Cultural Entrepreneurship
Creative Futures for New Contemporary Artists:
Opportunities and Barriers
Introduction
T
he decision to study fine art can be dif-
ficult for risk-averse students, particularly
given challenging economic times and
uncertain career prospects. A trade-off between
economic comfort and freedom of expression
may be required (Bain 2005). Menger (2010)
defines the artistic labour market as predomin-
antly project-based with an oversupply of casual
workers. Throsby (1994) and Alper and Wassall
(2006) find that artists are subject to low income
and income variability. Many artists finance
their work through subsidiary occupations, often
unrelated to the creative domain. Income
inequalities are witnessed, as the art market often
operates on a “winner take all” or “superstar”
basis (Cowen 2000; Frank and Cook 1995).
Menger (2006) argues that despite the high
risk endemic in artistic occupations, non-mon-
etary rewards, or “psychic incomes,” are signifi-
cant for artists. Artists are presumed to pursue
not just a career but a “calling,” motivated by an
“inner drive” to live as artists, without distin-
guishing “working” from “living” (Jeffri 1991;
Menger 2006; Throsby 1994). Stohs (1989,
1992) argues that intrinsic factors persuade stu-
dents to study fine rather than applied arts
despite the lower, or even negative, economic
returns associated with fine arts.
Employment opportunities for fine arts gradu-
ates may be few in number. According to 2010/11
statistics from the UK Annual Population Survey,
77% of artists in the visual arts sector are self-
employed. Fine arts graduates may commence
their careers by searching for residencies or
VOLUME 20, NUMBER 2 • WINTER 2018
Boram Lee, Ian Fraser, Ian Fillis
commission-based projects. Although self-
employment may appear to offer an escape from
unemployment, high levels of competition, and
the uncertainty of contractual and contingent
work in the creative industries, may be extremely
challenging economically and emotionally, espe-
cially for recent graduates. Young artists often
struggle for at least three years after graduation
due to a scarcity of residencies.
In this study we investigate both opportunities
and barriers facing recent fine arts graduates tran-
sitioning to self-employment. Given the lack of
support available from government and other
institutions, we believe it is critical that emerging
artists be enabled to achieve both emotional well-
being and pecuniary durability in order to nurture
the creative futures of both themselves and society.
In the next section we compare the characteristics
of self-employed artists with those of entrepreneurs
and discuss our objectives. In the succeeding sec-
tion we discuss our case study of the Royal Scottish
Academy’s New Contemporaries exhibition,
together with a case-specific conceptual framework
and methodology. We then share our findings and
set out our conclusions. Finally, in the last section
we present implications for management.
From Self-Employment to Artist
Entrepreneurship
T he Department for Culture, Media and
Sport ([DCMS] 2016) reports that the
Gross Value Added of the creative industries in
the United Kingdom was a record £77.2 billion
Boram Lee,
PhD, is a lecturer in
Accounting and Finance at
the University of Stirling.
Much of her research applies
behavioural science tech-
niques to finance and the arts.
However, she has a wide
range of research interests,
covering the valuation of arts
and culture, art and conflict
and well-being, and the eco-
nomic aspects of the cultural
and creative industries.
Ian Fraser
is Professor of Accounting at
the University of Stirling. His
broad range of research inter-
ests include auditing, corporate
governance, financial reporting
and the valuation of art works
and similar forms of capital.
Ian Fillis
is Professor of
Entrepreneurship at Liverpool
John Moores University. His
research interests include small
business, creativity, arts mar-
keting and consumer research.
He was Principal Investigator
for the UK AHRC Cultural Value
project. He is a University of
Tasmania Distinguished Visitor
and Editor of the forthcoming
Handbook on Marketing and
Entrepreneurship (Edward Elgar).
9
in 2013, contributing 5% to the economy.
Annual increases in employment of around 4%
have been reported since 1997 and the creative
industries provided approximately 1.7 million
jobs in 2013. The DCMS claims that the United
Kingdom’s creative economy is proliferating
and that its world-leading status helps to sustain
economic growth. It is contentious, however,
as to whether UK cultural policy has been a
catalyst for creativity, being perceived as divisive
at times – for example, during the years of
Margaret Thatcher’s Conservative government
(1979–90). Although UK creative industries
have flourished over the past 25 years, the focus
of government policy for the creative sector has
been job creation and economic growth rather
than creativity (Holden 2004, 2006).
The visual arts, a key component of the cre-
ative industries, are closely connected to profit-
able innovation (Crossick and Kaszynska 2014).
A significant problem, however, is defining and
measuring all the possible permutations and
dimensions of the value generated (O’Brien
2010; Walmsley 2011; White et al. 2008b).
White et al. (2008a) find that creativity and
the creative process result in cultural value and
have an impact beyond the art product itself.
Since the visual arts have been valued by pol-
iticians and economists largely on the basis of
instrumental rather than intrinsic perspectives,
the applied arts, with their clearer career orien-
tation and perceived usefulness, have been a
more popular choice for government investment
than the fine arts as traditionally defined.
Menger (1999) identifies the uncertainty of
the cultural industries as a driving force for artistic
innovation, arguing that unpredictable outcomes
foster invention. Once freed from routine, artists
are able to be creative, leading to self-actualization
through artistic activities and the creation of social
value (Fillis and Rentschler 2010). The high num-
Acknowledgements
ber of self-employed artists may indicate that the
visual arts are driven by entrepreneurially minded This work was funded by
individuals. Menger (1999) defines several attrib- the Arts and Humanities
Research Council’s
utes of self-employed artists that suggest entrepre-
Cultural Value Project,
neurial traits, including sense of personal grant #AH/L014750/1.
achievement, self-discipline and commitment to The authors would like
their work. Self-employed artists prefer independ- to thank the Royal
ence and, like entrepreneurs, show a tolerance for Scottish Academy in
high risk. Douglas and Shepherd (2002) argue Edinburgh and all the
that those who are self-employed perceive that the study participants, as
expected utility from self-employment is greater well as Elmar Konrad,
than that of alternative employments. They define Petra Moog, Ruth
the resulting total utility as comprising financial Rentschler and partici-
pants in the Cultural
income, the positive feeling deriving from being
Entrepreneurship and
independent and risk-bearing, and other benefits Arts Management track
of being “free.” at the 2016 EURAM
Nevertheless, to survive within the art scene conference.
is challenging (Gill 2007). The art world is
categorically different from business, and sus-
taining artistic aspiration and maintaining art-
istic integrity are not easy (Boorsma 2006).
While artists and entrepreneurs might share
certain risk-related characteristics, there may
be fundamental differences in philosophy.
Accepting financial uncertainty, artists may
prioritize self-expression over commercial gain.
Entrepreneurs accept a high degree of risk in a
more overtly calculative way. The ultimate entre-
preneurial objective remains the identification
of highly profitable opportunities in the form
of products or services that appeal to identifiable
markets (White et al. 2009).
Entrepreneurs have sometimes been regarded
simply as those running their own business.
Such individuals, however, might be viewed as
replicative rather than innovative entrepreneurs.
Henrekson and Sanandaji (2013) argue that
many small companies are in fact stagnant and
that the amount of small business activity does

