chapters in this book, particularly Chapters 2 and 3. In each of these, a typical basic problem is discussed first; the theory is then developed to solve this problem, and is finally generalized to cover other problems as well Itis generally agreed that in order to read a textbook effectively the ‘must to some extent help to write it. For this reason the reader fs in complete certain aspects of the main line of argument in the form of set Problems; the results ofthese problems are subsequently referred to 2s if they Were an established part of the text. Although basic principles are importance in the treatment of the problems geners be given to methods of numerical comp this reason some of the early chapters have Appendices dealing with the details of algebraic and numerical manipulation, Moreover, the growing importance of the high-speed computer is recognized by a special section in Chapter 5, and by the inclusion, after a brie mn in Chapter 2, of ‘computer programs in the problems at the end of most chapters, ‘Some particular features of the text material may be remarked on here. 1n the early chapters care has been taken to develop the formal proofs of the imstances broadly characterized by the term "; such proof’ are known but are often neglected. Novel methods of backwater computation are presented in Chapter 5. an extension to the Ezra method ‘method, At the end of Chapters 4 and 5 effort Preceding material on controls and longitudi aimed at the better solution of practical steady the determination ofthe discharge. In Chapter 8 an attempt is made to bring 4 more fundamental treatment of unsteady Now, including the method of characteristics, more completely into the realm of engineering practice, for these methods are relevant to a greater varicty of real engineering problems than flood routing atone. The scope and significance of the various flood. in Chapter 9 are discussed in relation to the basic character in particular to the number of slope terms that are in the dynamic equation of motion. In Chapter the vexed question of channel stabi cient detail to show what issues are solutions. For devoted to grouping the profiles into a synthesis flow problems, in particular sufie on of models. seldom discussed exp! iven a brief airing. Wave theory is treated in enough detail in enable harbor models and their possible distortion to be dis- tently in Chapter I. is grown Out of courses give Of civil engineering at the University refresher course given to p it appears that a three- ince 1956 to fourth-year students bury. and an occasional ter undergraduate course could ly be formed from Chapters 1 through 5 (excluding some of the Paerace ix lc sections of Chapter §), and from selected topics in Chapters 6 and Pt pont some of the cementary mateal fom Chaples B or 9 included, eg. Se. 9.2. A graduate course of similar length could be formed from the remaining material in Chapters 5 through 8, together with a sub- velocity of fluid, Eg. (1-5) and the 3.5, where it denotes surge vel w, Bq. 6-13) o* shear velocity \ Z9/9, Eq. (4-14) w height of weir érest above bed, Eq. (6-4), weight of bed grain, Figs. 10-6 and 10-18 jout text except in See. List oF Svaots mt underflow gate opening, Eq. (6-42). tooth width, Fig. 633. speed of transverse plate, Tig. 86. -fall velocity, Eq. (10-22. 2 coeflicient in Muskingum V0 relation, Eq. (9-13). x/2y Kt, Ea. 9-82). Z ot Q/D*,/gD. Ea, (2-2. distance, usually inthe direction of flow. particle penetration distance, Eq. (10-37). KV: + y'va)*, Eq. (9-32). Or myzlb, Eq. (2-2. depth of flow, or di fecept in Eqs. (6-17) through (6-22), where it denotes ‘normal elevation above the cl depth from surface to centroid of section. Eq, (3-8) Eq, (2-17); my(b, Eq, (2-26), mean fluid particle height ove bed, Eg, (8-72). uniform depth, Sec. 4.3 and in most of text; exceptions are Prob. 6.18, Figs. 612, 7-16, 8:6, 10-20 and 10-27. critical depth, Eq. (2-1). eritial depth relative to Q,, Eq. (9-32). scour depth, Fig. 10-27¢. n depth, Eq. (6-34). 195, Eq, (2-26). ay, Fig. 68. variable of integration, Eqs. (9-82) and (9-83). Olmy?V ay. Eq. 3-12). verti height above datum of fluidelement, Eq. (1-7); of bed level, Eq (2-3) and in most of text (1-24), nels, Eq, (2-2) and after Eq. longitudinal slope of steep (6-56), weir-notch angle, Eq. (6-8). bridge pier thickness ratio, Eq. 47-34). ‘ent in Eq. (9-95), le of attack to bridge piers, Fig. 10-29. Eq. (11-17). velocity (momentum) coefficient, Eq. (1-25) angle in culvert section. Prob, 2.8. Bakhmetell"s parameter Fr°Sy/S,. Eq. (5-11), shock deflection angle. Eqs. (7-5) and (7-6). ular bed, Eq. (10-1). Bogardi's parameter, Hfd?*F2, Eq. (11-21). NeENRS +P, List oF Sympois specific weight of fluid, Eq. (1-7). sehr PE height of water surface above sean level, Eq. (8-68). eddy viscosity, Eq. (10-19). bank side-slope angle, Fig. 2-14b and Eq. (10-15). tan“ "(Q/Q,)? in modified Ezra method, Fig. 5.8. ‘ ‘Tainter gate lip angle, Fig. 6-22. angle of deflection: of spillway toe, Fig. 6-I2a; of jet at base of over and near Eq, (7-2 angular distance to fist wave crest at channel bend, Eq. (7-1 yon Karmén’s constant t L/d in Einstein’s bed-load argument, Eq, (10-43), ‘dynamic viscosity, See. 1.7. viscosity sp, Eq. (1-15). vi circular citcumference-diameter ra hham-n theorem, Sec. 1.7, uid density, Eq. (1-7) and in most of text solid and fluid densities, Sec, 10.3 before Eq, (10-7). summation symbol, Eqs. (I-26) and (5-25) submergence factor for broad-crested weir, Fig. 6-27a. width contra bafby, Fig. 7-22. also in name of Bucking- bed, See. 10.3 al Bresse function, Eq. (5-8), Einstein bed-load function, Eq. (10-44), angle of repose of granular material, Eq. (10-10). reciprocal of Shields’ entrainment function, Eq, (10-44) fluid vorticity, Sec. 1.8. Escoflier's stage v Eq. (8-52). 1 Basic Concepts of Fluid Flow is generally assumed that the reader is familiar fiscussion of some of the chapter in order both to fundamental laws of recapitulate material and to emphasize certain points that are of particular interest ‘cations to open channel flow. Definitions A streamline is a line, drawn at any instant, across which there is no flow every point 0 int fluid velocity is in a ine. A streamtube may be thought of as a streamlines, and across which there can therefore be no flow. Neither stream- lines nor streamtubes have any phy xy are geometrical figures which the observer imagines to be drawn wi ‘They are illustrated in Fig. Unsteady flow changes with time: steady flow does not. The difference is rot an absolute one, but may be dependent on the viewpoint of the observer. anh (o) Sreemtabe ‘The Streamline and the Streamtube. Figure \-1 2 Basic Concerts of FLuiD Frow (ent jppose for example that a landslide fulls into a river and parti sending a surge wave upstream as shown in Fig. 1-2. A surge ware, ofien ly called a surge, is a moving wave front which brings about an abrupt ange in depth; another example of this phenomenon is the tidal “ bore” by which the tide invades certain rivers, e.g., the River Severn in England, Moving sue tent 2s seen by observer on the Bonk Alternative Views of the Moving Surge, Seen as Unsteady Flow ‘and as Steady Flow Now an observer on the bank would see this as an unsteady-flow phenoe enon, since the flow changes its velocity and depth as the surge passe However, an obsetver who is moving with the surze sees the situation as one of steady flow, at least in the first stages of the movement before the surge bogins to decay. He is level with a stationary wave front, and there is flow of ig velocity and depth upstream of him (assuming the river has a pe and cross section) and downstream of him, The distinction being made here is not an academie one, for the equations of motion are very much casier to write down and manipulate for steady flow ‘than