Energy 5.1. Classification of coll 5.2 Kinetic energy 5.3. Internal energy 5.4 Closed systems 5.6 Inela 5.7 Conservation of energy 5.8 Explosi parations PCA)120 ‘ow that we know about conservation of momen. \ J tum. can we determine the final velocities of two colliding objects if the only things we know are the initial velocities and the fact that the momentum is con- served? The answer is naif our only tool is the momentum Jaw. In the collisions represented in Figures 4.23 and 4.25, for instance, momentum is unchanged in both cases, and ‘yt the two outcomes are definitely not the same. So knowing, only that momentum remains constant isnt enough. We need additional information in order to predict future positions and velocities. In the process of looking for this additional information, we shall develop another conservation law—the law of conservation of energy. CHAPTER § ENERGY 5.1 Classification of collisions Ifyoulookatthe velocty-versus-time graphsin Chapter, you willnotice thatthe velocity dilferenceinthetwo cats, — sm most cases has the same magnitude before and after the collision. Figure 5.1 shows two graphs of collisions we con- sidered in Chapter 4 and highlights the velocity differ- ence before and after the collision. This difference i the relative velocity of the carts: #,, = 0, — 1, is the velocity of cart 2 relative to cart 1 and 3, = ¥, — 1 is the veloc- sty of cart 1 relative to cart 2. The subscript in the relative velocity symbol is always shown with the object we are studying printed last: vis the velocity of cart 2 and vis the velocity of cart 1. (We cannot use A here because we reserve that symbol to denote the change in a single quan tly; now we are dealing with the difference between the same quantity for two different objects) The magnitude of the relative velocity is called the relative speed. Thus viz = [iy — ty isthe speed of cart 2 (last subscriptin v2) relative to cart 1. For motion along the axis, the elative speeds the absolute valueof the differen. in the x components of the velocities: 112 = [Pa ~ Yul Note that the sequence of the subscripts for relative speeds does not matter: tia = [2 Pal = [Pie = Pad = Ya (the speed of cart 2 relative to cart 1 is equal to the speed of cart 1 relative to cart 2) ‘A collision in which the relative speed before the coll- sion is the same as the relative speed after the collision is, called an elastic collision. Collisions between hard objects are generally clastic collisions. For instance, a superba, bouncing off a hard loor bounces up with nearly the same speed with which t came down, Thus the relative speed of floor and ball does not change, andthe collision is elastic Gatmararann aa iene wa mae Sr eee Eeesaaree remee a Any collision for which the relative speed after the collision is lower than that before the collision is called an inelastic collision. If you drop a tennis ball to the floor, it rebounds with a lower speed than it had when it hit the floor. The rela- tive speed is reduced, andthe collision is indastic ‘A special type of inelastic collision is one in which the two objects move together after the collision so that their relative speed is reduced to zero, We call this special case a tolally inelastic collision, Imagine dropping a ball of dough tothe floor, Splat! The dough sticks to the floor, and the relative speed of dough and floor is reduced to zero, The collision in Figure 4.25 is another example of an inelas- tic collision {As you might imagine, whether a collision is elastic, inelastic, or totally inelastic depends on the properties of the objects involved. However, if we know what happens (o the relative speed in a collision, we can use that know!- edge together with conservation of momentum to deter- rine the final velocities, Figure 8.1 Velocity versus time graphs of (a) two identical arts coding on ow fition tack, with one af the ert est ad () a standard cling with cart of unkaown iri tha le inaly are Notice th for bot calsione the rlaive sped ofthe two carts ar the sae Delore and ater he clivon. (6) Moving cart colides with identical car elo) ela spevds ae same [before and ater colson os bean? s (Standard ear calldes with er of unknown ines at stove os [eandard | _Reaiv speeds are same er before and afer collision,Exercise 6.1 Classifying collisions ‘Az the fllowing collisions east neat or totally incase? () A ted biliard ball moving at v,.; = +22 m/s hits a white billiard ball nil atrect.Aer the olson, he redbllie atest and the white all movesat tae = ++1.9 m/5.(b) Cart moving ong a teack at tg, = +12: hits cat 2 snitaly at rest. ‘fet the collision, the two carts move at Pigg = +04 m/s and va. = +1.6m/s. (2 A piece of putty moving at yi = “+22'm/s bite & wooden block moving al tyq, = +10" Alter he cllisin, the two move at gg = +17 m/s SOLUTION (a) The inital relative speed sty; [+22m/e~ 0] = 22m); the final relative speed ie Soy levee ttl = [0 ~ 1.9m/s] = 1.9 m/s, lower than the ini- til relative speed, which means the olson is neastie. 7 (0) Yay = [Pani — 2 m/s vi = Heuer ua = [-18m/s ~(-04m/2)] = 1.2 m/s. Becawe the relalive speed are the same, the collision i elastic 7 {6 Ate the collision, both the puty and the block teavel atthe same velocity, making their relative speed zero, The collision i totally inelastic. 