ABSTRACT

Career prospects for recent art college graduates transitioning to self-employment remain challenging. The
authors investigate the opportunities and barriers faced by emerging artists using a case study of a major
contemporary art exhibition and its follow-up shows. Data from 20 interviews indicate that the exhibition is
viewed as a useful steppingstone, offering such benefits as recognition and exposure, networking, marketing,
and enhanced ambition and motivation. Only a few exhibiting artists receive monetary rewards from sales or
prizes. The lack of financial assistance means that most artists are financially challenged. Artists also lack
knowledge of market conditions and have a tendency to undervalue their art work. Nevertheless, many artists
express no interest in developing commercial skills and have a pessimistic view of public funding. Some artists
show signs of an anti-entrepreneurial mindset. The authors argue that permanent platforms are required in
order to provide emerging artists with both tangible and emotional support.
KEYWORDS
Emerging artists, transition, platform, entrepreneurship, self-employment

10 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARTS MANAGEMENT

not provide a good measure of true entrepre-
neurial activity. Some cutting-edge artists may
fit the innovative model. The majority of artistic
enterprises, however, are unambiguously small
but not necessarily innovative. Even with innov-
ative outputs, such enterprises rarely develop
into highly profitable businesses that make their
owners high-net-worth individuals. Very high-
profile and successful artists such as Damien
Hirst are an exception, whereas the Scotland-
based artists Jack Vettriano, John Lowrie
Morrison (“Jolomo”) and Jennifer Thompson
are examples of artists who have developed
highly successful market-oriented businesses
while being arguably less innovative. Many
artistic enterprises, however, might be charac-
terized as neither artistically innovative nor
commercially successful.
According to Stohs (1989, 1992), the number
of surviving self-employed artists decreases dra-
matically over the years following graduation.
Almost half of fine arts graduates switch to
applied art or non-arts occupations. How can
artists be encouraged to remain artists? While
the DCMS (2008) report is aimed at enabling
creative talent to flourish by revising skill needs,
vocational training, and employment conditions
in the cultural and creative industries, there is
as yet no suitable support program sponsored by
either government or educational institutions.
Our study highlights the role of galleries and
comparable institutions in supporting emerging
artists. The findings suggest that familiarizing
emerging artists with the art market is crucial.
Emerging artists should also be encouraged to
embrace entrepreneurial thinking and guidance
on art pricing and valuation.
Research Methods
Case Study
The Royal Scottish Academy (hereafter, “the
Gallery”), located in Edinburgh, Scotland, is an
independent, privately funded institution led by
eminent artists and architects. Since 1976 the
Gallery has presented an annual student exhib-
ition (hereafter, “the Exhibition”) to support
emerging artists by providing a level playing field.
While each art college hosts a “degree show,”
there are limited opportunities for recent gradu-
ates to engage with the public and other art pro-
fessionals. One such platform is the Exhibition
(see Fillis et al. 2015). Most art college students
are aware of the Exhibition (called New
Contemporaries since 2009) and its history and
reputation. The Gallery director visits the Scottish
art colleges annually to publicize the Exhibition
and related opportunities. In 2014, 64 emerging
artists, from among approximately 560 art gradu-
ates in Scotland, were selected by a panel nomin-
ated by the Gallery. Some 300 art works,
including paintings, prints, sculptures, and instal-
lation, performance and architectural works, were
exhibited, and most were available for sale. The
Exhibition ran from 15 February to 12 March
2014 and attracted over 7,000 visitors.
Conceptual Framework
For our case study, we develop a tripartite con-
ceptual framework (Figure 1) which adopts a
holistic approach with three platforms as value
creation points and three major value recipients:
Artist, Organizer and Public. Three value
exchange lines have arrows at each end indicating
that these parties not only receive but also create
value for each other via platforms over time. We