they are for unsteady flow. It is o1 fluid mechanics that one may greatly ‘changing one’s viewpoint from, say, that of a stationary to that of a moving ‘observer, and so changing the flow situation from an unsteady to a steady one. ‘There are, of course, many cases in practice where no such de- pendence on the viewpoint of the observer, and the flow would be classified as steady (or unsteady as the case may be} by any observer. Such a case is the progress of a flood wave down a river: a man standing on the bank would clearly see the phenomenon as unsteady and so would another man moving downstream and keeping pace with the peak of the flood, since the magnitude Of the peak discharge itself tends to reduce as the flood moves downstream. Ina problem such as this one cannot take the easy Way out by transposing toa steady-flow case, and the problem must be treated as one of unsteady flow. When the flow is steady, a streamline is also ‘dual fluid particle, but when the flow is unsteady this holds good, and streamlines are distinet from pathlines, In uniform flow, ly defined, the velocity stays the same. in magnitude and direction, throughout the whole of the fli flow it may change from point to point. Usually, however, a somewhat less restrictive definition of uniform flow is adopted, according to which flow is said to be 13 Connurry 3 it does not change in the direction of the flow. For example, if water flows in an open channel of uniform section at a mean velocity and depth which remain the same at all sections along the channel (Fig. 1-3), the flow is said to be uniform although the velocity may vary across the Row as shown in this figure. ts. Meni warty profiles — = Figure 1-3. Uniform Flow as Usually: Defined, ie., Uniform in the Direction af Motion Continuity Consider a case of steady flow through the streamtube shown in Fig. 1-1 Since there is no flow across the side walls of the tube, and since matter cannot be created or destroyed, fluid must be entering one end of the tube at the same rate at which it leaves the other, The term “race” must imply a rate ‘of mass transfer, whic! (be measured in slugs per second, If the fluid is density remains constant, “rate” can be interpreted as a rate of volumetric transfer, measured in cubi Feet per second, Now the rate at which volume is transferred across a section equals the product c4, where A is the area of the section and c is the mean velocity component at right angles to the section. If the subscripts 1 and 2 are applied to the two ends of the streamtube then we can write ryAy = PpAy = Q, the discharge aay which is the equation of continuity for steady flow of an incompressible fluid. ‘The most common use of the streamtube concept in practice is to apply it to the whole region of flow, so that the bo of the streamtube are also the physical boundaries of the pipe, the river, or whatever it may be. When the waterway (as the flow cross section is normally called in open channel flow) divides discharges Qs. Qy.--- Qns then the equation of continuity must clearly take the Form y= 02 + Qs 4 +O, ) where Q, is the flow in the main waterway upstream of the branches. 4 Baste Concrers oF Fiutp FLow [chet Equations (I-1) and (1-2) relate to incompressible fluids, ic., liquids, with ‘which the material in this book will be exclusively concerned except for some remarks on the gas-flow analogy in Chap. 2 Application of the continuity principle to unsteady flow is rather more difficult. Unsteadiness implies change of many kinds: the velocity may be increasing, and the streamlines themselves may be shifting, However in open. channel flow only one com ., namely that of a changing water- surface level. We consider the streamtube to embrace the whole eross sec of the channel, and to be of very Datum Figure 1-4, Def ion Sketch for the Equation of Cor discharges at the two ends are not necessarily the same, but will differ by the amount and this term gives the rate at which the volume within this region creasing. (The partial derivative is necessary because Q may be changing time as well as with the Now if fis the height of the water surface above datum, the ‘of water between sections 1 and 2 is increasing at the rate S+BS=0 as) which is the equation of continuity for unsteady open channel flow, such as ‘occurs in the movement of a flood wave down a river. ‘AS mentioned previously, the unit of discharge is one eubie foot per second, 18 See. Eovartons of Movion— GENERAL 5 usually abbreviated as cfs in, the United States. In British countries this unit is commonly termed the “cusce” (pl. cusecs)—-a simple and expressive abbreviation, which will be used throughout this book. The terms “cfs” and “cusee” are both used in the literature and may be used interchangeably. Equations of Motion—General discussion so far has dealt with the geometrical concepts of fluid founded on Newton’s laws of motion; of these, the second law F=ma (i) which defines the force F required to accelerate a certain mass m at a certain rate as being equal to the product ma, is the major source of working ‘equations applicable to real physical problems. If both sides of Eq. (1-4) are multiplied by the component of length s parallel to the direction of the force and the acceleration (or in gencral integrated with respect to that length), we have “rds = ‘ads = dmv? — (-s) which is the energy equation, stating that the work done on a body as it moves, from s = 5, to s = 5, is equal to the Kinetic energy acquired by that body. An important difference between Eqs. (1-4) and (1-5) is that Eq. (1-4) deals th vector quantities, whereas the terms of Eq. (1-5) are obtained by multi- 2 vector quantities in such a way as to form a scalar product. Energy is a scalar quantity. ‘Now if both sides of Eq. (1-4) are m 1, time elapsed, we have lied by, or integrated with respect 6) which is the momentum equation, stating that the impulse (force x time) applied to a body is equal to the momentum (mass x velocit Multiplication of the vector quantity force by the scalar quantity time pro- duces the vector quantity, momentum, ‘The concepts of enersy and momentum embos are basic to all dynamics, whether of solids or fluids. While each equation is, removed one step from Eq. (1-4), Eq. (1-6) is more closely similar in form to Eq. (1-4), sharing with it the property of dealing with vector quantities Eqs. (1-5) and (1-6) 15 6 Basic Conctrrs or Fruip Flow ch. Indeed it is hardly necessary to formulate Eq. (I-6) in order to i ‘momentum principle; itis necessary only to refer to Ea, (1-4), interpreting the product ma as a rate of change of momentum, This approach is particu- larly convenient in applications to fluid flow. Equations of Motion—Fluid Flow The term F in Eq. (1-4) is to be interpreted as a net impressed force, ‘the difference between the total impressed force and any force such as friction or viscous drag which resists the motion of the body. In the following treat- ‘ment these resistance forces will be neglected, to be taken into account at a later stage. The diffieulty in applying Eqs. (1-4) through (1-6) to fluid flow is that we are dealing not with a single body but with a continuous mass of mo\ fluid. The way out of the difficulty is to concentrate our attention on a single fluid element, as shown in Fig. 1-5, having unit thickness at right angles to Lu Figure 1. efaiton Seth Forces ona hit Elenent the plane of the paper. On this element there can be only two kinds of im- pressed force in any chosen direction 5; that due o the pressure gradient — ~¢ Asan) sin 8, oF ~(yAsdn) dsjds, where = is the vertical height above datum and 7 is the specific weight of the fluid. If p is the mass density of the uid, and 4, its acceleration in the s direction, then the ma term is equa Hence Eq, (I-4) applied to this situation becomes Lipsiton.