7 Dist oan ur chs sb eso been ltd foe dart ae or aly ne {Winns moving eal sre oni ctl Sai eareee erate False ers en elufbl Whishopsfemare aut oeom ot roman soe ase el 5.2 Kinetic energy Relative speed isnot an extensive quantity, and so we cannot develop an accounting scheme for ita we did for momentum in Chapter 4 The trick in studying elastic collisions therefore isto obtain a quantity that allows us to expres the fact that the relative speed doesnit change inthe form: (something of object 1) + (something of object 2) doesn't change. As I shall show you in Section 55, fr an object of inertia m moving at S2KINETICENERGY 124 speed » this something is the quantity K = $m, called the objects kimetic energy (literally “energy* associated with motion”). Unlike relative speed, which refers to two object Kinetic energy is associated with a single object, Further- more, kinetic energy is always positive and independent of, the direction of motion (which means that itis a scalar) A ball moving at speed v to the left has exactly the same Kinetic energy as the same ball moving at speed v to the right (or any other direction in space). Whenever the speed of an object changes, the kinetic energy changes. Woes stieicasgrneninguit ‘To develop some feel for this new quantity and it rela- Lionship to relative speed, let us calculate the kinetic ener gies of the carts before and after the coliions shown in Figure 5.2. The (wo collisions have identical initial condi tions, Dut one is elastic (Figure 5.2a) and the other is to- tally inelastic (Figure 5.26) “able 9.1 gives the initial and final kinetic energies of the carts, obtained by reading off the x components of the velocities from the figure, Fr the elastic collision, where the relative speed doesnt change, the sum of the two kinetic ener gies before the collision is equal othe sum ater the collision: (0.12 + 0) kg-m'/s = (0.086 + 0,029) kgm? /# For the totaly inelastic collision, both the relative speed and the sum of the two kinetic energies change. In general we observe In an elastic collision, the sum of the kinetic en cergics of the objects before the collision is the same as the sum of the kinetic energies after the collision, naw think of energy” athe capt to do thing like accelerating snd beating objects We shall develop a more complete pitreof what ergy iin ater sections and chapters Figure 5.2 Velocities for antic and incl collisions between wo cart Cart thar ines 0.12 kg and ear ha inertia 036 kg (o Hla colsion (@) Totaly neat colton122 CHAPTERS ENERGY “Table 5.1 Kinetic energy inelastic and totally inelastic collisions ELASTIC ‘TOTALLY INELASTIC Inertia Velocity Kinetic enerey Velocity Kineticeneey, rm ke) vs (on/s) Er? gsm?) von/3) rv" kgm) before after before after before ater before after cmt on rey ° 0.086 ° “0.80 ° 00m cat2 036 oan +040 012 owes 080 40.60 0320065 Relative speed 080 0.80 os oo Kinetic energy of system 012 oa 012 087 In Section 5.5 well sce that this statement is equivalent tothe requzement that the lave speed emins the ame, (©) Tina eae For problems involving clastic collisions, we now have Ky, = fa = H0.364g(0)" = 0 two tools: the momentum conservation law, which tells us that the momentum of an isolated system doesn't change, Ka = Luv = $(0.12.kg)(0.34 m/s)* = 0.0069 kg- m/s? and the fact that the relative speed of the colliding objects doesn't change (or, alternatively, the fact that the kinetic 60K, = Ki, + Ky = 00069 kg-mi/# energy of he aren doesnt change). Lets now use both Kye = mo = 10.36 kg) (0.17 m/s? = 0.0052 kgm? Example 5.2 Carts colliding («) le the collision in Figure 4.25 clase, inelastic, or totally elastic? How can you tell? (b) Verify your answer by comparing the initial kinetic energy of the two-car ayrtem with the final inti energy © cETTiNG STARTED In Figure 423, slooks asi he siti and final elatve speeds are the sme, which makes the collision eat tie, The problem asks me to condzm this fact by calculating the {nial and final kinetic energies ofthe system © DevISE PLAN To anaer part a I need to determine the inland final relative speeds ofthe eats from the velocities, which f get from Figure 4236 0),,= 0; vj = +034m/5 Sige = +017 m/s; ogy; = —017 ms, To answer part b, use K’= }niv?, The inerlias of the carts are given in the figure caption: m, = 0.36 kgand my = 0.12 kg © EXECUTE PLAN (a) vn = [ees Pia = [+034 9/3) 0] 0.34 m/s: =[Oaey~ Hel = [C017 m/s) ~ (+017 m/)] = 0.34 m/s. The slave speed ie unchanged, and Uh the col: sion is elastic. 7 Kye = Yang = $10.12 kg)(—0.17 m/s}* = 0.0017 kg m/s? (0.0052 kg-m?/!) + (0.0017 kg-m¥/!) 0069 kg-m?/s, ‘which isthe same as before the collision, as it should be for an dastic collision, © EVALUATERESULT BecauseT'vereachedthesameconclusion— the collision is clastic—using tro approaches, can be pretty confident that my solution is correct. Because kinetic energy isa scalar extensive quantity, bar diagrams are a good way to visually represent changes in this quantity. Figure 5.3, for example, shows the initial and final kinetic energies of the carts in the two collisions of, Figure 5.2. Before the collision, only cart 2 has kinetic en- cexgy; after the collision, hoth carts have kinetic energy. For the clastic collision (Figure 53a), the sum of the kinetic Figure 6.3 Bar diagrams epresenting the inital and final netic energies ofthe casts forthe calsion shown a Figure $2. (a) The sum ofthe netic energies doesnot change forthe elastic colision because te changes are equal and oppose (0) The sum ofthe kinetic (o Blast colision “ Boone Kye K Re ky gis change forthe totally nla cols The change in K eraller tan he ehange in Ky, ()Toaly incase colision “Ur Ky Kye Ky = Kyenergies after the collision is the same as the sum before the collision because the change in the kinetic energy of cart 1 4s the negative ofthat of cart 2. For the totaly inelastic coli- sion (Figure 5.36), the changes in the kinetic energies do not canecl, and so the systems kinetic energy after the collision is not equal to the systems kinetic energy before the collision, We