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(T) of The Form VT V T: Sinusoidal Steady State Response of Linear Circuits
(T) of The Form VT V T: Sinusoidal Steady State Response of Linear Circuits
The circuit shown on Figure 1 is driven by a sinusoidal voltage source vs(t) of the form
vs (t ) = vo cos(ωt ) (1.1)
i(t) R
+ vR (t) -
+
vs (t) vc(t) C
-
Our goal is to determine the voltages vc(t) and the current i(t) which will completely
characterize the “Steady State” response of the circuit.
The equation that describes the behavior of this circuit is obtained by applying KVL
around the mesh.
vR (t ) + vc (t ) = vs (t ) (1.2)
Using the current voltage relationship of the resistor and the capacitor, Equation (1.2)
becomes
dvc (t )
RC + vc (t ) = vo cos(ωt ) (1.3)
dt
Note that the coefficient RC has the unit of time. (Ohm)(Farad) → seconds
Before proceeding with the solution of this differential equation let’s explore its physical
significance.
This linear circuit is driven (forced) by an independent sinusoidal source, vs(t). We may
view its response (its effect on the circuit) as the superposition of the response with the
source set equal to zero (source-free or natural response (vch(t)) ) and the forced response
(vcp(t)).
R R
+ +
vch (t) C vs (t) vcp (t) C
- -
(a) (b)
Figure 2
In mathematical language we call these two responses the homogeneous solution (vch(t)) )
and the particular solution (vcp(t)) of the equation that characterizes the system (Equation
(1.3) in our case)
dvch (t )
RC + vch (t ) = 0 (1.5)
dt
dvcp (t )
RC + vcp (t ) = vo cos(ωt ) (1.6)
dt
The homogeneous solution (or the natural response of the system) has the form
⎡ −t ⎤
vch (t ) = B exp ⎢ (1.7)
⎣ RC ⎥⎦
The particular solution (or the forced response of the system) is the cosine function of
amplitude A, frequency ω, and phase φ.
⎡ −t ⎤
vc (t ) = A cos(ωt + φ ) + B exp ⎢ (1.9)
⎣ RC ⎥⎦
vc (t ) = A cos(ωt + φ ) (1.10)
We may now proceed to determine the details of the solution by calculating the amplitude
A and the phase φ. To do this we substitute the form of the solution (Equation (1.10) )
into the differential Equation (1.3).
Before we make that substitution lets use the trigonometric identities to expand Equation
(1.10).
vc (t ) = A cos(ωt + φ )
(1.11)
= A cos φ cos(ωt ) − A sin φ sin(ωt )
dvc
= − Aω cos φ sin(ωt ) − Aω sin φ cos(ωt ) (1.12)
dt
Collecting the coefficients of cos(ωt ) and sin(ω t ) we have the following equations for
the unknowns A and φ.
A
− Aω cos φ − sin φ = 0 (1.14)
RC
A v
− Aω sin φ + cos φ = 0 (1.15)
RC RC
These equations are independent and thus they may be solved simultaneously for A and
φ.
φ = arctan ( − RC ω ) (1.16)
and A becomes
vo
A= (1.17)
cos φ − ω RC sin φ
vo
vc (t ) = cos (ωt + φ ) (1.18)
cos φ − ω RC sin φ
where φ = arctan ( −ω RC )
Figure 3 shows a plot of the phase and the amplitude ratio A / vo as a function of the
dimensionless parameter ω RC . Observe the frequency selectivity of this system. It
passes “low” frequencies while it attenuates “higher” frequencies.
0.0
-10.0
-20.0
-30.0
-40.0
-50.0
-60.0
-70.0
-80.0
-90.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
ωRC
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
ωRC
Figure 3
dvc (t ) vo Cω ⎛ π⎞
i (t ) = C = cos ⎜ ωt + φ + ⎟ (1.19)
dt cos φ − ω RC sin φ ⎝ 2⎠
voω RC ⎛ π⎞
vR (t ) = i (t ) R = cos ⎜ ωt + φ + ⎟ (1.20)
cos φ − ω RC sin φ ⎝ 2⎠
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
ωRC
Figure 4.
1. For ω = 0 (dc signal) the phase φ = 0 and the amplitude A = vo . The voltage
across the capacitor is constant.
R R
≡
vo C vo C
Figure 5
2. For ω RC = 1
vo v
The phase φ = −450 and the amplitude A = = o
1/ 2 + 1/ 2 2
vo
vo cos(ωt ) C cos(ωt − π / 4)
2
Here current is flowing and thus some power is dissipated in R. Also the capacitor
stores some energy.
vo v
The phase φ = −900 and the amplitude A = = o →0
0 − ω RC (−1) ω RC
When ω → ∞ the capacitor acts as a short circuit and all power is dissipated in R.