=0 on which is the Euler equation. It is not so rich in direct applications as its integrated form, the Bernoulli equation, and furthermore it tends to repel ‘engineers by the alarming, presence of partial derivative signs; nevertheless it Sec. 1.5] EQUATIONS OF MoTIox—FLUID FLow 1 does help one’s understanding of certain basic phenomena, and in particular it clarifies the scope and significance of the Bernoulli equation, which will now be dealt with. We may remark first that the term (p + 72) in Eq. (1-7) is known as the piezometric pressure, and according to the principles of hydrostatics it remains constant throughout a body of still water, so that &p + yz)/és = 0 whatever the direction of s may be. The presence of the acceleration term pa, indicates that if the water begins to move the hydrostatic pressure distribution is dis- turbed and (p + 72) no longer remains constant throughout the body of water. To evaluate the term a, we first note that the velocity varies both with time ‘and position, From the theory of partial differentiation, we can write the equation appear to change didi. If we dv ao oo ee Bra iad provided that s is the direction of fluid motion. It can also be shown that provided the flow isirrotational (which usually means that there is no energy dissipation), then a0 | a anotee a9) whether or not sis in the direction of flow. In Eq, (1-9), v is the resultant velocity and ris its component in the s-direction. The two terms of this equa- tion are named convective and local acceleration respectively. ‘The complete form of Eq. (1-7) obtained by substituting from Eq. (1-9) is that required for unsteady-flow problems such as that of flood wave moving down a river; meanwhile we confine our attention to steady flow, in which case Eq, (1-7) becomes Rint) tos =0 (1-10) which can be integrated divety to p+ 72+ dpe? = constant «ey on 2a eeS comany a) which are alternative forms of the well-known Berno: i equation. Since it 8 Baste Concerrs of FLutm Frow ch. was obtained by integrating 2 force equation with respect to distance, it is fan energy equati may be deduced directly from Eq. ( derivation given here, however, is of some interest as it brings out clea dependence of Eqs. (1-11) and (1-12) on steady-flow condi were unsteady there would be an ¢ but this usage is iy does not represent energy. It is more properly *flow-work” term, as for himself by working through the direct deriva ‘and the “hydra "7+ 2), the piezom ion due to flow resistance, as there invariably isin loses energy or more flow work has to be done nits energy. In by the amount of energy dissipated, an the direction of low, Particular features in the pa to energy losses concentrated at certain loc «drops in the total energy line, as shown in F To adapt the momentum principle to fluid flow, we again face the di of dealing the low through any strea originally contained between bounded by s See. Ust oF THE ENERGY AND MOMENTUM Concerts 9 1m equal to that of the fluid contained larly has gained mome rate of change of fluid momentum is Le, (Qpr)adt. (Qpe)s —( is change can be accomplished only by the action of a forward force on id equal t0 this rate of momentum increase: (2p), (13) 1-7 as the transfer of momentum and (Qpe)s respectively, due to Figure 1. Definition Sketch for the Momentum Ea mass flow at the rate Qp with momentum » per unit mass, as indicated in the figure. This view of the process is convenient in other contexts, for example in Sec. 1.8, Equation (1-13) relates to steady-flow conditions, and considers ‘only changes from point to point, not changes in time. It can readily be inded to cover unsteady flow by the addition of a term giving the instan- te of change of momentum integrated through the whole volume ned between I and 2. Itis may not be easy to calculate. but in many appl Il be confined to steady-flow cases unless From now on specifically stated otherwise. 1.6 Use of the Energy and Momentum Concepts Plicity of these two statements is rather misleading, for in some cases a 0 Baste Concerts oF Fivip FLow [cnt certain dexterity is needed for the proper application of the equations. Moreover, there are limitations on what each equation is able to describe, so that their relative usefulness depends on just what information is being sought in each particular case. Consider, for instance, the two flow situations shown in Fig, 1-8. In the smooth pipe contraction of Fig. 1-8a, it can be taken that there would be no «a Pipe Contraction a Problem in the Use of the Energy and Momentum Equations Figure 8. Force energy losses, 0 that the Bernoulli expression could be equated at sections 1 and 2, enabling us to caleulate the pressure difference between these two sections for a given rate of flow. Supposing, however, that we wished also to calculate the net thrust F, of the flowing fluid on the contracting pipe walls; the energy equation would have nothing to tell us, first because it does not deal directly with forces as such, and second because it is concerned conditions at sections 1 and 2, not with points in between, ‘To discover anything about the size of F, we must have recourse to the momentum equation, having first established the pressure difference (p2 — p1) by the use of the energy equation. This raises the question: is knowledge of the pressure difference enough, or do we also need to know the absolute values of p, and p,? The question is left as an exercise for the reader (Prob. 1.4). ‘Consider now the pipe contraction of Fig. 1-8b, in which there is enerey Joss due to the presence of an obstruction in the middle of the pipe. In applying the momentum equation to this case, we have two kinds of force to consider: F,, which causes no energy loss, and the drag force F, on the obstruction, ‘which causes a definite energy loss. It is most important to realize that the momentum equation is concerned | Forces whatever their ot therefore makes no distinction between F, and F,. The complete list of forces includes F, . Fy and the pressure forces at sections | and 2. Here another difficulty arises: even if F, is specified in advance, the eneray toss occasioned by the obstacle is still unknown, so we cannot apply the Bernoulli equation to obtain (p;—p,). The difficulty can be met by an approximate assumption, viz., that F, has the same magnitude whether the ‘obstacle is present or not, and this assumption is reasonable provided that " Fig. 1-86. The ‘The general conclusion is that the energy and momentum equations play complementary parts in the analysis ofa low situation: whatever information is not supplied by one is usually supplied by the other. One of the most com- ‘mon uses of the momentum equation isin situations where the energy equa- tion breaks down because of the presence of an unknown energy 1oss; the momentum equation can then supply results which can be fed back into the energy equation, enabling the energy loss to be calculated. Other applications are described in the problems at the end of this chapter. Dimensional Analysis and Similarity The theory of dimension to major Fields of application: the tidying up of arguments involving a large number of physical parameters, and the development of criteria governing dynamical similarity between two flow situations which are geometrically similar but different in size. ‘The basis of the theory is the Buckingham x theorem, which will be given here without proof. It states that if there is a functional relationship between ‘quantities, all of which can be expressed in terms of k fundamental ies (eg, mass length and time), then (n ~ &) dimensionless numbers can be formed from the original » quantities, such that there isa functional relationship between them ‘The term functional relationship implies that if values can be assigned to all ‘but one of the variables concerned, the