ering cr cs wit a ete et nay an oon a oo ee fu muyodeur atta 5.3 Internal energy In both inelastic and totally inelastic collisions, the relative speed changes and therefore the kinetic energy of the sys tem changes. For example, the derease in the kinetic energy of cart 2 in Figure 5.2b, represented by the dowaward pointing arrow labeled AK; in Figure 5.3b, is larger than the increase inthe kinetic energy K; of cat 1, resulting in a decrease in the kinetic energy of the stuck-together carts Where does this kinetic energy go? Does it simply vanish, or does it go elsewhere? ‘We can determine the answer to this question by look. ing more closely at inelastic collisions between objects and noticing that changes occur in the state of one or both ob: jects. What I mean by state is the condition of the abject as specified by some complete set of physical parameters: shape, temperature, whatever—every possible physical var able that defines the object. In inelastic collisions, objects deform (their shape changes) and heat up (their tempera: ture changes): A ball of dough changes shape as it hits the ground, two cars deform as they collide, hands vigorously clapped together heat up and make sound. The transformation of a system from an initial state to a final state is called a process, Processes cause change (see Section 1.4, and so in physics we aim to understand pro cesses, Collisions that change either the motion or the state of objects are an example ofa process. Other examples are the melting of an ice cube, the burning of fuel, the flow of a liquid, and an explosive separation, Initially we focus on, collisions because they are easly visualized and we can stady ‘what happens in collisions using carts on tacks. As we gain experience, we shall replace collisions with other process In inelastic collisions, the state of the objects after the collision is different from the state before the colision IFT were to make a movie ofthe ball of dough hiting the ground and then play the movie in reverse, you'd have no trouble telling thatthe movie was being played in the ‘wrong direction, This is because this inelastic collision in volves changes that cannot undo themselves—the dough is at and at rest after the collision and round and moving before (and never the other way around). The same is tue for a collision between two cars: The cars are damaged after the collision and not before, and it is not possible to repair SINTERNAL ENERGY 123. Figure 5.4 Before or afer? (Inelastic collisions are an teversibie process Theres no question tha! the plete wa ake ler the acid because the stat ofthe two cars as changed (8) Elastic coisions vere process. Can yu ell whether ths pctute was taken before oF the bal eolided withthe racquet? them simply by pulling them apart (Figure Sa). After the clapping, your hands are warmer than before, and you can not cool your hands by “unclapping” them. All these inelas tic collisions are irreversible processes, which means that the changes that occur inthe state ofthe colliding objects cannot spontaneously undo themselves Tn contrast, viewing a movie of a superball bouncing off the Noor or two carts colliding on a low-friction track (without sticking together), youd be hard pressed to tell whether the movie is playing forward or in reverse. This is because elastic collisions are a reversible process, which means there ate no permanent changes in the state of the ‘the objects look the same before and (Figure 5.48). Thave summarized thes facts in Table 52. Notice how a change inthe rative speed (and therefore a change in the sum ofthe kinetic energies) goes hand in hand witha change in the Sate: The sum ofthe kinetic energies of two colliding objects doesnt change unless ther states change. Let us look at this connection wth n eye to formulating anew conservation lav Suppose we could associate some quantity having the same units as kinetic energy (kgm? /@) withthe state ofan ahject—lets cll this quantity the objects internal energy (denoted by E,). Suppose further that we could arrange things in sucha way that in an inelastic collision the increase in the sum ofthe internal energies ofthe colliding objects is equal to the decrease in their kinetic energies. This would mean that in an inelastic collision one form of energy is converted to another form (kinetic to internal) but the sum. of the kinetic and internal energies—collctively called the energy ofthe system doesn’ change “Table 6.2 Elastic and inelastic collisions Collision type Relative speed state hati ‘unchanged “unchanged inclastic changed changed totally ing changed124 CHAPTERS ENERGY Figure 5.5 () 3 ane colivon. Besse th ative speed of the ears doesnot the sum af the kinetic nese alto unchanged. The ear states do ol change, ands thei intenal energies are ale Unchanged (8) Inelaste olision. Because the relive speed changes at ares ofthe cli tnesgy anges to, For both colon tl netic energy (o) Ela eallsion ges. The cas states also change, sm ofthe kinetic and internal energie constant, ote intern (@ oully ncaa elon Som of kine energies unchanged, finer unchanged In Chapter 7 well learn how to specify the state of an. object and how to calculate the corresponding internal energy. For now, al we need to do is account for the miss- ing kinetic energy in an inelastic collision by saying: In any inelastic collision, the states of the colliding objects change, and the sum of their internal ener- gies increases by an amount equal to the decrease in the sum of their kinetic energies ‘Whenever some kinetic energy disappears in a collision, ‘we can always determine changes in state to account for that loss, The big appeal of the