RÉSUMÉ

Les perspectives de carrière pour des diplômés d’écoles des beaux-arts qui optent pour un travail autonome restent difficiles.
Dans cette étude, les auteurs analysent les possibilités et les obstacles rencontrés par des artistes émergents en s’appuyant
sur une étude de cas d’une exposition importante d’art contemporain et de ses expositions subséquentes. Les données
provenant de 20 entretiens démontrent que l’exposition est considérée comme un tremplin intéressant, en offrant des
retombées comme la reconnaissance et la visibilité, des occasions de réseautage et de marketing, de même que l’occasion
de faire le plein de détermination et de motivation. Seulement quelques-uns des artistes participants en ont bénéficié sur
le plan financier, que ce soit par la vente de leurs œuvres ou parce qu’ils ont reçu des prix. Le manque d’aide gouvernemen-
tale signifie que la plupart des artistes éprouvent des difficultés financières. Les artistes manquent de connaissances des
conditions de marché et ont tendance à sous-évaluer leur travail. Malgré cela, beaucoup d’artistes n’ont aucun intérêt à
développer leurs compétences en marketing et sont pessimistes par rapport au financement public. On voit des signes
d’une mentalité anti-entrepreneuriale chez certains artistes. Les auteurs soutiennent que la mise en place de plateformes
permanentes est nécessaire afin d’offrir un appui concret aussi bien qu’émotionnel aux artistes émergents.
MOTS CLÉS
Artistes émergents, transition, plateforme, entrepreneuriat, travail autonome

VOLUME 20, NUMBER 2 • WINTER 2018 11

define the Exhibition as platform 1. As it is the
starting point for value creation and exchange,
it is positioned at the centre of the constellation.
In addition to various prizes and awards, the
Gallery provided an opportunity for selected
artists from platform 1 to showcase their work
at the Fleming-Wyfold Collection, a high-profile
London venue, from 24 March to 31 May 2014.
This second exhibition, titled New Scottish Artists,
is a spillover from platform 1 and is defined as
platform 2. The Gallery also presented the
Generation: Open Dialogues exhibition from
28 June to 31 August 2014, featuring new works
by six artists who together represented each previ-
ous exhibition of platform 1, from 2009 to 2014.
We define this third exhibition as platform 3; it
includes one artist who exhibited at platforms 1
and 2. The larger circles representing platforms 2
and 3 indicate the greater impact of these exhib-
itions. We incorporate our key findings in
Figure 1. The opportunities that the platforms
generate are maximized in platform 3, with the
outer circle indicating lower levels of stress and
fear. Barriers are most unalleviated at platform 1,
with the inner circle indicating the highest levels
of stress and fear. Other concerns are common
to all three platforms and are discussed by non-
exhibiting as well as exhibiting artists.
Methodology
Given the need for in-depth conversation with
emerging artists, we interviewed 20 recent gradu-
ates either one-to-one or in groups. As shown in
Table 1, 15 of these graduates exhibited at the
Gallery in 2014 or in previous years, whereas
five did not. The exhibiting artists were contacted

FIGURE 1

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR VALUE CREATION OF PLATFORM OVER TIME

L1
Artist The figure depicts the values created by and exchanged
Opportunities Barriers between the platforms (Ps) and all three parties by lines (Ls)
over time. Values created and shared are both direct and
• recognition and exposure • financial vulnerability
indirect. Case study specifications are included in parentheses
• networking and experience • lack of commercial under each term.
• marketing and sales awareness
• ambition and inspiration • anti-entrepreneurial P – Value creation platforms
P1 – Initial Exhibition
mindset
(New Contemporaries)
P2 – Touring of Initial Exhibition
(New Scottish Artists at Fleming-Wyfold Collection)
P3 – Secondary Exhibition arising from Initial Exhibition
(Generation: Open Dialogues)
L – Value exchange lines
L1 – Artist
(selected artists)
L2 – Organizer
L3 L2 (Royal Scottish Academy and Fleming-Wyfold
Public Other concerns Organizer Collection)
• issues with suitability of platforms L3 – Public
• reluctance of art institutions to take risks (visitors; other art institutions and funding bodies;
• need for more artist-run spaces investors; present and future art college students)

RESUMEN

Las perspectivas de carrera para los recién egresados de escuelas de arte que hacen la transición al autoempleo siguen siendo
inciertas. Basándose en un estudio de caso de una exposición importante de arte contemporáneo y sus exposiciones ulteriores,
los autores examinan las oportunidades y barreras con las que se encuentran los artistas emergentes. Los datos reunidos en 20
entrevistas indican que se percibe la exposición como una etapa beneficiosa gracias al reconocimiento, la visibilidad, la inter-
conexión y la comercialización que genera, y como fuente de mayor ambición y motivación. Pocos artistas exponentes sacaron
provecho monetario, ya sea por ventas o premios. La falta de asistencia financiera hace que la mayoría se encuentra en una
situación financiera difícil. Se observa también que los artistas poseen pocos conocimientos sobre las condiciones de mercado,
y una tendencia a subevaluar su trabajo artístico. Sin embargo, pocos muestran interés en adquirir pericia comercial y la mayoría
es pesimista en cuanto a su posibilidad de acceder a fondos públicos. Se destaca a la vez el hecho que varios artistas muestran
un sesgo anti-empresarial. Los autores plantean la necesidad de plataformas permanentes para brindarles a los artistas emer-
gentes un apoyo tanto tangible como emotivo.
PA L A B R A S CLAVE
Artistas emergentes, transición, plataforma, espíritu empresarial, autoempleo