value ofthe remaining one can thereby bee calculated, at least in theory. In practice it usually implies some deter- smiate physical problem such that if all but one of the parameters have values given to them, Nature will fix the remaining one, even if our knowledge of the problem does not enable us to In problems of fuid flow there are st four parameters involved, Ap, L, and p, where L is a characteristic length dimension and Ap is a pressure difference, which may be replaced in some cases by a head difference {i or an energy loss AH. Whatever its exact form may be, some such term is always present. Since three fundamental quantities are involved, these four terms give rise to 4—3=1 dimensionless number, namely Apipe?. The addition of more parameters introduces another dimensionless number for ‘each new parameter added; the most important from the viewpoint of this text is the acceleration of gravity, g, which comes into play if the flow has a free surface, This important result can be deduced by considering first a completely enclosed fluid system, such as a closed pipe cireuit round which a uid is being driven by a pump. Energy is imparted to the liquid by the pump impeller and dissipated by the resistance of the eiteuit; provided the liquid remains a iguid, gravity does nothing to assist or retard this basic process, 2 Baste Coneeers oF Fiutp FLow ent which would proceed just as effectively if the circuit were disposed hori- zontally, vertically, were turned upside down or even removed to the surface of the moon. The reason for this behavior is made clear by Eq. (1-10); the flow is determined by the distribution of the " piezometric pressure "(p + 72), ‘of which gravity influences only the term yz, If the pressure is free to take any value at all (which is true in an enclosed system), then gravity merely affects the relative size of p and 92 without affecting the total (p + 72). The distri tion of this latter quantity would remain the same whether our hypothetical circuit were placed on the earth or on the moon; only the pressures would differ in the two cases, and the only effect this might have on the flow would bbe to promote evaporation of the liquid at low pressures. If this pos: is neglected there is no material difference between the two situations How, then, can gravity influence the flow pattern? Through the existence of a free surface, on which the pressure p must take a prescribed value (usually atmospheric). Once p is fixed, gravity determines (p + 92), and hence the flow pattern, through its influence on the term yz. Many physical examples amplify this algebraic argument; for example, in the flow of water over a weir there is no pressure difference between the surface water upstream and downstream, for both are exposed to the atmosphere. Any difference between the velocities at the two sections can arise only through a difference in surface elevation and the action of gravity. If gravity is in fact significant, the appropriate dimensionless number is the well-known Froude number Free If the viscosity ye plays an effective part, this fact introduces the Reynolds number If more than one characteristic length dimension is involved, then further dimensionless numbers can be formed from their ratios. ‘Since open channel flow is above all a free-surface phenomenon, we shall find that the Froude number plays a very important part in the appropriate low equations. The Reynolds number plays a somewhat limited part in the theory of open channel fiow, particularly when the flow is on a large scale, for since the Reynolds number is an inverse measure of the effect of viscosity, it has least influence when itis largest. ts significance will be further discussed in the next section. Dimensional analysis is commonly thought of as a means of plagning experimental programs and model studies for dealing with problems that are too complex or difficult for theoretical solution. However, it is also useful in making tidy and convenient arrangements of any kind of equation, including 18 sec. 18 Flow Rastsrance a those derived from considerations of pure theory; it will commonly be used for this purpose in the succeeding chapters of this book. Ts usefulness can be further extended by taking a broader view of the con- cept of hydraulic simititude; it cannot be too strongly emphasized that the use of the similitude concept need not be confined to the operation and inter- pretation of hydraulic models, as in Chap. 11. To take an clementary example: fnyone learning for the first time that the volume of a sphere varies as the 's diameter will find it helpful to visualize two spheres, one of which ‘the diameter and eight times the volume of the other. It will be shown in the following chapters that such mental exercises in model theory are help- ful in visualizing the interplay and interdependence of the parameters governing a given flow situation, For example, the theory of similitude states that for dynamical similarity to obtain between model and prototype, the Froude number must be the 10 of proto- ‘same in each ease, It follows that, ifthe subscript r indicates a type quantity to model quantity, then an Cra or qa bet where g isthe discharge per unit width of chant pressions suggestive of these relationships are constantly occurring in. the equations of open channel flow; even when the Froude number does not ‘occur explicitly we shall find terms of the form Q*(gL! and q? gL, which have essentially the same function. It should be kept in mind that the occurrence of such a term as one of the determinants of a flow situation has two inter- related meanings: (1) setting the value of this term fixes (or helps tof) th lo 2 Stagnation point Separation imaximum pressure) (ol Blu body (0) Steeamlined body Figure 1-10. Examples of Flow Separation separation occurs, the pressure in the resultant downstream “wake” proximates to the low pressure at the comparatively high velocity point of separation. The result is a net thrust on the body d Detween upstream and downstream faces—the tude is substantially independent of Re. This is the major raz force on blunt bodies; on wel ined bodies surface drag. pre- dominates. The distinction between these two extremes must clearly be based 18 Basic Concerts oF Fur Flow Tot con the shape of the trailing rather than the leading surface. Thus a bridge pier may be long and slender, but if its downstream end is square it will un- doubtedly behave as a blunt bod: The total drag force on any solid body isa combination of surface drag and form drag. The drag coefficient Cy is defined by the equation, Py = Cp: A-4p09? (1-22) where P; is the drag force and A is the frontal area of the body— ice,, its area projected on a plane normal to the flow. At sufficiently high values of Re form Grag predominates and C, becomes virtually independent of Re. The drag is, now due almost entirely to the pressure distribution round the body and itis readily shown (Prob. 1.16) that the drag coefficient Cp may be obtained by integrating the dimensionless pressure coefficient ya Poe rat 0-23) over the frontal area of the body. In Eq, (I-28), p is the normal pressure on the body surface and the subseript 0 indicates free-stream conditions avay from the influence of the body I the Fre-sream velocity is very high the pressure decrease in the wake may be limited by the approach of absolute zero pressure (Prob. 1.17. ‘Typical values of Co range from 0.03 for a wellsteamlined body through about 1.0 for blunt axisymmetric bodies (¢.g., 1.12 for a circular disk held normal to the flow) up to 1.5-2.0 for blunt * two-dimensional ” bodies (those in which one dimension normal to the ow is very great, so that flow around the body is in two dimensions only.) An example is the long flat plate held normal to the flow, of which the Cp i 1 The most common occurrence of flow resistance in open channel low is in tong channels where the boundary layer fills the whole channel section (Chap. 4). In this cae the Reynolds number Reis usually so large that it has vireally no influence on the resistance coeficient, However, twill be seen in Chaps, 6 and 7 that theres occasion to consider also the resistance of bodies (Gx, bridge pies) placed inthe stream, and the growth ofthe boundary layer fon structures such as weirs and spillways, In this latter case Re is of some Significance, as Eqs. (I-13), (I-16), 1-18), and (1-19) indicate Velocity Coefficients In the preceding discussion of the energy and momentum equations it has been assumed that the velocity is constant across the whole section of the flow This is never true in practice because viscous drag makes the velocity lower near the solid boundaries than at a distance from them. If the velocity does vary across the section, the true mean velocity head across the section, (07/29)m, sec, 1.9] Verociry Cosrrictents 19 i not necessarily be equal to ¢4?