CHAPTER1 ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF LIFE Ob; ive: i " rjecti Toimpart scientific knowledge to the learner about how life originated and evolved on our planet. Desired Outcome: Learner will gain insight about origin of life, Learner will know about the different theories of evolution. 1.1.; Introduction ; There is always a curiosity to know about the origin of earth and evolutfon of life . The earth came in to existence around 4 to 5 billion years ago and life originated about 3.5 billion years ago. 1. rigin of the universe : Modem evidence indicates that around 13 billion years ago the universe came in to existence through titanic explosions called big-bang. Mass of matter, diffused gases along with tremendous energy resulted in the formation of our solar system called solar nebula. Local condensation resulted into the formation of many celestial bodies which later formed sun and planets. Sun was in the center of nebula; while other bodies started revolving around it formed planets. The matter of surrounding haze slowly started gathering and settled on these planet to form solid surfaces. ‘According to current scientific understanding, expansion of universe as a result of collection of matter into clouds began to condense and rotate, forming the forerunners of galaxies. Changes in pressure caused gas and dust to form distinct clouds. Such clouds with sufficient mass and the right forces, gravitational attraction caused them to collapse. The mass ‘of material in the cloud was sufficiently compressed, nuclear reactions began and a star was born. 1.1.2: Chemical evolution : The concept of chemical evolution is based on the chemical reactions between the simple inorganic molecules that might have taken place in the oceanic waters which existed during the origin of earth. This probably ledio the formation of complex organic molecules like amino acids. This concept has been supported by the following experiment: A. Miller- Urey experiment : The first attempt to explain the primitive earth condition and the origin of life were given by Harold Urey and Stanley Miller, in 1953. Experimental setup consisted of a completely closed glass system consisting of a flask for boiling, a side tube connected to vacuum pump, a cooling jacket, U-shaped tube and tungsten electrodes, They first evacuated the entire apparatus and made it sterile, Pre biotic environment was then created by adding water partially to the flask. The mixtures of g were methane, ammonia, water, hydrogen, and other reduced molecules. The condensed gases were recirculated by boiling and were allowed to pass through high electric spark discharge of 75,000 volts for several days causing gases to interact. The liquefied mixture was collected in the trap, and analyzed for its content at regular interval. ‘Ammonia disappeared steadily during the experiment, During the first 25 hours of boiling and refluxing, most of the ammonia and methane was converted to hydrogen cyanide (HCN) and aldehydes, with a slow synthesis of amino acids. During the next 100 hours, HCN and aldehydes reached a steady state, being used in further reactions as rapidly as they were made, The main products from these compounds were amino acids. After 125 hours, as the supplies of ammonia and methane depleted, HCN and aldehyde concentrations began to decrease. The amino acid concentration leveled off as more of the simple amino acids were incorporated into short peptides. 15 SeForexample; CO, > CO + [0] (atomic oxygen) CH, + 2{0] + CH,O +H,0 CO+NH, > HCN+H,0 CH, + NH, HCN +3H, The! formaldehyde, ammonia, and HCN then react to form amino acids and other biomolecul CH,O + HCN + NH, > NH,-CH,-CN + H,0 NH,-CH,-CN +2H,0 > NH, +NH,-CH,-COOH (glycine) Many similarexperiments were conducted by Miller and others using both electri I diachatae ad ultraviolet light, with varying gas mixtures including H,S, CO and CO, giving same resulls. 1¢ first products in these experimen rally were hydrogen cyanide (HCN), cyanogen (NC-CN), cyanoacetylene (H-C=C-C=N), formaldehyde (HCHO), acetaldehyde (CH,CHO), and propionaldchyde (CH,CHCHO). These products then reacted to form various nitriles (R-CN), which subsequently hydrolyzed in aqueous solution. This resulted in mixtures of various compounds such as, organic acids like formic. succinic, ete, small molecules lil Comparable experiments showed possible synthetic pathways for purin carbohydrates. Given ultraviolet radiation, electrical discharge, and other energy sources on the primitive Earth, and a reducing atmosphere, one might expect the inevitable appearance of amino acids, purines, pyrimidines, ribose and deoxyribose, and even nucleosides and nucleotides. At the building blocks of life would have been available on the primitive Earth. *Electrodes 71Gases (NH,,CN,, H,) Coldwater: Water (Ocean) Heat Source Organic Compounds . Formed Here 16B. Oparin and Haldane theory: A. Oparin, a Russian biologist gave his suggestions about origin of life in 1922 ata conference of the Botanical Society of Moscow. J. B.S. Haldane, an English biologist, too had similar thoughts. He independently gave a complete synopsis of theory of the origin of life which was published as his article in the journal “Rationalist Annual”. According to their combined view ~ Oparin and Haldane theory - life evolved in the oceans during aperiod when the atmosphere of earth was of reducing type wherein H,, H,O, NH,, CH,, and CO, were present but there was a want of free O,. Also due to absence of ozone layer, the ultraviolet rays such organic compouns Gradual accumulation of such organic molecules in the warm oceanic water produced “Haldane soup” which consisted of monomeric such coacervates hrough the evolutionary proces might have led to the very first forms of life, since they were able to absorb and assimilate compounds from the surrounding, Photosynthesis might have arisen as a result of an alternative energy source under the circumstances of scarcity of natural food. The oxygen released as a bye product of photosynthesis ultimately must have created ozone layer in the upper atmosphere, Such an ozone layer which does not allow the ultraviolet radiation to reach the surface of oceans, must have then tumed the atmosphere into an oxidizing one form the previous reducing one. Availability of free of respiration and eric oxygen could have led to the evolution of physiological proce: karyotic organisms. This Oparin-Haldane theory atmosp! eventually the process of metabolism found in eu was remarkable in the explanation of origin of life giving its complete blueprint. Coacervates 1 rrigin of life: Several theories like abiogenes order to solve the intriguing question of origin of life. According (o the theory of abiogenesis, life I reactions, ie. chemical evolution. However, Spontaneous creation theory supports ¢, the most widely accepted theory is that biogenesis and spontaneous creation have been postulated in originated from inorganic compounds through chemi biogenesis states that life originated from pre-exis that life is created by supernatural power. Amongst all the: of abiogenesis which can be explained as follows : Stage 1: The earliest forms of life must have been of anaerobic nature since the earth had areducing atmosphere due to the absence of free oxygen. Complex organic molecules got synthesized by the mixture of ammonia (NH,), methane (CH,), water (H,O) and hydrogen (H,) which then reacted in presence of the energy provided by the ultraviolet rays or electric discharge (lightening) or heat or may be a combination of these. The amino acids were thus synthesized which then served as the building blocks of proteins which are the chief components of protoplasm. Similarly, larger molecules formed from such simple organic molecules combined to to form peptides and later proteins, sugars, ng | starch and fat molecules. 1?Stage 2: The large molecules then formed complexes with each other leading to the formation of malti- molecular associations. Such complexes then got surrounded by the arrangement of lipid molecules in an. arrangement resembling a membrane. Experimental evidences have proved that when such multi-molecular assemblies are present ina warm aqueous medium, they get isolated as distinet forms that were called Coacervate drops (coacervate means “heap”) Thus, such microscopic drops with a definite boundary were formed. These coacervate like aggregates were probably the precursors of the first living cells. Stage 3: Followed by this, the coacervates were able to carry out metabolism through the synthesis and the breakdown of the organic molecules within them. The latter (i.e. breakdown reactions) Could provide energy, ‘The proteins so formed in the earlier stages could have functioned like enzymes influencing the rate of metabolic reactions. Stage 4: Further, through random combination reactions nucleoproteins or nucleic acids formed that led to evolution of coacervates having the capacity to reproduce through the replication of such nucleic acids. Thus, cells were from such coacervates produced that could be called the simplest primordial life. The initial coacervates were supposed to heterotrophs as they could not produce their own nourishment and were dependent on their surrounding for it. Amongst the innumerable changes in genetic makeup of the primitive heterotrophs led to the formation of chlorophyll (green coloring matter of the leaves) molecules, The chlorophyll-bearing units of life started using light energy received from the sun and could then produce their own food, thereby achicving the status of autotrophs. Their