relationship between state and internal energy is that we can now say: The energy of a system of two colliding objects does not change during the collision, This statement holds for all types of collisions: elastic, inelastic, and totaly inelastic. In the elastic collision shown in Figure 5.5a, the collision alters the velocities and thus the kinetic energies of both carts. However, the sum of the kinetic energies before and after the collision remains ‘unchanged, as shown by the kinetic energy bars. Because the collision is elastic, there are no changes in the states of the carts, which means their internal energies also remain unchanged, as shown by the internal energy bars. So the energy of the two-cart system does not change. In the totaly inelastic collision of Figure 5.56, the sum, of the kinetic energies decreases. Because changes occur in the states—the cars change shape—the internal energies of the carts change as well. The changes in motion and state are such that the energy of the system is the same before and after the collision, We account for the lost kinetic en- ergy by saying that it has been converted to internal energy. te that in making the bar diagrams in Figure 5.5, 1 had to choose some initial valve for the internal energies of the colliding objects. As we have no way (yet) of calculating internal energies, the values I chose are arbitrary. At present Kinetic energies sotatnerboth EM changed] ae ‘we are interested only in changes in energy, however, and so the initial value is not important. OnoreaTE ETT oe ee ieee Example 6.8 Internal energy change ‘NO. gc Ln at eat i trucky an desler rv eng of =] 05 teeny lve ow fork Afi Callie, the wlocty of ert 2 reduced 19 tg = +02 m/e (a) te the coision date, tease, or ttl incl? (6) BY what amount does the internal energy ofthe two-car sytem ange? (6) Make a bar diagrams showing the inital an final (netend nerd erp ef habe et © certins stanreD 1 begin by organizing the information siven inthe problem in a sketch (Figure 56) To casi the folison, I nee to determine the final rsive speed, bat the Bal voc feats net gre Feu 58 ini fina 3. 48 3 =p 7 a “eth © DEVE PLAN The ewo-cat system isolated, and s0 the momentum ofthe system docs nat change, egarles of the type of colliion. I can Use this information to determine the final velocity of cart! and the final relative speed of the carts. BY «comparing the final and intial relative speeds, I can determine the typeof collision. Once Tknow the intial and final velocities, ean calculate the kinetic energies using K = mo? and deter ‘mine what fraction ofthe intial kinetic energy bas been con- verted to internal energy© EXECUTE PLAN (a) The initial relative speed is [+05 m/s) — o| aes = Paxil 05 m/s. ‘T determine v.51 apply conservation of momentum to the system, The initial momentum ofthe sytem is (02 kg)(+05 m/s} + (02 kg)(0) (02kg)(+05 m/s) and its final momentum is (02 kg)(=02 m/s) + (02 kg) O4e0 Conservation of momentum requites these (wo momenta to be qual: (02 kg)(+05 m/s) (0.2. kg)(-+0.2 m/s) + (02 KEN ud (+05 m/s) +0.2 m/s) + Yee vigg = +03 m/s "The final relative speed i hus Ira vad = [C402m/9)~ (-03m/)] = 02 m/s vehich seen fom the nal vale. Thus he collin is n- Sas, Uw tht the cosine ne tly ict bee theraaive speed has not been reduced to 2ete) 7 (8) The initial kinetic energies are x, Ky = HO2kg)(05 m/s)? = 0.025 kg- m/e so K= Ky t+ Ky = 0005 eg m/e. "The final kinetic energies are Kye ~ 102g) (03 m/s)? ~ 0.009 kg- mit? Kar ~ H0.24g)(02 m/s)? ~ 0.008 kgm? $0 Kr Ky + Ky = 0013 ken "The kinetic energy of the system has changed by an amount (0.013 kg: m"/2) — (0.025 kg m'/s!) = ~0.012 kgm" /# To keep the energy ofthe system (the sum ofits kinetic and inter nal energies) unchanged, the decease i kinetic energy must be sade up by an increase in internal energy. This tells me thatthe fnternal energy of the system increases by 0.012 kg: m/s. (©) My bar diagram is shown in Figure 5.7. The final kinetic energy ba is about half ofthe initial kinetic energy bar Because 1 dont know the value of the initial internal energy. 1 set it to cro and make the final internal energy bar equal i height (o the difference in the kinetic energy bars. 7 S.INTERNAL ENERGY 125, Figure 5.7 initia Fina About half of init vaie Nach, Ext Eas Kagthap Ey+Eay © EVALUATE RESULT Ifthe collision were clastic the velocities of the carts would be interchanged and cart 2 would come to & stop (see Figure 45). So the collision must be inelastic indeed 1 found that both the relative speed andthe sum ofthe kinetic ener- ies change in the collision, ae expected for an inelastic cellson, We are now in a position to extend the idea of internal energy to other interactions. Consider, for example, a cart initially at rest on a low-friction track set in motion by an expanding spring that is held fixed at one end, as shown in Figure 5.8a. As the cart is accelerated by the spring, the cart’s Kinetic energy increases but its state doesnt change, and so its energy increases (Figure 5.8b). Where did this en ergy come from? The spring cets the cart in motion, and so it makes sense to assume that the spring transfers energy to the cart. Indeed, the spring expands—its state changes— and so its internal energy changes. If we include the spring Figuro 5.8 ilu and oa enceies fr two choices af sytem, (0 Bending ring cere a @ s.8 9 Spring compressed ui Spring relaxed (0) Ital and final energies: sytem = cart only => Car speed Ssteofest “me oer change « AY ai (6 toil and Sind energie system = cart + spring lu co!126 CHAPTERS ENERGY im the system and attribute the increase in the cart’s kinetic energy to a decrease in the spring's internal