/24 (the subseript m indicating the mean Salus), The true mean velocity head is obtained by the following argument 1e weight flow through an element of area dA is equal 10 ytdAz the ‘energy per unit weight of this flow is r*/2g; hence the rate of transfer of kinetic energy through this element is equal to and the total weight rate of flow is equal to 10 = 7094 since the mean velocity tq is by definition equal to Q/A. Hence the mean equal to where @ is a correction coefficient to be applied to the velocity head as cal. culated from the mean velocity. It is sometimes known as the Coriolis co- efficient. Hence finally f aa The same considerations apply to the calculation of the momentum term (Qpr)q. The rate of transfer of momentum through an element of area da is equal 10 pvd4; thence by an argument similar to the preceding one we can deduce that the momentum correction coefficient is equal to: eda (2p. = Geen 1-28) P Cote aA Nees The cosfcients a and fare never less ey are both equal to unity when the flow is uniform across the sect he further the flow departs from uniform, the_greater the coefficients become. The form of Eqs. (1-24) and (1-25) makes it clear that a is more tion than fi, so that for a given channel section, x > fi. Values of « and fi are easily calculated for idealized two-dimensional velocity distributions such as, those of Eqs. (1-20) and (1-21), replacing 6 by the full depth of flow yo. The 2 Basie Concerts oF Fevip FLow The high value of « approp: laminar flow is so rare in practi channels a seldom exceeds 1.15, and it attainable with channel calculations warrants its inclusion, experimental data on values of « are rather sparse and not always consistent. However the above remarks are true only when we consider the smooth jin a single well-defined channel, as in hand, frequently flow in channels that Figure \-I1. Typical Cross-Secti Coefficient a gradual va any contribu Accordingl accurate enough to compute x by assuming the velocity to be const each subsection of the waterway; Eq. (I-24) then becomes vyAs + 0yAg + Oss Ai + Ay + Ay Proniems a or we may write in a more compact form 24 (EA, (1-26) resistance formulas so as to produce numerical values of z, whose magnitude ‘may in some cases be well over 2. Only in the above case of a divided waterway be taken into account in this book. In other apy perfect Problem 1.6 shows, a8 a m sxperimental situation in which precise knowledge of the coefficient is required; Prob. 1.7 shows, on the other hand, the wi this requirement is avoided in a typical open channel problem. in which Problems (Take » for water = 1.2 x 10-9 ft/se0) 1.1, Classify the following flow cases as steady or unsteady, from the viewpoint of the appropriate observers: Case Observer 1. Ship steaming across a lake. ‘Standing on ship. ‘Standing on shore. 2, Flow of river around bridge piers. ‘Standing on bridge. 3. Ship steaming upstream in ari on bank. drifting with current 1g on bank at dam ste downstream on. bank, 4. Movement of flood down @ valley after the collapse of a dam, fe per hr. The surface seam and downstream, he present magnitude ‘your estimate? is} Basic Concerts oF FLui Frow In the horizontal pipe contraction shown in Fig. I-Ba, wate is flow rate of 1 cuses, and the diameters at sections 1 and 2 are 6 in. and 3 in. ‘the contraction if the gage Wwideh of the tunnel. f water lec has its piers at of the bridge the water dept ‘As shown in the figure, water flo land flows outwards through late pipe. The combined area of the jet the pine. Examine the following arguments: 110, PRowLems 2 (a) Applying Bernoulli's equation between B and C, we find that the pres- sure at B is atmospheric. Applying the same equation between C and the stagnation region D, we find pressure at D = 4p. Hence thrust end plate = Lpr,%, where A — cross sectional arca of pipe; (b) From the momenturn theory, thrust on end plate = thrust required to efleet flow at right angles to original direction force needed to dest inal forward component ly = Qpo = Apres land resolve the apparent contradiction between the {wo conclusions. Problem 1-8 Reformulate and solve Prob. 1.8 for the case where the lateral branch pipes of Prob. 1.8 are replaced by sharp-edged circular holes pipe. It may still be assumed that the ‘outflowing jets is equal to that of the pipe cross section. |A scoop made of 6:in, pipe is being pushed through a trough of still water in the direction shown in the gure, with a velocity » equal to 15 mph, picked up to make the pipe run full, and that ‘no energy is dissipated, determine the horsepower necessary to push the scoop igh the water. The answer is to be obtained by two separate methods: sing energy considerations alone, (b) using energy and momentum, and produce an algebraic |The figure shows an ideal Basic Concerts of Furs Flow [cht Water flows downward at the rate of 0.5 eusee through the 3-in. diameter Problem 1-11 plates would have to be in order for this thrust to be zero. Assume that the le 2 relationship between 5,/5 and the exponent », =1/8 when 1 has the value }. Also prove from Eg {or laminar Bow. od vers Ww over a wide ig the outflow from a lake, The depth and vel 30 boundary layer develops. The depth is 4 ft. Assu Problem 1-13 Li. By integrating Eqs. (I-16) and ( surface drag Ton each side of a flat plate of length x5 and un} parallel to fluid flow is given by ‘The accompanying figure shows ‘ound a sharp-edged plate held normal 1. flow round the ends is suppressed, algebraic sum of the two mean val Hence deduce the value of C,, from the figu See, 18, Promiens Problem 1-16 Problem 1-17 face drag on each pier wea depth of 9.2 Mand a the stream; ‘taken over each face of the plate . and compare it ‘oF 200 ft n, as shown in the igure. A h the value ugh a short ‘oP 6 Baste Concepts oF FLui FLow 118, given by Eqs, determine fof the exponent n. Hence show 2.76 for laminar flow, and equal 10 @+39Gat1) G+) for turbulent flow. 1.19, Consider the flow of an incompressible fluid through the streamtube of Fie. uation by equating the net gai energy uid by pr of fluid originally occupying the -2 moves into the region ‘The streamtube need not be assumed to be horizontal 1.20, neighborhood of the Jmportant respect in which boundary: Jaminar Row in a closed pipe.) 24 The Energy Principle in Open Channel Flow ‘The Basic Equation “The first problem is to determine how the Bernoulli expression fare 7 Rg 10 open channel flow. There is no difficulty about the velocity head 2g provided we assume that the velocity is constant over the whole (08s scetion, as implied in the conclusion of Sec. 1.9. Each of the remaining two terms varies from poi 10 point over the cross that the pressure di {tue in very many cases of open channel be recopnized