12 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARTS MANAGEMENT

via the Gallery and the non-exhibiting artists
were visitors to the Exhibition and were contacted
on site. Exhibiting artists have different levels of
exposure and experience in terms of prizes won,
works sold and other factors. Three of the five
non-exhibiting artists had graduated from
Scottish art colleges in recent years and thus were
eligible for the Exhibition, although unselected.
The remaining two artists were ineligible. Table
1 includes a brief note for each individual artist,
including pseudonym, gender and specialities.
The interviews, which were semi-structured,
explored such issues as the extent to which the
platforms were helpful as steppingstones in career
transition, challenges encountered when prepar-
ing for the Exhibition, services provided by the
Gallery that added value to the experience,
approaches to pricing, and suggestions for enhan-
cing the current environment and art infrastruc-
ture for the benefit of emerging artists. More
specifically, we investigated the opportunities
and barriers experienced by artists whilst exhib-
iting at the platforms. In the course of the inter-
views, artists discussed, with the researchers and
with each other, their experiences of both the
period immediately following their degree show
and the period subsequent to the Exhibition.
Rigour and Reliability of Analysis
At least two researchers participated in each group
and individual interview. All interviews were
digitally recorded and transcribed. Subsequently,
thematic analysis was undertaken using NVivo
software. The themes identified for coding were
based upon the interview agenda. Although the
coding process was undertaken individually by
the researchers, differences in opinion were rec-
onciled. Our empirical findings are based on the
dominant perceptions as to opportunities and
barriers that emerged from interviews with exhib-
iting artists as well as on non-exhibiting artists’
perceptions of the Exhibition.
Empirical Findings
Opportunities Generated for Exhibiting Artists
The platforms as steppingstones
Artists recognized a significant hurdle between
graduation and self-employment, and most found
that selection for the Exhibition enabled them
to focus on their work during the often chal-
lenging period immediately following graduation.
Louise, a sculptor selected for platforms 1 and
2, said, “Finishing your degree is very daunting
VOLUME 20, NUMBER 2 • WINTER 2018
and you think, what next? The Exhibition was . . .
the whole thing kept me going when I got out
and I don’t feel like I’ve ever stopped.”
All exhibiting artists were positively motivated
by being invited to exhibit and having a definite
target to work towards after graduation. Thus,
exhibiting artists believed that the platforms are
useful career steppingstones. Those artists who
exhibited at earlier iterations of the Exhibition
also indicated, in retrospect, that the opportunity
had been vital in bolstering their artistic
self-confidence.
Recognition and exposure
As only one in seven graduating fine arts students
is chosen to exhibit, it is a mark of distinction and
provides an exclusive experience (Konrad 2013).
Artists felt privileged to exhibit at an established
gallery with a prestigious history. They emphasized
the benefits in terms of their CV, further exhibiting
opportunities and access to funding. For Frida, a
painter who had won several prizes and bursaries,
the experience was particularly impactful and
motivating: “When I handed the work in, I was
really self-conscious of it and really unsure . . . and
then seeing it on the wall and realizing that they
had hung it in the main room, I was just, like,
wow, maybe I’m not that bad after all . . . that
affirmed it, and then I won the Stevenson Prize
and the Glasgow Print Studio Award and I was
totally not expecting it. I was just glad to be here,
and then it just blew my mind. Obviously, I needed
the money, so £5K was a lot. I so desperately
needed it and it was the best feeling.”
Those artists selected to exhibit at platform 2
or 3 signalled further added value, reflecting
arguments made by Florida (2005, 2012). For
example, Louise stated, “The Fleming-Wyfold
Collection is probably the biggest thing for
me . . . going to a new city, especially somewhere
like London, is notoriously hard in the art scene.
It’s nice to know that a wider audience will see
your work, with fresh eyes.”
Similarly, Michael, a printmaker, appreciated
the additional dimension experienced by exhib-
iting in London: “It was a whole different crowd,
really . . . big money. It’s London, it’s such a
huge audience to appeal to . . . it’s a whole dif-
ferent kind of exposure.”
Those selected for platform 3, from all artists
exhibiting at platform 1 over the previous six
years, were delighted by their inclusion in a major
exhibition representing 25 years of contemporary
art in Scotland. In addition, some not only had
won major prizes but believed that invitations
to take part in other shows and residencies had
resulted from their participation in platform 1.
13
TA B L E 1