photosynthetic activity produces free oxygen as a bye product which got liberated into the atmosphere. This is how probably the first living cells were evolved which could lead can aerobic life. Later, through the process of biological evolution, different types of living organisms came into existence, Thus, the simplest form of life originated through four main stages as follows: Stage 1 Formation of amino acids and the large macromolecules thereon Stage3 Formation of a functional primitive cell capable of metabolism Stage4 Formation of a primitive autotrophic cell and further different types of organisms le Figure 1.3: Probable stages of origin of life1.14: Origin of eukaryotic cell: With the existence of a primitive cell, the life commenced on earth billlons of years ago. The most primitive onganisms that came into existence were Arehien anid HSueforta tat are grouped as prokaryotes as they usually have theirmucear material present within the eytoplastn and fi in the form of a circular shaped DNA. With the advent of evolution another group of orpaniains thon emerged called eukaryotes which havea distinct nucleus inside which DNA is found, tn fact majority of living beings - both plants and animals are eukaryotes. Another remarkable feature of the eukaryotes ia that they possess, just like nucleus, other cell organelles that are membrane-bound. These cell orpanettes carry out various functions and hence acukaryotic cel isin itself an independent functional unit of life, ‘The eukaryotes developed atleast 2.7 billion years ago, following some I 101.5 billion years of prokaryotic evolution. The origin of eukaryotic cell is assumed to be due to the symbiotic association of prokaryotic cells. Itis argued that a bacterial cell might have been engulfed by another bacterial cell in order to feed However, instead of the normal phagocytosis, the engulfed bacterial cell remained undigested within the host cell. Probably it was of the aerobically respiring type of bacteria and it thercon took over the function of carrying out the respicilory activity ofthe cell; and that is how the formation of the mitochondria san organelle took place. Thus the host cell which was eurlier prokaryotic in nature now acquired the features of a eukaryotic cell. This symbiotic association benefitted the host cell as it got its own ‘power supply. The engulfed cell received protection and nourishment from the host Similarly, ifthe engulfed cell would have been a photosynthetic bacterium, itafler getting into the host cell, eventually could have got transformed as chloroplast, the organelle capable of fixing the atmospheric carbon dioxide into carbohydrates in the presence of sunlight, This type of symbiotic association seen in the prokaryotic cells by which eukaryotic cells were formed is termed as endosymbiosis, where one organism becomes a permanent ‘guest’ in another ‘host’ organism and eventually evolve as a single lineage. upon: s theory, now widely accepted, suggests that acritical stage in the evolution of eukaryotic cells involved endosymbiotic relationships with prokaryotic organisms. This theory is supported by the very many symbiotic associations that are found in nature even today. organelles containing their own D) ngthens this theory that these organelles have originated from the simple bacterial cells through endosymbi 1.2 Evidences in favour of organic evolution : ‘The evidences supporting organic evolution are derived from a number of fields. Those discussed here are : 1.2.1 Geographical distribution : ‘The breakup of the landmass of the earth (supercontinent of Pangaea about 200 million years ago) led to the distribution of animals in different geographical a ¢ the various continents that were formed all over the world which got separated by the oceans. This kind of isolation led to presence of certain species which eventually become endemic since they were not able to migrate due to their confinement to the islands. Over a long period of time such species then showed divergent evolution where their ancestors as well as the newly emerged species could be observed serving as an evidence of evolution. A cla example is that of evidence of evolution of marsupials of Australia which have evolved from the common metatherian ancestors which continue to exist even today along with a diverse species seen such as kangaroos, wallabies, opossums, koala bear etc. All of these have been largely confined to Australia due to their geographical isolation.1.2.2: Paleontology : i BY: are the remains of plants Paleontology deals with study of fossils to understand evolution of life. Fossils are the and animals which lived in the past on the earth a blished arth. s Cuvier establis! Leonardo da Vinei (1452-1519) is known as the father of palcontalesy the modem paleontology andis