as a special assumption and not mi universal tut In order to fe to the Euler equ Kenly supposed to be a ize the circumstances in which it a true we must refer Flt v2) + pa, =0 en 2 Ey Tue ENERGY PxINciPLE IN OFEN CHANNEL FLOW fen.2 along any straight line in the field of flow. In a tank of n of whether (p + in Fig, 2-1a Figure 2-1. Typi to Clearly nthe very many situations where the ‘only small vertical flow components as in Fig. 2 asin the nation also departs from hydrostatic when the bed slope is very steep, as in Fig. 2-Le. The pressure at B in this case balances the com- 10 the bed of the weight of an element 4B, po" As = 9° AB-As-cos x or Daly = AB cos « = yoost a = AD in Fig. 2-16 Rivers and canals are regarded as very steep if sin a is as high as 0, follows that in the great majority of eases the it angles to ays, where oon this See. 2.2] Tae Traweition Prontsn 2» ‘When these conditions are sat total energy H may be written as Haytit @3) where » is the vertical distance from the bed to the water surface and z is defined now (and eight of the bed above datum, From this th the where this form in 2.2 The Transition Problem We can now consider how Eq, (2-3) i to be used in pract use is quite ple in cases where the depth is specified in advance, as in the calcul flow under a sluice gate. The process is illustrated in the fol ple Example 2.1 ‘As shown in the sketch, the depths a short distance upstream and downstream ‘ofa sluice gate in ¢ horizontal channel are 8 f¢ and 2 ft respectively. The channel is of rectangular sect 10 ft wide; find the discharge under the gate From Eq, (2-3) we can wi ‘and by continuity 0 Tue ENEROY PRINCIPLE IN OPEN CHANNEL FLOW [nz and whence The problem is essent discharge in a pipe from the upstream and throat pressures in a Ve meter. However, in those problems where the depth at some section is not Specifies in advance but is,to be calculated from our knowledge of some ‘change in the channel eross Section, we encounter the feature of open channel ow that lends it its special difficulty and interest. Its the fact that the depth y plays a dual role: it influences the energy equation (as we have seen), and iso the continuity equation, since it helps to determine the cross-sectional frea of flow. The problems involved are best appreciated by considering the fons shown in Fig. 2-2, each of them amounting to a simple con- he flow passage, smooth enough to make energy losses negligible. im is 10 determine conditions within the {0 Pe ‘iow (©) Open-chonel flow Figure 2-2, The Transition Problem In the pipeslow case we can, from the known reduction in area, readily calculate the inerease in velocity and in velocity head, and hence the reduction ver, is not quite so strai in pressure. The open channel flow case, however, is not quite so forward, We have a smooth upward step in the otherwise horizontal floor of ‘a channel having a rectangular cross section; since there is no energy loss, We can write Art +2 w where vs and ry are both unknown, and all other terms are known. Intr the discharge per wait width, = "sys, which will be the same at sect and 2, we have vat Sec.221 THe Transition PRostem aL in which y is the only unknown. The equation is, however, a cubic; setting aside the algebraic difliculties of solving it, there remain the questions of how ‘many physically real solutions there will be, and whether all these real solu- tions are available or accessible to the upstream flow. In order to deal com- pletely with this type of problem it is necessary to devise a special approach to the energy equation; this will now be dealt with, Specific Energy and Alternate Depths We define the specific energy E as the energy referred to the channel bed as datum, ie, Exyee ey and in this simple concept, introduced by B. A. Bakhmeteff in 1912, lies the key to even the most complex of open channel flow phenomena. We develop is concept first by considering, as in the previous paragraph, the simplest type of channel cross section—the rectangular shape, of width b. As before, we define g = Q/b = cy as the discharge per unit width of channel, and we revsrite Eq. (2-4) in the form Eaytoa (2-5) vt es We now consider how £ will vary with y fora given constant value of g ic, wwe construct the graph of Eg. (2-5) on the E-y plane, We have p= 2 = a constam (= yy? =F =a constant 0 that the curve has asymptotes (E — 3) = 0 and y= 0; in fact one seetion of the curve falls within the 45° angle between these two asymptotes in the first quadrant, asin Fig. 2-3b. Thereis another section ofthe curve shown as a broken line, but this is of no practical interest as it yields negative values for y. If we regard this curve as a means of solving Eq. (2-8) for y, given E and «the three solutions of the cubic are clearly shown by drawing a vertical line ‘corresponding to the given value of E. Only two of them are physically real, So for given values of E and y there are two possible depths of flow, unless the vertical line referred to misses the upper curve altogether, a case whi be discussed later. When two depths of flow are possible for a given E 4 they are referred to as alternate depts. Alternatively we may say that the curve represents two possible regimes of flow—stow and deep on the upper limb, fast and shallow on the lower fimb— rmecting at the crest of the curve, C. Other curves might be drawn for other values of gs since, fora given value x Tue ENeRcy PRINCIPLE (x OREN CHANNEL FLOW fen.2 of and to the right of those having lower v occur inside With the aid of Fig. 2-3 itis now poss! in the problem shown in Fig. 2-2 and redrawn flow upstream of the step (sec represented by the rve in Fig. 2-3b. We assume he step, so that the value of y remains wi Fig. 2-3) is drawn for a given constant value of representing the flow over the step (section 2) wi position on the curve is easily located by rec be the same at sections I and 2, and therefore the height of the step, ic., £; — Ey = Az. Having obtained the value of E,, we the flow at section 2; they are represented by ‘cuts the E-y curve. There are io pl the points 8 not concer ‘The two real solutions would also apply to the case where the upstream low was represented by the point 4’, the same specific energy Eas the point 4. The question now at sented by Band B’ is more reduces to one of access curve, Mts ccnergy must equally us about most valuable guide. Sec. 2.2] ‘The TRANSITION Proacest 3 The Accessibility of Flow Regimes We consider now the problem set in the last paragraph. As the flow moves ‘over the step, the point representing the flow moves from 4 to cither B or wwe are concerned with the relative accessibility of B and B’, it is reason- able to ask what kind of path this flow-point must follow. The answer is quite simple; since the wadth of the channel remains unchanged, so does the discharge per unit width 4; the flow-point must therefore remain on the E-y curve which, it will be remembered, was drawn for a certain constant v ‘of g. The point cannot jump across the curve straight from B to B’, for if it did the value of ¢ would have to change temporarily from its original magni tude and then re e., the width would have to undergo a ‘or the sake of clarity this figure is drawn without including the step, as if on were in fact a short way downstream of the step). Figure 2-4, The Change ‘were followed the specific energy would have to it again, This could only happen if the bed rose above the level of the step Gust far enough to by the point from B to C, the crest of the curve) and then dropped back to the level of the step, as shown in Fig. 2-32, ‘The conclusion is that if the width remains unchanged, and if the bed rises ‘© the level of the step without rising above it at any point, the point iccessible when the upstream flow is represented by the point