LIST OF INTERVIEWEES

No. Platforma Name Gender Notes

1 1+2+3 Linsay Male Mixed media artist. He sold a few art works at his degree show but nothing since. His work was
featured on the poster and brochure cover for platform 1. He was the only artist invited to exhibit
at all three platforms and had several subsequent exhibitions.
2 1+3 Francis Male Performing and mixed media artist. He did not sell any art works, but his work was not for sale.
He is currently supported by other work. After exhibiting at platform 1 in 2009, he was invited to
exhibit at platform 3. He is active, with various subsequent exhibitions and residencies.
3 1+3 Margaret Female Painter and mixed media artist. After exhibiting at platform 1 in 2011, she was invited to exhibit
at platform 3. She did not sell any work at platform 1 but sold work at platform 3 and was also
awarded a travel grant for Japan.
4 1+3 Frida Female Painter. After exhibiting at platform 1 in 2012, she was invited to exhibit at platform 3. She won
two major prizes at platform 1 and sold all works exhibited. She has established a successful career
since, with many exhibitions.
5 1+3 Leonardo Male Printmaker. After exhibiting at platform 1 in 2013, he was invited to exhibit at platform 3. He has
exhibited at many places, sold numerous works at platform 1, and has won prizes and residencies.
He has established a successful career as an artist.
6 1+2 Louise Female Sculptor and painter. She sold one piece at her degree show, won one prize at platform 1, has
exhibited elsewhere, and has been awarded residencies and paid commissioned work.
7 1+2 Marvin Female Performing artist. She won one prize at platform 1 and has exhibited in London (platform 2) and
elsewhere and has been awarded residencies.
8 1+2 Michael Male Printmaker. He was awarded a prize and sold various pieces at platform 1. He has exhibited in
London (platform 2) and elsewhere, including one solo show.
9 1 Yayoi Female Painter. She sold one art work at platform 1 and has continued to postgraduate study in art.
10 1 Gwen Female Painter. She sold all works shown at her degree show but not at platform 1. She has exhibited
subsequent to platform 1.
11 1 Charles Male Sculptor and painter. He has not sold any work but has exhibited and curated at various shows
since platform 1.
12 1 Kurt Male Mixed media artist. He won a major prize at platform 1 but did not sell any works. He has exhibited
elsewhere and works as a chef to finance his practice.
13 1 Vanessa Female Sculptor and installation artist. She sold prints and photographs at her degree show but did
not sell her work, which was installation, at platform 1. She has had subsequent exhibitions.
14 1 Cindy Female Media artist. She won a prize at platform 1 but her works are mostly not for sale. She progressed
to postgraduate study in art history as well as subsequent exhibitions.
15 1 Joan Female Painter. Since exhibiting at platform 1, she has participated in some local exhibitions but does
not appear to have sold any work.
16 - Eduardo Male Sculptor. He graduated from an English art college and is undertaking a postgraduate degree in
London. He was ineligible for selection but has experienced rejection by the comparable English
platform. He has shown work at various exhibitions and has been successful at obtaining residencies
although not commercially.
17 - Tadeusz Male Media artist and photographer. Although he was not invited to the platforms in our case study,
he exhibited elsewhere and had sold work in the past.
18 - Marina Female Mixed media artist. Although not selected for any of the platforms, she has exhibited at many
other exhibitions. She is actively involved in artist-run spaces but has not sold work as yet.
19 - Meret Female Mixed media artist. She has not exhibited post-degree show but hopes to do so and to work as
an artist supporting herself with other employment. She is also interested in art outreach.
20 - Tracey Female Sculptor and painter. She graduated from a pre-degree course in art, which also had a degree
show, and went on to an undergraduate degree program in Painting. She had not exhibited or sold
work by the time of interview but had sold some of her work from a self-organized solo exhibition.
aPlatform 1 = Royal Scottish Academy New Contemporaries exhibition. Platform 2 = New Scottish Artists exhibition at Fleming-Wyfold Collection.
Platform 3 = Generation: Open Dialogues exhibition.
Notes: Personal artist information is valid only up to interview dates. For the purpose of anonymity, the artists are identified by pseudonym.

