UNIT – I

THE DESIGN PROCESS

1.0 DESIGN PROCESS
The design process is illustrated by the following models namely Shigley, Paul and
Beitz, Ohsuga and Earle.

1.1 Shighely Model:

In the design process, there are six steps to be followed which are shown in fig 1.5.
Recognition of need: The problems in the existing products (or) Potential for new
products in market has to be identified.
Definition of problem: The problem in the existing product or specification of the
new product is specified as Design Brief to the designers. It includes the
specification of physical and functional characteristics, cost, quality, performance
requirements etc.

Fig 1.1. The general design procedure defined by Shigley

Synthesis: In this stage, the designer develops number of designs to meet the
requirement of design brief.

Analysis & Optimization:

• Each design from the synthesis stages are analysed and optimum one is
selected.
• It should be noted that synthesis and analysis are highly iterative. A certain
component or subsystem of the overall system conceived by the designer in
the synthesis stage is subjected to analysis.
• Based on the analysis, improvements are made and redesigned. The process is
repeated until the design optimized within all the constraints imposed by
designer.
Evaluation:
• In this stage optimized design from the previous stage is checked for all the
specification mentioned in the Design Brief .
• A prototype of the product is developed and experimentally checked for its
performance, quality, reliability and other aspects of product.
• The discrepancies/problems are faced, it is recommend to redesign the product
which should be fed back to the designer in the synthesis stage.
Presentation:
After the product design passing through the evaluation stage, drawings. diagrams,
material specification, assembly lists, bill of materials etc. which are required for
product manufacturing are prepared and given to process planning department and
production department.
1.2 Earle model:
The steps in the design process prepared by Earle are shown in fig.1.2. Problem
identification

Fig 1.2. Steps of design process by Earle

(1). Problem identification:
The problem identification can be one of two general types.
(i). Identification of need.
(ii). Identification of design criteria.
Identification of need is the beginning point of the design process. It may be a defect
or discrepancy in the existing product or need for a new product.
Identification of design criteria is the part of the problem identification where the
designer conducts an in-depth investigation of the specifications that must be met by a
new design. Types of problem identification are shown in fig 1.9.
Types of problem identification
 Fig 1.3. Type of problem identification
The problem identification needs to gather data of several types. Such as survey,
historical records, personal observations, experimental data, physical measurements
etc.
The following steps should be used in problem identification.

Fig 1.3. Steps followed in problem identification

(a) Problem statement: write down the problem statement to begin the thinking
process. The statement should be complete and comprehensive but concise.
(b) Problem requirements: list the positive requirements that must be achieved
through design.
(c) Problem limitations: list negative factors that confine the problem to be specified
as limitations.
(d) Sketches: make sketches of physical characteristics of the problem. Add notes and
dimensions that would make these sketches more understandable.
(e) Gather data: the gathered data should be graphed for easy interpretation.
(u) Preliminary ideas:
Preliminary ideas are the generation of as many ideas as possible for solution. These
ideas should be sufficiently broad to allow for unique solutions that could
revolutionize present methods. All ideas should be recorded in written form with
sketches. A systematic approach should be used to gather preliminary ideas for the
design problem. The following sequence of steps is suggested.
Design need
1. Defects.
2. Bad condition.
3.Need for solution.
4. Market need.
Design criteria
1. Features.
2. Numbers.
3. Size-weight.
4. Price cost.
Problem identification
(a) Conduct brain stroming session: Brainstrom is a conference technique by which a
group attempts to find a solution for a specific problem by amassing all the ideas
spontaneously contributed by its members.
(b) Prepare sketches and notes: Sketching is most important medium for developing
preliminary ideas. Computer graphics can be used for modifying and developing a
number of ideas.
(c) Research existing designs: Preliminary ideas can be obtained through research of
similar products, designs from technical magazines, manufacturer s brochures, patents
and consultants.
(d) Conduct survey: Survey methods are used to gather opinions and reactions to a
preliminary design or complete design. This could be accomplished by interviews,
questionnaire etc.
(iii) Design refinement:
Several of better preliminary ideas are selected for further refinement to determine
their true merits. Rough sketches are converted to scale drawings that will permit
space analysis, critical measurements etc. descriptive geometry can be applied for this
purpose. Computer graphics is a powerful tool that can be used to refine the
preliminary idea.
(iv) Analysis:
A product must be analyzed to determine its acceptance by the market before it is
released for production. It involves the evaluation of best designs to determine the
comparative merits of each with respect to cost, strength, function and market-appeal.
The general areas of analysis are
(a) Functional analysis. (e) Strength analysis.
(b) Human engineering. (f) Economic analysis.
(c) Market and product analysis. (g) Model analysis.
(d) Specification analysis.
The physical specifications of a product must be analyzed to finalize the design. Eg.
size, ranges and shipping specifications. The design must be analyzed for strength to
support dead loads, shock loads, fatigue loads etc. The cost analysis must be
performed to determine the item s production cost and margin of profit that can be
realized from it. Engineering graphics and modeling of descriptive geometry are
valuable tools for analysis.