A. ANNet FLOW [chez u Tue ExerGy Prixereis ty Ores Similarly the point B will be inaccessible if the upstream flow is represented by the point 4’, The jump from one side of the curve to the other can be accomplished only by inserting a local constriction—either in width or in bed level—at or near the step. This statement of course relates only to this par- icular type of problem; there may be other conditions nder which a change from one regime to the other is possible. ‘One last remark may be made about this example. As we go from 4 to B the depth decreases and the velocity and velocity head must therefore inerease. Since the total energy line remains at the same level, the water surface must therefore drop, as in Fig, 2-34, as the flow moves over the step—a slightly ion in view of one’s natural expectation that the water jer to get over the obstacle presented by the \d, movement from 4’ to B’ is accompanied by an rat the water surface rises. step. On the increase in depth, so The Gas-Flow Analogy Readers who are a& wamies and gas flow will have noticed something fumiliar about the preceding argum« there is the notion of accessibility —that one of the points Band &’ may be than the other, although from the energy viewpoint they are eq ‘dea has its thermodynamic counterpart in the certain st con the energy avs whether entropy w red oF lost in reaching that state. Second, there is ure of the example discussed above—that a transition from slow deep flow to fast shallow flow could be accomplished lar one in gas flow, according to which the transition fro1 je to supersonic flow requires a nozzle which (9 a narrow throat section and then diverges again. is a complete analogy between open channel flow and gas flow, which are beyond the scope of this text, However, it may be remarked that according to the previous argument, the slow deep flow indi. cated by the upper limb of the E-p curve appears to have something in eo mon with subsonic gas flow, and that of the lower limb with supersonic gas flow. fon Problem The Existence of a Solution to the Tran: Al tion of some sort w sts on the important assumption that a sol be possible: it is, however, quite easy to visualize a a in whic ‘on appears possible. It is that in which the height Of the step, Az, is great enough to make £; less than the minimum possible value of £, ie, that which obtains at C, the crest of the E-y curve, In other 23 Sec, 2.3] Carmican FLow 3 words, in attempting to move from A to some point B, we miss the end of the curve. ‘Therefore the problem as originally set has no possible solution; that is, the three prescribed values of g, £ , and Az cannot exist simultaneously in the channel. There is nothing mysterious about this: we may think of the specific energy E, as maintaining a certain flow q against an obstruction of size Az, and if the obstruction becomes too large the flow ean no longer be maintained he avail events by imagining thai lace there is no step in the channi and E, have their initially given values, and that the step is then suddenly introduced into the channel. Clearly the water will back up and some kind of surge wave will move upstream until a new steady state is established; be reduced or E, will be increased, but it is not possible to 1 happen without more complete knowledge of the up- stream conditions. The problem is no longer concerned with a localized transition in the channel but now must deal with the channel as a whole lete treatment of this problem must therefore be postponed until a n of low resistance in long channels has Been dealt with. Meanwhile we proceed in the next section with consideration of some questions about the E-y curve which have been suggested by the pre- ceding discussion. Critical Flow ssion of the transition problem ha: ‘of specific energy and discharge per nw, and on from o1 hed under cert hown that for any given pair of ‘width g, there are two possible depth (0 the other ean only be nditions. (Other conditions under w Fe represen the Bey curve sepa by the erest € two different kinds of flow: logical re th ference between them would be to con: is represented by the point C, Here the flow isin a critical mn, poised between two alternative rogimgs, and indeed the word is used to describe this state of flow; it can be defined as the state he specific energy £ is a minimum for a given q. Analytical Properties of Critical Flow We set out first to derive equations defining crit 1 from Eq. (2-5) I low, and to do this we cares 2-5) 36 ‘The ENROY PRINCIPLE IN OPEN CHANNEL FLOW fcn2 Eisa minimum at eritical flow and we obtain this minimum by differentiation, gE ayo =0 when Gna 26) ie, ve = oy. en Where the subseript ¢ has been inserted, in accordance with the common practice for indicating critical flow conditions. Equation (2-7) is the most important defining equation for critical flow; another one can also be ob- tained from Eq. (2-6): (8) hy. as a function of discharge wwe have whence “The above equations are established by considering the variation of E with ¥y for a given q; it is also of practical interest to study how q varies with y for a given = Ep. Clearly the curve will be of the general form shown in Fig. 2-5; when p> Fy, ¢+0 and hence g—+0. Similarly when y+ 0, q-+0, te q Figue 2-5, The Discharge-Depih Curve for Gicen Specific Energy and there will clearly be a maximum value of g for some value of y between and Fy. (Manifestly y cannot be greater then £,). We find this maximum by recasting Eq. (2-5) into the form a? = 2yy*{Ey~ >) 2-10) see.23} carmen Fiow ” and differentiating with respect toy: é 29 a By 60s? 0 whea 6gy? = 4yyEy ie vaio ly Eq. (2-9) representing critical flow: Eqs. (2-7) and (2-8) ‘can be deduced from it, We have therefore established another important ‘operty of critical flow: it connotes not only minimum specific energy for a given discharge per unit width, but also maximum discharge per unit width for @ given specific energy. Any one of the three Eqs. (2-7) through (2-9) might be used to define critical flow, and all have their uses in the calculations required in problems concerning critical flow. Equation (2-9), for instance, shows that the crests of E-y curves drawn for all values of q can be joined by a straight line having. the equation y= 2/3, as in Fig. 2-36; Eq. 2-8), showing that y- increases with g, verifies our previous conclusion that curves having a high value of q are to the right of those having a low value of g (Fig. 2-36). However our immediate interest centers on Eq. 2-7), for it has an important physical meaning. Critical Velo and Wave Velo Equation (2-7) states that at critical flow the veloc this term is equal to the velocity wi Propagates itself in water of depth physical feature of critical flow. Proof of this statement should be significance, There are two kinds of waves to be considered—oscillatory waves, such as form in the sea at some distances from the shore (Sec. 8.6), which were discussed in Sec. 1.2. The former of these move ly no energy loss; the latter may haye broken turbulent fronts ray losses. itory wave, itis shown in texts on hydrodynamics that the velocity ¢ of waves of length Zin water of depth y is given by the equation is equal to yg. Now which a long wave of low amplitude vi herein Ties the most ay » awe Exinoy PrivcinLe i Oren Channte Fiow (Ch? ob 2sy “i L <0 en wherice which is the required result. For the surge wave, itis convenient to consider the wave as being generated by the horizontal movement of a vertical plate into a channel of unit wideh containing still water, as shown is restricted to surges of small amplitude; the velocity of the plate is Av, as is the velocity of the water immediately to the left of it and throughout all the water behind the surge which forms and moves to the left as soon as the plate begins to