14 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARTS MANAGEMENT

 The Exhibition also led to recognition by the
media, art professionals and the public, thus
increasing interest in the artists’ work. Marvin, a
performance artist, appreciated “getting written
about in the Herald, the Scotsman – all these people
are writing about the shows. If you have a show in
a coffee shop you’re not getting that exposure.”
Several artists also cited increased activity on
social media and personal Web sites. As a result
of exhibiting, they had been e-mailed by members
of the public about their work, had substantially
more followers on their Twitter accounts, and had
more Friend requests on Facebook or Instagram.
Networking and experience
The Exhibition provides opportunities for artists
to meet graduates from different art schools who
are “in the same boat.” Emerging artists, from
different art colleges, bond under the aegis of
New Contemporaries alumni. For Yayoi, a painter,
the best thing about the Exhibition was meeting
other artists: “It was really great to meet other
people in the space and talk to them about their
practice . . . networking, but more fun!”
Oakley (2009) emphasizes the value of support
networks in the creative industries. Entrepreneurs
work better in clusters, thereby generating ideas,
information and resources (Oakley 2006).
Mingione (1997) highlights the positive impact
of social links on job searching. Similarly, Konrad
(2013) demonstrates the positive effect of engage-
ment on social networks for both founders and
managers of German cultural enterprises.
Also consistent with the literature, exhibiting
artists found the experience of networking with
established practitioners very useful. Linsay, who
had exhibited at all three platforms, developed
valuable networks by participating in platform 3,
where he met more experienced artists. Thus,
interaction with artists who are more established
serves to motivate and inspire. Installation artists
were able to interact with experienced practitioners
from the Gallery, thereby creating value in terms
of practice, philosophy and debate. Vanessa
remarked, “It was a really good opportunity . . .
how an exhibition like this comes about, like,
curating, working with the curators, and the set-up,
and the hanging process was quite interesting,
such as the logistics of fitting to a space like this.”
There are identifiable benefits from interacting
with established academicians. Marvin had
received constructive feedback when installing
her work: “People who work here have done art
for 50 to 60 years. It’s really useful to have them
around . . . that’s what our tutors were for, but
when you leave education it’s as if all the great
resources have gone and it hurts a little bit . . . the
Exhibition was a way of offsetting that.”
VOLUME 20, NUMBER 2 • WINTER 2018
Marketing and sales
The Gallery serves as an intermediary between
artists and the public, providing marketing
and sales services for artists while earning a
commission, at a rate of 40%. Many artists
found the Exhibition to be a significant mar-
keting opportunity. It enabled Kurt, an invent-
ive sculptor, to photograph his work in an
imposing space: “For my next proposals I can
hand in really good images or video. That’s
definitely the best thing I can get out of it! If
I’ve got a good set of images it makes a massive
difference for my work, because it’s not very
easily explainable.”
Marketing and art sales by the Gallery provide
direct financial benefits. Michael, a printmaker,
had won several prizes and made numerous sales:
“I was able to make quite a few sales . . . I won
a couple of prizes as well . . . This can be signifi-
cant given the challenging financial climate!”
Nevertheless, only 18 of the 64 exhibiting
artists in platform 1 sold work at the Exhibition;
thus, financial rewards were enjoyed by only a
minority. “I was quite lucky to sell one piece,”
Yayoi acknowledged, “and it covered my trans-
port to the gallery, so I think I came off better,
actually, than a lot of people did.”
Ambition and inspiration
The Exhibition provided artistic-development
opportunities for artists. For some it was an
opportunity to experiment with new forms of
work. The platforms also inspired the develop-
ment of an entrepreneurial perspective and
risk-taking attitudes. Louise said, “You don’t
want to be a one-trick pony and to just have
an amazing degree show and keep making the
same sort of work.”
Most artists indicated that the Exhibition had
made them more determined to succeed and to
search for other career opportunities. Louise was
motivated to establish a collective with her fel-
lows: “Before the show, I [thought], if I don’t get
this, then what will I do next? But I realize now
that I’ve got lots of friends who weren’t in the
show and they’re still making. But the whole
experience has just pushed me more. It’s given
[me] more confidence that [I’m] doing okay, that
you’re allowed to make what you want to make
and people will accept it.”
In summary, the benefits of exhibiting
tended to be viewed as intangible – for example,
enhanced motivation, greater recognition and
opportunities for networking. The more tan-
gible benefit of art sales was enjoyed by only
a minority.
15
Barriers Unalleviated by the Platforms
Financial vulnerability
The absence of financial help prior to the
Exhibition meant that most exhibiting artists
were financially challenged, given that both
production and transport had to be
self-financed.
Kurt, a mixed media artist, highlighted this
issue in discussing a work created with a friend:
“We threw away our art work. So the value of
£400 we priced didn’t exist, but when we put it
in the skip, it was worth nothing to us. It was
worth more to us skipped than it was carrying
it back to where we were going!”
Covering these significant costs left some
artists financially worse off, with the Exhibition
offering no artist fees. Cindy, a filmmaker, while
acknowledging that her works were typically not
commercial, commented: “I’d have to say that
it actually left me feeling financially worse off.
I do installation, which will probably never sell
at an exhibition.”
Lack of commercial awareness
Price labels, prizes and awards are seen as quality
benchmarks, especially in contemporary art where
judgements about quality are often personal, its
values unfamiliar to the public. It is well known
that young artists tend to undervalue both them-
selves as artists and the works they create. Vanessa,
a sculptor, stated, “There were these beautiful,
beautiful architectural models, and they were
just amazing sculpturally, and they were, like,
£100, which meant [the artist] would be getting
£50, and I thought, there’s no way you could
produce that for that amount of money.”
Most of the interviewees lacked confidence in
terms of pricing. At the same time, some worried
that if a work was priced too low it would be
perceived as of poor quality. By way of contrast,
Cindy, a media artist who had depended on her
employer for pricing advice, ended up pricing