1.2 MORPHOLOGY OF DESIGN

The morphology of design refers to the study of the chronological structure of design
projects. It is defined by seven phases and their sub steps. Out of the seven phases, the
first three phases belong to design and the remaining four phases belong to production
distribution, consumption and retirement.
Phase I —Feasibility study / Conceptual design:
A design project begins with a feasibility study. The various steps followed are.
(1) To determine whether the need is original, whether it is valid, has current
existence or has strong evidence of latent existence.
(2) To explore the design problem generated by the need and to identify its elements
such as working parameters, constraints and major design criteria.
(3) To conceive a number of feasible solutions to the problem.
(4) And sort out the potentially useful solution out of the feasible ones on the basis of
(a) Technical suitability. (b) Physical reliability and (c) Economic feasibility.
Phase II —Preliminary design / Embodiment design:
In this phase, preliminary design of system starts with set of useful solution which
were developed in the feasibility study. The various steps involved in the phase are
(1) To establish which of the proposed alternatives is the best design concept. Each of
the alternative design is subjected to the test of analysis. Until evidence suggests that
either the particular solution is inferior to other or is superior to all. Surviving solution
is tentatively accepted for further examination.
(2) Synthesis studies are initiated for establishing the range within which the major
design parameters must be controlled.
(3) Next, the tolerances in the characteristics of major components and critical
materials which require mutual compatibility are investigated and properly fit into the
system.
(4) Examining the influence of environmental, internal and external constituents on
the system.
(5) Project studies are undertaken to study whether the design will meet customers
need, status of the product to be developed with that of products from competitors,
availability of critical raw materials, effect of technological advancement, rate of
obsolescence or wear etc.
(6) Testing the critical aspect of the design in order to validate the design concept and
to provide necessary information for the subsequent phases.
Phase – III Detailed design:
In this phase, the engineering description of a tested and producible design is
furnished. Up to this point, the design project is characterized by great flexibility.
Major changes in the concept could be accommodated with out of greater financial
loss. But in this stage, searching on a large scale must come to an end and a final
decision for a particular design can be made or the project must be abandoned as
infeasible. The various steps taken in this design phases are
(1) Developing an overall synthesis of the design project and preparing a major layout
of the system.
(2) Preparing specifications of various sub systems and components on the basis of
master layout.
(3) Deciding various dimensions of components.
(4) Initiating the experiment design by constructing to check untried ideas.
Phase IV —Planning the production process:
The general steps followed are:
(1) Preparing detailed process planning sheets for every parts, subassembly and final
assembly. These sheets contains information about sequential list of operations which
must be performed to produce the parts, raw material details, special instructions,
tools and machines required etc.
(2) Design of tool and fixture. Based on the information in the process chart tools and
fixtures are developed.
(3) Planning to acquire new production or plant facilities.
(4) Planning for quality control s
(5) Planning for production personnel.
(6) Planning for production control.
(7) Planning for information flow-feed back system.
Phase V —planning for distribution:
After production of the products, the products have to be distributed. Designers are
not directly involved in the distribution activities. His job is finding the problems of
distribution and getting solution for these problems.
In this phase, a plan on effective and flexible system of distribution of designed
goods:
Some of the activities which are carried out in this phase are
(1) Design the packaging of the product:
• Based on the outer shape of the product, packaging system will be developed
such a way that the transportation cost will be minimum and safe.
• Individual and special packaging may be needed to secure protection from
shock and weather.
• Special strapping and palletizing arrangement may be developed to facilitate
handling.
(2) Planning the ware housing system:
• Economically favorable locations for warehouse are selected and the
warehousing facilities are designed.
(3) Planning for promotional activity:
• brochures/ Technical phamplets, displays based on design features and test
data have to be developed.