known as“"Founder of modern paleontne Paleontology is more reliable source of organic evolution because of the fol 1, Fossils are the remains of actual organisms which lived in past. sea-beds, rocks, S 2. The various body parts of organisms found preserved under sea-beds, the information regarding development and evolution of organ 3. We can know the types of organisms found on earth at various which fossils are found in different strata. ‘The various types of fossils are given below:- 1. Entire organisms : axeold so Wy PARSE They are the fossils of organisms who. lived about 50,000 years ago 2. Petrification : sh eae ‘Thisisthe ype of fossils in whieh Only hard remains of ongaaisms.zetpreserved while the so! pate 3. Cast or Mould : a ‘The impressionswhich are left due to burying organisms underhigh pressure are called moulds or cast. 4. s etc, provide isms. eras by studying the age of rocks in 5. Impression : é ” The Odin esses due to the hard pressure exerted by the foot on the ground are called impressions. 1.2.3: Anatomy : ‘Anatomical evidences for evolution are derived from - (i) Homologous organs (ii) Analogous organs (iii) Vestigial organs (iii) Connecting links. ‘The comparative study of various organs in different groups of vertebrates exhibit common features which show that they evolved from acommon ancestor, Itcan be studied under the following sub-categories: i. Evidence from homologous organs : (Homology) The homologous organs are those having common origin and built in the same fundamental pattern but perform different functions and have different appearance. For example, the forelimbs of frog, bird, whale, horse and human are examples of homologous organs which are used for leaping, flying, swimming, running and walking respectively.(A) Wing ot big Matacarpels Carpela Phalangos Fada ; yp 4 Ung (8) Foretimd of trog Phalanges ‘, Metacarpels: Carpels Radioulna Humerus Humerus Phalanges Uina Metacarpels Radius nee Carpels Campels Metacarpels Humerus Phalanges \ (A) Flipper of Whale (B) Hand of Human (C) Patagium of Bat Figure: 1.5 : Homologous organs oTiii, Evidences from vesti The organs which are completely developedand functional ower group of organisms 800 restigial organs: jumn in human, that st mall and large intest vores WI For example, retention of upports the tal in the stine in human which here it help in post- ‘non-functional and degenerate in higher organisms are called vi tail bone as coceyx towards the terminal part of the vertebral col other mammals, Vermiform appendix located at the junction of the small is non-functional vestigial organ. It is very Well developed in case of herbi gastric symbiotic digestion of cellulose lleum (B) Appendix (A) Sacrum festigial organs seen in human Figure. 1 iy. Connecting links : The animals or plants which possess characters of two different succes known as connecting links. The connecting links establish continuity in the series of organisms by proving that one group has evolved from the other. A good example is that of a fossil bird Archaeopteryx, which was a connecting link between reptiles and birds. This animal had beak with teeth and a Tong tail (with vertebrae) like the lizards. It had forelimbs modified as wings with feathers and the body looks like a bird. sive groups of organisms are Wing claw Toothed beak Reptilian character Reptilian Character Airfoil wing with contour feather Avian character Long tall with many vertebrae Reptilian character Figure.1.7: Fossil of Archeopteryx and its reconstructed form 21.2.4. Evidence from embryology : Bote ony desi With the formation of embryo up to hatching or birth. . a mn of carly Stages of development : Embryology deals with the study of changes or events from fertilization to development of embryo. The complex organisms have the same embryological developmental patterns of more primitive forms. In all multicellular animals, the fertilized egg undergoes segmentation division to produce a solid structure called the morula. The morula develops into a single layered hollow blastula. The blastula then-changes into either two or three layered gastrula. The organisms with two layers are called diploblastic and those with 3 layers are called triploblastic. Such a similar early development establishes a close relationship among all multicellular organisms. 2. Comparison of embryos of different animal: uss The comparative study of embryos of some vertebrates such as fish, salamander, tortoise, bird (hen), man etc. show that they resemble one another closely. This shows that they are closely related in their fundamental characteristics. Pisces Amphibian Reptiles Aves. RECES r{ ee ¢ RIGEE (a-Pharyngeal gill slits; b-post anal tail; c-limb bud) Figure.1.8: Comparison of embryos of various vertebrates Recapitulation theory : ‘Statement: “Ontogeny (life history) of an organism recapitulates its phylogeny (evolutionary history).” Tnother words, an organism repeats its ancestral history during its embryonic development. 