jove. The height of the surge is Ay, and its velocity is ¢, which al is much greater than Av. ay TW oe y i Figure 2-6, The Elementary Surge of Small Ampl ‘The normal method of treating this problem is that suggested by the ‘cussion in Secs. 1.2 and 1.6% i, the situation is changed from unsteady to steady flow by changing the viewpoint of the observer, and the momentum ay be dissipated at the face of the surge. urge in eal This method will be developed f this case is of small amplitude the energy dissipatio and the energy equation may be used as an alternative to the momentum equation. It is left to the reader to shaw (Prob, 2.1) that this approach leads to the eaoy 12) a for the oscillatory wave, Both arguments are limited to long waves of low amplitude, and it is this type of wave which is most often generated in channels by the operation of controls and the existence of obstructions. We can conclude therefore that the wave velocity c= \/gy is the velocity with which a disturbance in open channel flow tends to move over the water surface, and this velocity is of course measured relative to the water, not to the banks, ‘Subcritical and Supercritical Flow We have now established that at critieal flow the water is just as fast, relative to the banks, as the wave resulting from a small disturbance See. 2.4) SUACRITICAL AND SuPeRcRITICAL FLow » would move relative to the water. One front of such a wave would therefore appear stationary to an observer standing on the bank; the opposite front (assuming the wave were spreading both upstream and downstream) would appear to the observer to be moving downstream twice as fast as the water. Indeed, “standing waves” are characteristic of flow which is at or near the critical condition, but a fact of more far-reaching interest is that when the stream velocity is less than critical, the wave from a disturbance can make way upstream (from the viewpoint of the stationary observer) but when the velocity is greater than critical such a wave must be swept downstream, and. no disturbance can propagate its influence in the upstream direction, ‘The former type. of flow (0 < \/93) is subcritical, and the latter (© > Vay) supercritical. The two types of low are clearly represented by the Upper and lower limbs of the E:y curve respectively; the same statement can. bbe made of the q-y curve drawn for a given E (Fig. 2-5), It should be just as clear, even to the reader unfamiliar with thermodynamics and gas flow, that nce subcritical and supercritical flow are defined in relation to a natural ‘wave velocity, they are closely analogous to subsonic and supersonic flow, which are defined in relation to the natural velocity of a compression wave ‘a gas, ie. the velocity of sound. This conclusion has already been suggested in the remarks made in See, 2.2. The Froude Number We define the Froude number as the quantity v/a), ic, the ratio of the ity to the wave velocity. It will be designated by the letters Er ‘The Froude number is analogous to the Mach number in gas flow, i.e, the ratio of gas velocity to sonic velocity. In the open channel case, the flow is supercritical or subcritical according as Fr is greater or less than unity; for this and other reasons Fr is a very convenient parameter in the manipulation of the equations of open channel flow. For example, we note that the deriva tive of Eq. (2-5) may be simply expressed as de : Bolo (43) The Froude number as defined above is casily recognized asthe square root of the Froude number as derived from dimensional analysis, ic., v*gL, ‘where Lis some characteristic length dimension. This difference in definitions need not cause any confusion, ‘The arguments developed in this and subsequent chapters will demonstrate convincingly the truth of the conclusion arrived at in the theory of dynamic Similarity—that the Froude number is a kind of universal indicator of the state of affairs in free-surface flow. Many equations can be expressed in terms ‘of the Froude number in such a way as to make it clear that once the value of Fris known, we know all thats required to deseribe a particular flow situation. 25 0 Tue ENERGY PRINEIPLE 1x OPEN CHANNEL FLOW [ch2 Upstream and Downstream Control ‘The preceding discussion about the ability of a disturbance to move up- stream has a simple, practical, and most important significance, In suberitical flow, a disturbance can move upstream; what this means in practice is that a control mechanism such as a sluice gate can make its influence felt on the flow upstream, so that subcritical flow is subject to downstream control. Conversely, supercritical flow cannot be influenced by any feature downstream, and can led from upstream. These general principles are perfectly illustrated by the simple sluice gate, whose setting determines the velocity-depth relationship both upstream and downstream of the gate itself (Fig. 2-7). The upstream flow is suberitical and Figure 2-7. The Sluice Gate as a Generator of Suberitical and Supercritical Flow is controlled by a feature downstream of itsel; the downstream flow is super o is controlled by a feature upstream of itself. It is left as an exercise for the reader (Prob. 2.2) to prove that the two flow regimes are in fact critical and supereritical, and not, for instance, both subcritical, ‘A memory device often used by practicing engineers is the statement that in supercritical low " the water doesn't know what’s happening downstream,” and this statement does indeed convey the truth of the matter in a way that is accurate as well as expressive, ‘The Occurrence of Critical Flow; Controls ‘The argument so far has dealt with the type of problem in which both q and E are prescribed initially: however, there is a further underlying problem Which is of great practical interest. Iti this: giver ue of, what factors, determine the specific energy £, and henve the depth y? conversely, if Eis determine 4? se questions be expected, that there are many different kinds of control mechanism which can dictate what the depth must be for a given g, and vice versa, An obvious example is the sluice gate; for 8 given setting of the gate there is a certain relationship between q and the Sec.25] THE OccURRENCE OF CRITICAL FLOW; ConTROLS a upstream depth, and similarly for the downstream depth, Weirs and s are farther examples o' also ex flow resistance due tot have some effect, and the detailed treatment of this subject in Chap. 4 will show that this is indeed the case. In fact the flow situ ly deter~ rmined by the control mechanisms operating within it. The notion of a “*con- trol” —any feature which determines a depth-discharge relationship—is therefore of paramount importance in the study of open channel flow, but it cannot be fully developed until fiow resistance is treated in Chap. 4. Controls are mentioned here by way of introducing the fact that there are certain features in a channel which tend to produce critical low, and are therefore controls of a rather special kind. To determine the nature of these features, we first consider the general problem of flow without losses in a channel of rectangular section and constant width, whose bed level may vary. This is in 2 sense a general reconsideration of the transition problem introduced in Sec. 2.2, but with a somewhat different emphasis Since the total energy Hand q are ant, we can write Way tz 45h = 642 = constant 44) whence, differentiating with respect to x, the distance along the channel: (215) important, part in tis equation, The equation demonstrates in com- pact form a result deduced previously from the form of the E-y curve: if there is an upward step in the channel bed, ie. if dz/dv is positive, then the product (1— Fridrdx must be negative. Hence if the flow is subcritical (Fr < 1),

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