herself out of the market: “I had a really low price
to start with, and then found out that if it did
sell I’d make a loss because they take money off
and all that. So I had to ask advice and the price
that I put on it at the end was so ridiculously
high! I was embarrassed . . . I should have said
‘not for sale,’ but that wasn’t an option.”
Pricing strategy is critical to successful entre-
preneurship, and several artists pointed to the
scarcity of advice on pricing and related matters
from the Gallery and educational institutions.
This was seen as a significant barrier. Some art-
ists remarked on the disadvantages accruing
from the marginal attention given to business
education in art colleges.
16
Anti-entrepreneurial mindset
We observed a tension between artistic ethos
and business focus as well as a lack of interest,
by most of the interviewees, in developing mar-
keting or management skills. Some artists sig-
nalled a dissonance between commercial and
artistic attitudes as well as confusion when
attempting to price their work. Artists also dis-
played pessimism about the prospect of obtaining
public funding, even experiencing difficulty in
applying for funding. Only a few artists were
proactively searching for further exhibiting or
selling opportunities. Some went so far as to
explicitly reject the market economy and con-
ventional entrepreneurship. Charles, a painter
and architecture student, was not interested in
selling his work: “I don’t really generally care
about selling the work. I know that sounds odd,
but I’ve never sold anything and it’s never really
bothered me and I’m happy to spend money
making new stuff. It’s more, I suppose, the feed-
back and knowing people enjoy it.”
Gwen, a painter, reflected this clash of atti-
tudes: “For a lot of people who are artists, perhaps
the personality that you have, or [what] you do,
or what makes you do it, is kind of contrary to
the personality of the person who is really good
at marketing and putting themselves out there.
That kind of self-promotion for me is quite alien.”
This is an example of a self-constructed barrier
to conventional notions of career progression
and entrepreneurship. Such attitudes support
Plattner’s (1998) description of the market for
contemporary art as one where producers do not
make work primarily for sale, where buyers often
have no idea of the value of what they buy, and
where middlemen routinely claim reimbursement
for sales of things they have never seen to buyers
they have never dealt with.
Additional Views Expressed by
Non-exhibiting Artists
Most non-exhibiting artists agreed that the plat-
forms showcase quality contemporary art, thereby
providing opportunities for artists in terms of
recognition and exposure. Some highlighted the
educational and motivational values that the
Exhibition conveys to visitors. Issues raised by
non-exhibiting artists, however, centred more on
barriers. The following issues were discussed.
Sustainability issues
Non-exhibiting artists cited the limitations of
the Exhibition as a one-off rather than an endur-
ing platform. There was a perceived lack of
ongoing and sustainable career opportunities for
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARTS MANAGEMENT
emerging artists. Meret was a mixed media artist:
“It’s like winning X Factor ! It’s going ‘WHOOP
– straight up there,’ but then what do you do?
My exhibiting friends say the Gallery wants them
to make more work but they don’t have a studio
space any more . . . and don’t have time.”
Such concerns reflect the reality that many
emerging artists have little or no access to the
financial support necessary to make their work
sustainable. There was a perception that art institu-
tions are takers rather than givers. Some individuals
opined that it is more important for art events to
provide fees for artists than to merely offer plat-
forms to exhibit. For Marina, a mixed media artist,
the Exhibition was underpinned by an undesirable
commercial imperative: “One of the main com-
plaints about the Exhibition is the fact that it’s
kind of all take, take, take . . . they didn’t give any
financial support to the artists to make work, and
this is a huge deal for a lot of people.”
Like some of the other non-exhibiting artists,
Marina felt that initiatives for ongoing support
would be more valuable to emerging artists, as
they could facilitate the development of networks
prioritizing sustainable job creation. Eduardo,
a sculptor and furniture-maker, stated:
“Personally, I’d be interested in organizations
having longer relationships with artists. At the
moment . . . a gallery invites you, you show, and
then that’s it, you’re gone. So there’s no dialogue
there. And there’s no long-term or financial sup-
port, like, personal support . . . Very few men-
toring opportunities are out there.”
Also apparent was a perceived need for more
permanent networks, mentoring opportunities
and supportive relationships.
Reluctance of institutions to take risks
There was a perception that institutions such as
the Gallery are reluctant to take risks by investing
in unknown artists. Tadeusz, a photographer,
expressed disappointment that selection for the
platforms was limited to those formally educated
at a Scottish art college. There was a sense that
this restriction could serve to not only exclude
talented artists who lack a formal art education
but also, in an era of austerity, discriminate
against those from economically deprived back-
grounds who are unable to make the sacrifice
required for full-time study, thus contributing
to a lack of diversity in the field of contemporary
art. To draw an analogy: in the commercial
sphere, large, established organizations have a
reputation as poor entrepreneurial risk-takers.
Commercial galleries, in particular, may be reluc-
tant to invest in artists who do have not yet
become established.
VOLUME 20, NUMBER 2 • WINTER 2018
Need for more artist-run spaces
Non-exhibiting artists perceived a need for fora
that are more participatory than shows that
merely select artists. Exhibiting artists had been
selected regardless of their willingness and had
been offered limited access and involvement with
respect to the Exhibition. Participation was
clearly perceived as valuable, but not necessarily
as preparing graduates to be self-employed artists.
Meret stated: “If my college had more of its own
student-run exhibition spaces and students got
to put it on themselves, selecting and organiz-
ing . . . rather than just being selected for that
kind of ‘someone up in some institution has
picked you,’ I think it would be more useful for
people’s careers, to actually be more involved in
the organization.”
Meret argued that practical training and
experience are more beneficial than the publicity
and exposure afforded by one-off events. Also
discussed were the benefits of fora that enable
artists to network with those trained at different
institutions or those working in diverse geograph-
ies. Meret explained: “If you had groups of people
in Glasgow and Edinburgh all swapped around,
and you had to start working in a new place,