energy, we can again arrange things in such a way that the energy of the cart-spring system remains unchanged (Figure 5.8¢). If we replace the cart in Figure 5.8 with a cart with a dif- ferent inertia, compress the spring to the same initial state, and then Iet that cart go, we discover that its final kinetic energy is exactly the same as that of the first cart, So the spring always transfers the same amount of energy as it ex- ppands from a given compressed state to its relaxed state re~ 4gardless of the object to which it transfers that energy. Bee tatetateweterwo i pte cata guess fn motion In each eve, can you accoual for tbe increase ia the carts kinetic energy by either a change in sate oa change in ‘motion of another objec? Checkpoint 5.6 suggests that a change in the carts kinetic energy can always be attributed to either a change in state (and therefore a change in the internal energy) or a change in the motion of another object. Because the states of ob- jects can change in many different ways, we associate dif ferent forms of internal energy with different kinds of state change. For example, the internal energy associated with a change in chemical state is called chemical energy and the internal energy associated with a change in the temperature of an object is called thermal energy. Table 5. lists addi tional forms of internal energy. Absolutely everything happening around us entails changes in state and therefore changes in internal energy. Rivers flowing, air masses moving, machines lifting things, people walking, and atoms emitting light can all be ex ‘presied in terms of changes in state (and therefore changes in, Internal energy). More important, we discover that any change in state oF motion is always accompanied by 2 compensating change in state or motion, and we can always attribute en- ergy to these changes in such a way that the energy of the system remains unchanged. In other words, energy cannot be destroyed or created, and energy, like momentum, is a conserved quantity, Indeed, no observation has ever been found to violate the law of conservation of energy: Energy can be transferred from one object to an. other or converted from one form to another, but it cannot be destroyed or created. “Table 5.3 Various tate changes and their associated internal energy State change Internal energy Cemperature change chemical change reversible change in shape ‘hase eansformation ‘thermal energy chemical energy clastic energy transformation energy Kinetic energy and all forms of internal energy are thus different manifestations of the same conserved quantity: energy. War ww te manta oft cata ent Fig 5 ontan 0) teen 5.4 Closed systems As Checkpoint 5.7 shows, the system comprising the spring and cart in Figure 5.8 is not isolated. However, no energy is transferred to it, and therefore the energy of the system is constant* Any system to of fom which no energy i twansferted is called a closed system. An important point to keep in mind is that a closed system need not be isolated (and likewise an isolated system is not necessarily closed). The procedure for choosing a closed system is described in the Procedure box. To see how this procedure works, lets look at the setup in Figure 5.9—some fuel (gusoine, say) bing burned in a container open tothe ait. Thegin by making a sketch of the canister with the fuel before and after the combustion (Figure 5.92). The com Dbustion involves two changes in state: a change in the chemical state ofthe fuel and the at, and a change in the Figure 5.9 (a) The boring of fue involves a change in chemi composition snd in temperture (9) Ie choote a coved eyes the ange in cher ‘nergy mt be compenated bya change in thermal energy (a) Sketch ini and final conditions, dently changes, choose system syn dd ee eats, i Docume as |? + chemi sate of fl and ae changer ‘emperauzenses change in motion: changes inetate (0) Drv energy bar diagrams fori nd final conditions a € & 9 bal Tempera ie on fia fan En Eas ES ow da Tow that no energy tansfesed tothe creping sytem? The expanding spring andthe accelerating ext donot case an in the tate or motion ofthe environmen (le tack, Earth, and 0c). CConsequeni the energy ofthe entionment doce change, which meane that no energy has been easfered from the eszonmeat tothe stem,Procedur Choosing a closed system SYSTEMS 127 When we analyze energy changes, it is convenient to choose a system for which no energy is transferred to or from the system (a closed system). To do so, follow this procedure: 1, Make a sketch showing the intial and final conditions of the objects under consideration, 2, Identify all the changes in state or motion that occur during the time interval of interest, 3. Choose a system that includes all the objects undergo- ing these changes in state or motion. Draw a dashed line around the objects in your chosen system to rep- resent the system boundary. Write “closed” near the system boundary to remind yourself that no energy is transferred to or from the system. 