1. Development of frog: In the development of frog, a fish like larva (tadpole) is formed, which swims with tail and respires by gills. This indicates that the frog has been evolved from a fish like ancestor. 2: Development of Herdamania: The tadpole larva of Herdamania (Urochrodate) shows characters of chordates i.e. presence of notochord, well developed dorsally placed central nervous system and tail. However, adult Herdamania doesn‘t show these characters. Thus, the larva shows its ancestral character. .1.2.5, Evidence from physiology : ; ‘The basic structural and functional unit ofall living organisms is cell. The composition of the protoplasm of sis similar and hence the physiological processes that are carried out by the cells also show «Therefore, itcan be implied that all the living organisms have originated from a common ancestor. However, the metabolic processes cannot be traced back like the paleontological evidences anvdhence comparative study of physiological processes is carried out to establish the evolutionary linkages. Similarities have been evident with respect othe basic processes of life like glycolysis, Krebs cycle and electron transport system occur in all the animals. f 3 bea Process of excretion involves urea cycle which is another evolutionary evidence. Fresh water fishes excrete ammonia and so do the amphibian tadpoles. The adult amphibians, however excrete urea. Bitd's embryos also inthe very nial stages of development excrete ammonia, then later embryonic stages excrete rea anal finally uricacid, This explains how urea cycle has evolved over a period of time. Such obvious physiological similarities or their gradual evolution into more complex processes in higher animals showing minor differences can be implied as physiological evidences of evolution and are in support wit the Darwin’ theory of descendants from a common ancestor: Depending upon the degree of the similarities, the closeness or the divergence of the species can be established. Experimentally the physiological relationships between the various classes of animals can confirmed by the precipitin test designed by George Nottal. When the blood from different mammals is mixed, the extent of agglutination differs. The higher the amount of agglutination more isthe similarity between the animals due to closeness of their antigen and antibody of the blood cells- an important component of the circulatory system, Similarly the lesseragglutination represents the differences in their physiological interrelation. It has been observed that human blood when mixed with the blood of Chimpanzee, it shows a very high ‘amount of precipitation and a very less precipitation with the blood of dog or cat. Thus it can be inferred that humans share a close physiological relationship and hence evolutionary closeness with Chimpanzee and are certainly different from the dog and cat lineage. 1.2.6, Evidence from Genetics : Just as the protoplasm ofall the living animals is animals possess DNA and RNA as their nucleic acids. Further the geneti present in all the animals are formed from the same four nitrogenous bases that are present inthe DNA strand. Also, the principles of genetics like heredity and the functions of DNA which is serving as a template for protein formation is universal in all the animals. Interesting fact can be mentioned here that, ‘Mendelian genetics was first studied in the plants but the basic Mendelian laws of genetics are applicable also to all the animals. This consistent feature of the hereditary material that is attributed to the chromosomes and genes is a genetic evidence about the progress of evolution from the simpler to the complex organisms. Various mechanisms with respect to chromosomes like mutations, recombination, aberrations, hybridization are similar in all the living organisms, thus asserting that chromosomes can serve as genetic evidence of evolution. DNA sequencing has helped in tracing the evolutionary lineage. By comparing the sequences of of DNA from the different species, the ancestral origin can be established. The phylogenetic trees can be constructed that can clearly give the evidence of how the groups of animals have evolved from a common ancestor. Itis also helpful in understanding the concepts of divergent or convergent evolution. Forexample, human DNA differs in just 1.2% with the DNA of Chimpanzee with respect to theirneutral genes, whereas, it differs by 1.6% from Gorillas and 6.6% from Baboons thus establishing the evolutionary closeness of humans to Chimpanzees, imilar, so is the nuclear material that is presentin it. All the code for all the amino acids 24