R R
vo cos(ωt ) C ⎯⎯⎯
ω →∞
→ vo cos(ωt ) C
Figure 6
i(t) R
vs (t) vL(t) L
-
We would like to characterize this circuit by obtaining the current i(t) and the voltage
vL(t). Apply KVL around the mesh
di (t )
vs (t ) = i (t ) R + L (1.21)
dt
di (t ) R v
+ i (t ) = 0 cos(ωt ) (1.22)
dt L L
L Henry
The coefficient is a time constant. → seconds
R Ohm
Here again we are interested in the behavior of the system for times that are long
L
compared to the time constant . In this scenario the only contribution to the solution is
R
again the one forced by the sinusoidal source voltage vs (t ) = vo cos(ωt ) .
i (t ) = A cos(ωt + φ )
(1.23)
= A cos φ cos(ωt ) − A sin φ sin(ωt )
di (t )
= − Aω cos φ sin(ωt ) − Aω sin φ cos(ωt ) (1.24)
dt
We now separate the cosine and sine functional forms of the solution since they are
independent contributions.
RA
− Aω cos φ − sin φ = 0 (1.26)
L
RA v
− Aω sin φ + cos φ = 0 (1.27)
L L
⎛ ωL ⎞
φ = tan −1 ⎜ − ⎟ (1.28)
⎝ R ⎠
vo / R
A= (1.29)
ωL
cos φ − sin φ
R
vo / R
i (t ) = cos (ωt + φ ) (1.30)
L
cos φ − ω sin φ
R
⎛ ωL ⎞
Where the phase φ = tan −1 ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ R ⎠
Figure 7 (a) and (b) show the plots of the phase and the amplitude as a function of the
ωL
parameter .
R
(a)
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
ωL/R
(b)
Figure 7
The voltage across the inductor is zero and the current flowing in the circuit is
vo / R .
A magnetic field is generated in the inductor but it does not change over time (no
change in the magnetic field no voltage)
R R
vo /R
vo L ≡ vo L
Figure 8
2. For ω L / R = 1
vo / R 1 vo
The phase φ = −450 and the amplitude of the current is A = =
1/ 2 + 1/ 2 2 R
1 vo
vo cos(ωt ) L i= cos(ωt − π / 4)
2 R
Here current is flowing and thus some power is dissipated in R. Also the inductor
stores some energy.
vo / R v /R
The phase φ = −900 and the amplitude A = = o →0
ωL ωL
0− (−1)
R R
R R
vo cos(ωt ) L
⎯⎯⎯ → vo cos(ωt ) L
ω →∞
Figure 9
Our goal is to be able to analyze RC and RL circuits without having to every time employ
the differential equation method, which can be cumbersome. If we draw upon our current
understanding of RC and RL networks and the fact that they represent linear systems we
will be able to considerably simplify the mathematical steps involved in the computation.
This simplification will require the use of fundamental complex arithmetic and will in the
end reduce the differential equations into simple algebraic equations. (indeed a
simplification using complex numbers!)
The linearity of the system implies that if we use a forcing function of the form
vo cos (ωt + θ ) then the output will have the same frequency but with a different phase
A cos (ωt + φ ) . Also if we were to scale the source by a factor k then the output will be
scaled by the same factor. Figure 10 graphically demonstrates these two statements.
Figure 10
Linear
j vo sin(ωt + θ ) j A sin(ωt + φ )
syestem
Figure 11
j ( ωt )
vo e (1.33)
and
Ae j (ωt +φ ) (1.34)
Therefore we could employ the complex form of the forcing function, proceed with the
development of the solution and then extract the desirable part of the response depending
on whether the forcing function was a cosine or a sine function.
Let’s explore this method by considering again the RL circuit analyzed previously and
shown again on Figure 12. The source has the form vs (t ) = vo cos(ωt ) .
i(t) R
vs (t) vL(t) L
vo cos(ωt ) -
Figure 12
Since vo cos(ωt ) is the real part of vo e jωt we will proceed with the analysis and at the
end we will simply extract the real part of the solution.
di (t ) R v
+ i (t ) = s (1.35)
dt L L
If we use the complex source
vo e jωt (1.36)
Ae j (ωt +φ ) (1.37)
R jφ vo
jω Ae jφ + A e = (1.38)
L L
Ae jφ ( R + jω L ) = vo (1.39)
vo / R
Ae jφ = (1.40)
1 + jω L / R
⎛ ⎛ ωL ⎞⎞
vo / R j ⎜ tan −1 ⎜ − ⎟⎟
jφ
Ae = e ⎝ ⎝ R ⎠⎠
(1.41)
ω 2 L2
1+
R2
vo / R
A= (1.42)
ω 2 L2
1+
R2
⎛ ωL ⎞
φ = tan −1 ⎜ − ⎟ (1.43)
⎝ R ⎠
Since our forcing source was the cosine function, all we need to do is extract the real part
of the function given by Equation (1.44) which is
vo / R ⎛ ⎛ ωL ⎞ ⎞
i (t ) = cos ⎜ ωt + tan −1 ⎜ − ⎟⎟ (1.45)
ω L 2 2
⎝ ⎝ R ⎠⎠
1+ 2
R