4, Verify that nothing in the surroundings of the system undergoes a change in motion or state that is related to what happens inside the system. Once you have selected a closed system, you know that its energy remains constant temperature, The fuel and the air immediately surround~ ing it are what undergo these changes in state, and so T include them in my system. Because there are no other re- Tated changes in state, know that my system is closed and sts energy remains constant Tcan now make a bar diagram to represent the changes an energy that take place inside the system (Figure 5.98). The change in the chemical sate corresponds to a change sn chemical energy, and the change in the temperature corresponds to a change in thermal energy. I therefore draw two bars. The combustion raises the temperature, and so the thermal energy increases. Because the system is closed and its energy remains constant, there must be a decrease in chemical energy that compensates for the in- crease in thermal energy. Given that the energy ofa closed system remains constant, we ean focus on the energy conversions and transfers that happen inside the system, We speak of an energy conversion when energy is converted from one form to another. Inthe combustion illustrated in Figure 5.9, for example, an amount AF.oem of chemical energy s converted to an equal amount AEs of thermal energy. When energy is transferred from one object to another, we speak of an energy transfer. An example ts shown in Figure 5 3a, where energy is transferred from cart 2to cart | Because we are sill acking the quantitative tools, let me ilustrate the transfer and conversion of energy qualitatively with a few examples. By converting some form of internal energy to kinctic energy, we can put objects in motion. For example, a car burns gasoline as it accelerates from rest. If wwe ignore the effects of air resistance, this situation repre- sents a change in the chemical state of the gasoline and a change in the motion of the car. Chemical energy (a form of internal energy associated with the chemical state) stored in the gasoline is converted to kinetic energy of the car (Figure 5.10) Ws acing vic sand nin Pees Teed ace bp nto ees aco alcceesio cpr a ca a Soe Figure 5.10 (a) An acelerating car conse a dosed system because ro changes occur ints environment (8) The increase in the cars kel nergy ean be atscbuted to a decease ia chemical energy (ue 1s the om Brstion of fed, (otal nd ie condos change nate and mation, eters o & o ® — © chemical ate of ful changer we diagrams for initial and ey conditions ie] 9 carb f csrspedesp SE sen [AK En E Eun OK ‘The generation and consumption of electrical power provide many other examples of energy conversions and transfers, In a coal-burning electrical power plant, coal is burned in a boiler to heat water and convert it to steam, ‘The two complementary changes in state (a change in the chemical state of the coal and a change in the tempera ture and state of the water) correspond to a conversion of, chemical energy to thermal energy. The steam drives a tur: bine, where the steam cools and a turbine blade spins, and so thermal energy is converted to kinetic energy. The mov. ing turbine drives a generator, which converts the kinetic energy to electrical energy. Power lines transfer energy from the plant to our homes, where itis converted to many forms, Lamps convert electrical energy to light (a form of, energy) and thermal energy (lamps get hot), a stereo con: vverts electrical energy to sound energy, and on and on.128 CHAPTERS ENERGY Exercise 5.4 State changes and internal energy ‘Choose an appropriate closed system and make a bar diagram representing the energy conversions and transfers that occur when (@) a pan of water is heated on a propane burner, (6) a cyclist 2c: «cette fom rest and (¢)asping loaded gun fires ball of put SOLUTION For each case, 1 apply the steps ofthe Procedure box ‘on page 127. My sketches are shown in the figures. (2) Changes in motion: none. Changes in state: the temperature ‘ofthe water increases, and the chemical tates athe propane and the ai change. The bar diagram shoves an increase in thermal ‘energy and an equal decease in chemical energy (Figure 5.11). ‘Chemical energy ie converted to thermal energy, and in the process energy ie ansferred from the propane tothe water, Figure 5.11 twitiat Fina change in mation: nene changes in state: «water temp T + chemical state of propane & ir changes Een Eth Ese Ev (© Changes in mation the bieyde and the eit accelerate eee ee eel ine ne tet ere ees tating bey in mofo epiresnucles to cnt po iological process tht invaves a complex series of chemical eae tions. The bar diagram shows an inereae in Kinetic nergy and fan equal decrease in chemical energy (Figure 6.12). Chemical teepyisconvered to Mnf enegy ofthe icy nd epi. Figure 5.12 lnitie Final change in motion: bike € eylist accelerate change in state: chemieal state of cyclist changes Exhem K Eom Koy (©) Changes in motion: the putty is accclersted. Changes in sate the spring expands, The bar diagram shows a decrease in the elastic encrgy of the spring and an increase in the kinetic ‘energy ofthe puty (Figure 5.18) As the spring expands, elastic ‘energy is converted kinetic energy ofthe put Figure 5.13, change in motion: putty accelerates change in state: spring expands tio Jt Enrny § for Kv We started our study of physics by describing motion in terms of velocities, accelerations, and inertias, Now we have two new quantities, momentum and energy, and we have found 10 fundamental conservation laws that allow we to use simple accounting principles to describe changes in motion, UD aca te maga mm osa set pO ener ere eo patina erect eeSelf-quiz SELF-QUZ 129 1. Consider an isolated object at rest in space. The object contains internal energy in some form or another. Is itin principle—possible to convert the internal energy to kinetic energy so that the object starts to move? 2. Imagine squeezing a piece of foam with your hands. Choose an appropriate closed system and sake a bar diagram representing the energy conversions and transfers that occur during the squeezing 3. When you heat a pot of water on a gas stove, the water temperature increases until the water begins to boil. This change in thermal state from cool water to hot water is due to