then there’d be new connections . . . more solid,
if you’ve had to work on something together
rather than if you’ve just been dropped in a big
show . . . I don’t know how I’ll be able to make
work without having a group of people to talk
about it. I think exposure is not as important as
actual practical experience.”
There may be potential for establishing other
platforms that afford emerging artists greater
involvement in terms of direction, organization
and curation. Experiences of this nature may
not only enhance artists’ self-confidence but also
be useful to them in the future when they are
attempting to establish careers on sound com-
mercial principles.
Conclusions
I n our case study we investigated the challenges
faced by recent art college graduates when
transitioning to self-employment. We explored
the contribution made by the Royal Scottish
Academy’s New Contemporaries exhibition and
similar shows as platforms for providing oppor-
tunities for emerging artists. We found that such
platforms create both direct and indirect value
for emerging artists. They serve as career step-
pingstones, building confidence and helping
artists to promote and sell their work. Exhibiting
artists greatly enjoy the engagement with the
17
public and the building of networks with other
artists that such platforms facilitate, and such
interactions motivate them to continue with and
enhance their creative practices.
There is, however, a need for enhancement of
such benefits in order to alleviate a number of
barriers or other deficiencies highlighted by both
exhibiting and non-exhibiting artists. In many
cases the financial constraints facing recent gradu-
ates appear unsurmountable, as does artists’
inexperience with the external market. They evi-
dently lack commercial and financial knowledge
and have a tendency to undervalue both their art
work and themselves as artists. We observed that
artists are concerned about their economic pros-
pects and desirous of support and guidance, per-
haps in the form of mentoring. In addition, they
do not wish to be “instrumentalized” by galleries
or cultural institutions. Clearly, artists are thirsty
for grassroots exhibition spaces where they can
be independent and assume control of selection
and organization, capable of handling practical
issues and the realities of a professional career.
Our findings support those of previous studies
indicating that artists struggle to sustain long-
term careers in self-employment (Alper and
Wassall 2006; Bain 2005; Throsby 1994). We
contribute additional insights by focusing on the
challenges faced by emerging artists. There is a
danger in assuming that artists are motivated
purely or principally by artistic as opposed to
economic imperatives. Most of our participants
were acutely aware of their financial vulnerability.
While some indeed professed indifference to
commercial considerations, others articulated a
desire for more commercial awareness or for
knowledge about pricing and marketing tech-
niques. Thus, the concerns of emerging artists
are multifaceted. While some appear to be driven
by an artistic ethos akin to “art for art’s sake,”
our results suggest that many are very conscious
of more mundane matters such as the need for
mentoring, business advice or financial assist-
ance. The organizers of shows similar to the
Royal Scottish Academy’s New Contemporaries
exhibition might consider whether such events
should provide artist fees or financial support
for transporting art works or for marketing and
pricing assistance, as well as emotional support
or mentoring to ease the transition to the profes-
sional world. There may also be a need to estab-
lish a more permanent type of platform or other
mechanisms to support emerging artists.
Our research was subject to limitations. Our
participants constituted a fairly small sample of
artists. All had received similar educations at a
Scottish art college, while the majority had been
selected to exhibit at one or more of the platforms
18
that formed the focus of our study. Such indi-
viduals might be regarded as more privileged
than most emerging artists in having a launch
pad for their career. Our participants were at a
very early stage in their career. We acknowledge
the need for artist platforms at various career
stages. Future research might focus on both
emerging artists and those who are somewhat
more advanced in their careers. A broader spec-
trum of participants might yield a wider variety
of perspectives on the opportunities and barriers
facing artists. Additionally, it would be useful
to include the views of both commercial and
non-profit galleries, and educators as well.
Implications for Management
O ur study was predicated on the belief that
the overriding imperative of cultural policy
and practice should be the ability of arts and
culture to transform individuals and enhance
society. At the same time, the visual arts and
related cultural phenomena represent activities
that hold value and benefits for government.
National policy-makers concerned with the allo-
cation of scarce resources need to be aware of
the factors that are critical to the support of
emerging artists, since the significance of the
creative industries continues to increase in
developed economies. In order to ensure a sus-
tainable infrastructure to build cultural capital,
national policy-makers should consider how
educational and other institutions concerned
with the arts might be encouraged to establish
supportive platforms. The time may be oppor-
tune to develop long-term investment strategies
to nurture the visual arts and to develop further
innovative cultural sectors within the United
Kingdom and internationally.
Our findings, therefore, have implications
for national policy-makers, institutions providing
arts education and the managers of cultural
institutions seeking to establish platforms for
artists. Art colleges should consider including
subjects such as marketing, business, entrepre-
neurship and basic financial management in
their curricula in order to prepare students for
life after graduation. Encouraging artists to work
with other practitioners in collectives or similar
social enterprises might help them to develop
key skill sets. Exposure to a business mindset
could be usefully introduced earlier in artists’
careers, in order to help them develop entrepre-
neurial attitudes (Robinson and Sexton 1994).
Specific initiatives might be introduced by
quasi-governmental bodies such as Creative
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARTS MANAGEMENT
Scotland or Art Council England, or by volun-
tary bodies, in order to provide mentorship as
well as financial assistance to help recent gradu-
ates survive as self-employed artists. We are not
suggesting that such remedies are suitable for
all. The indifference or even antipathy shown
by some of our interviewees towards a commer-
cial or entrepreneurial mindset indicates that
not all recent graduates or even all practising
artists would welcome such initiatives.
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