chemical energy from the burning gas being converted to thermal energy of the water. Once boiling starts, the water ‘temperature stays constant until all the water has turned to steam, even though the burning gas continues to transfer energy to the water. While the water is boiling off and becoming steam, wihat becomes ofthe energy released by the burning gas? 4. An electric fan turns electrical energy into wind energy (a form of kinetic energy because it in- ‘volves moving ait). Suppose a blowing fan is suddenly unplugged. Even though the fan no longer receives electrical energy, it continues to blow air while the blades slowiy come to a stop. What ‘ype of energy is converted to wind energy after the fan is unplugged? Answers 1, No. Geting the object to move would violate th law of conservation of momentum because the abject would start with zero momentum (B = mii = ml = 6) and end with nonzero momentum (= 0) 2. Draw the foam before and ater the squeezing. Two changes in state occu: The shape ofthe foam changes, and the chemical state of your muscles changes. These two changes in state correspond to changes inthe foanis clastic energy and in chemical energy. In your closed system, include the foam and yourself (Figure 5.14, Figure 5.14 nit final initial fina change in mation: none changes in state: » shape of foom changes + chemical sate of muscles changes 3, 1 goes into changing the phase ofthe water {com lid to steam. 4. The kinetic energy ofthe fan blades is converted to wind energy.130 CHAPTERS ENERGY 5.5 Elastic collisions ‘As we saw in Section 5.1, we can classify collisions according to what happens to the relative velocity of the two colliding objects. The relative velocity of cart 2 relative to cart 1 is defined as i iy 6a) The relative velocity of cart I relative to cart 2 is the negative of this vector: y=, — 8 = Ba (5.2) If the magnitude of this relative velocity (the objects’ relative speed + ~ th) is the same before and the collision, the collision is elastic: Uy = Uae _(€lastic collision) (53) For two objects moving along the x axis, we can write this as Figuee 5.15 A collision between two objets tmoving in the same direction a diferent speeds. ‘objec 2 ntaly moves fster than objet 1 (clastic collision), 64) Pies = aes — Pind) ‘where I have added a minus sign on the right because if object 2 initially moves faster than object 1, object 1 must move faster after the collision (Figure 5.18) In other words, in an elastic collision, if 0,, > Vyqiv We must have Vage ABo: = 0 (closed system, AK (5.25) or when one form of internal energy is converted to another: AFjuen 1 = ~ABjum2 > Ag, = 0 (closed system, AK = 0). (5.26) Asan example, consider Figure 5.198, When the battery is drained rapidly, it becomes very hot. Because there is no motion before and after the draining, no change in kinetic energy occurs, but the chemical energy in the battery is con- verted to thermal energy. Equation 5.26 requires the loss in chemical energy to bbe equal tothe gain in thermal energy: Aken + AEy, (527) Een jax Ear. aE, em ‘om Ba 135136 CHAPTER § ENERGY In practice there are often more than two simultancous changes of state in a system (sce Checkpoint 5.8, for instance), but regardless of how many energy conversions and transfers take place, the law of conservation of energy requires that the amount of energy in a closed system never changes. Example 6.8 Making light ‘0020 stee bl i dropped into abl of dough, aking he dlvgh iarpeed (2.3 m/e eang to et inde the gh If it were posible to tur all ofthe energy converte in thi to tally neat cision ita ight hw Tog could you ight a ds Tam takes 25 Jt ight a des amp fer 1.0. © certs STARTED 1 begin by applying the procedure for choosing 4 cosd sytem, Although the rom does pei ‘explicitly, Tim assuming the dough is at rest both before and after ‘he ste all dropped in 8 could for example, be ae o8 cnet. Only these bal hs kncticenergy nial nd all of this energy is converted to ternal energy asthe ball comes tort. inthe dough Figure 5.2) So Thave to cleat he iit Knetic aera ate tte © DEVE PLAN To determine the inal Kinetic energy ofthe tall, Toe 5.12, Then I vide thi result by 25 [to determine how many seconds ean ight alam, © exEouTe PLAN The nia kinetic energy ofthe bal is Ki ~ ded, ~ 10205923 m/s" = 0537 Given that a desk lamp requires 25 ] per second, this 0.53 J lights alamp for energy available ‘energy needed per second 0531 Seen oats could light alamp, given that25 ight alamp for LO, Figure 5.20 © EVALUATE RESULT The length of ime I obtained, two un- Areths of second not very much! However, a020-kg tec ball ‘moving at 23 m/s doesnot have mach Kinetic energy ow feom experience that a small ste bas abity to induce state changes—to crumple or deform objects, for xample—is very Iumited, So it make sent that one cant ight «desk amp for very Jong Figure 6.24 When acannon fied itera (chemical energy x converted to hielic energy S ‘anon and G10 gato gin cannon 12% 14 of ey of this energy were converted to kinetic energy ina 1200-k cas, how fast would the ergo? 5.8 Explosive separations Isit possible to have a process in which kinetic energy is gained at the expense of, internal energy? Yes, in an explosion, or any other type of explosive separation, ‘where objects separate or break apart from each other, kinetic energy increases and internal energy decreases. The firing ofa cannon is one example (Figure 5.21). Initially the cannon and cannonball are at rest. When the cannon is fired, the cannonball flies out ofthe barrel, and the cannon recoils in the opposite direc tion, (If it didnt recoil, the momentum of the system would not remain zero.) Both the cannon and cannonball therefore gain kinetic energy at the expense of chemical energy in the gun powder. This situation is the inverse of a totally inelastic collision: In this explosive separation, we start with the two objects to- gether (vj. = 0) and end with them moving apart (0) > 0) Figure 6.22a shows an explosive separation that can be carried out on a low- friction track. Two carts, of inertias m and 3m, are held against a compressed spring. When the carts are released, they move apart as the spring expands. As it expands, the spring’ state changes and so does its internal energy: the decreaseFigure 6.22 Another example ofan explosive separation, (a) When carts are released pring poses them apart (0) fal nd fin energie of sytem 5.8 EXPLOSIVE SEPARATIONS 137 (6) Velocity verue time graph forthe motion vt) Ee ne in internal energy of the spring causes an increase in the kinetic energy of the carts (Figure 5.226). Notice how the velocity-versus-time graph for this explo sive separation (Figure 5.22¢) isthe inverse ofthe one in Figure 5.2b. “To determine the final speeds in Figure 5.22, we need to know how much en cexgy Ey the spring releases, a topic not covered until Chapter 9. Once we know AB, We have two equations that allow us to obtain the two final velocities, one a consequence of conservation of momentum: OF mys + mMaxe (5.28) (because Px = Vox energy: ) and the other a consequence of conservation of AK + AB = bmyuiy + immed + AE: (529) Note that in this example the initial relative speed is zero, making ¢ in Eq, 5.19 infinite. There is no restitution because there is no initial relative speed to be restituted. In the more general case where the two objects have a nonzero initial relative speed, € > 1 Example 5.9 Spring energy 7A 025g cart i bel al rent apart a campresed oping a in Figure 58a and then released, The carts speed alter i ‘eparates fom the spring is 2S m/s. The spring then com- Peer elena ceed etree es gf est 50: cata chown in igure S224 andthe cat are eased from rest, What ze the cat speeds ater separating fom the spring? © cerrne staRTED the key point in ths problem isthe iden- teal compen f the ping in the ocx: Th ntl tae the spring i therefore the same before both rene. Becase ‘he sping endsin the same uncompressed state n both cates the coer i bee gy ted be eae bot eet the Bist cate al ofthis nergy is transfered othe 025-hg car. the second cast, the same amount of energy is ditbuted Deeween the two cat @ bevise PLAN qo calculate the kinetic energy of the single cart, inthe fist release, Tuse Eq 5.12 This gives me the amount ofen- ‘rey stored in the compressed spring. The final vloctce of the ‘wo cartsin the second cas are then given by Eqs 5:28 and 5.29, © EXECUTE PLAN From Bq, 5:12, get $0.25 kg)(25 m/s)? = 0.78) andsothe changin thesprngsinternalenergyis AE, ~ 078 1 Next rewrite Eq 528 8 9, = ~(m/m) nt Sabstutng tis sesltin Ey 528, 1get (Continued)138 CHAPTERS ENERGY Solving for the final velocity of cart 2 gives [em PEN tins Fm) [ego ‘V (50k _) (025 kg = 050K) Mat = 1om/s.v Substituting this result into my rewrites Bq, 3.28, tyy= Commas. ge Ugg = ~20m/8.7 © EVALUATE RESULT The carts move in opposite directions, as expected. Taso note that cart moves at twice the speed of ‘att 2, a8 it should to keep the final momentum of the system eto. Finally, because my assignment of my and mt abitery, 1 verify that T get the same result when T substitute my = 0.50 kg and m, = 025 kg, (You may want to check this yourself. When you reverse the inertias, why does the velocity of cart reverse to positive and the velocity of cart 2 reverse to negative?) UW ts doe eh cat in al 59 gal of epg a? Wy why not? Chapter Glossary STunits of physical quantities are given in parentheses. Closed system A system to or from which no energy is transferred, See the Procedure box on page 127. Coofficiont of restitution ¢ (unitless) A scalar equal to the ratio of relative speeds after and before a collision of two objects (518) Conservation of energy Energy can be transferred from pone object to another or converted from one form to another, ‘but itcannot be created or destroyed. The energy ofa closed, system cannot change: AE =0 (closed system). (623) Elastic, inelastic, totally inelastic collision Collisions between two objects are classified according to what hap- ppensto the relative speed > — fs — 44] ofthe two objects, as summarized in Table 54 Energy E (J) A scalar that provides a quantitative measure of the state of motion of an object or system. Energy appears in many different forms. The energy of an object or system always refers to the sum ofall forms of energy in that object or system, Explosive separation A process in which objects break apart from one another and the relative speed of the objects & 3 g 3 t Fs é Internal energy Ej (J) Any energy not associated with the motion of an object or system. Internal energy i quantita- tive measure ofthe state ofthe objector system. Irreversible process A process involving changes that cannot undo themselves spontaneously. Joule (J) The devived SI unit of energy, defined as 1p = Lkgem/e Kinetic energy K (J) Energy associated with the motion of an abject. The kinetic energy K of an object of inertia m moving at speed vis Kame (5.12) Process The transformation of a system from an initial state to a final state Relative velocity #,. (m/s) The velocity of one object rela tive to another: ty ath bh, (5.1) ‘The magnitude of this velocity is called the relative speed Ii - 38 Reversible process A process that can run backward so that the intial state is restored. State The condition of an abject (or a system) as specified by a complete set of variables.