(4) Factors such as attractive display, additional attachment features and final
conditioning.
There should be enough flexibility in design to allow
(a) for special modifications to suit customers need,
(b) for adding available optional feature as required by the customer
(c) for modular additions to the system to increase its capacity.
Phase-VI--Planning for consumption:
Consumption is the third phase in the production-consumption cycle. Its influence on
design is very high compare to the other phase of design.
In design for consumption, the following factors must be considered.
(1) Design for maintenance
(2) Design for reliability
(3) Design for safety.
(4) Design for convenience of use.
(5) Design for economic operation.
(6) Design for aesthetic features.
(7) Design for adequate duration of services.
(8) Product improvement based on the service data.
Phase-VII--Planning for Retirement:
The fourth process in the production-consumption cycle is disposal of the retired
product. There are two types of retirement of economic commodity in use.
(1) Physical deterioration
(2) Technical obsolescence.
The duty of the designer is to decide the type of retirement the product has to face. If
the article in use is worn to a point which it can no longer provide adequate
performance, then article needs replacement. Presently most of the products in use are
retired more frequently because of technical obsolescence than for physical
deterioration. This compels the designer to accelerate the aging process of goods in
use. Hence this aspect of design needs further study.
1.3 PRODUCT CYCLE
The product cycle includes all the activities starting from identification for product to
deliver the finished product to the customer.
The diagram shows various steps in the product cycle.
• The product cycle starts from customers and markets which needs for a new
product.
• The basic work for product development such as synthesis, analysis,
evaluation and document are carried out by the design engineering. In some
places, even the prototype testing of the product is carried before going for
actual production.
• The detailed design of the product is drafted and given to the process planning
department.
 • A process plan is formulated which specifies the sequences of production
operations to be carried out to produce the new product. Some times, for the
manufacturing of new product, new equipments and tools may be required
which will be ordered at this stage.
• Based on the process plan, production schedule will be prepared. This
scheduling provides a plan to the company that a certain quantities of the
product should be manufactured within the specified time period.
• The production is followed by quality testing and delivery to the customer.

Fig 1.3. Conventional Design Process

1.4 Computer Aided Product Cycle:

Fig 1.4. Computer aided product cycle.

From the fig 1.4. it can be understood that the computer aids each and every activities
of the product cycle.
• Computer aided design and automated drafting are utilized for design
engineering works and for detail drawing of the product.
• The computers are also used in process planning and scheduling works to
perform their functions efficiently.
• Even the product monitoring and control of shop floor activities computers are
used.
• Computer controlled robots and CNC machines etc are used in production
activities. In quality control, the computers are used for quality
checking/Inspection and performance testing on the products and its
components.
• In the modern manufacturing process, computers have become very useful and
essential tool to carry out the design and production activities effectively and
efficiently.

1.5 SEQUENTIAL ENGINEERING

• Three major phases of conventional manufacturing process are design, process
planning and manufacturing. All these phases are carried out sequentially. In
design phase of the conventional manufacturing process, the product is
designed based on the specifications/requirements and methods of
manufacturing are decided.
• In the process planning phase, manufacturing instructions are given based on
the method of manufacturing, decoded in the design phase. These instructions
are interpreted and production works are carried out in the manufacturing
phase.
• All these phases and supporting activities like quality and testing activities and
marketing activities are carried out one after the other. As it can be seen that in
each phase/activities there is no interaction between them.
• The other name for sequential approach is Over Wall approach. Because
each department complete their work and throw to the next department as
shown in fig 1.5.
• There is no interaction i.e. there is a communication barrier between each
department. This is shown in fig 1.5

Fig 1.5 Sequential engineering approach

In sequential product development,
(1) Decisions are taken by individuals.
(2) Product modifications/changes will be slow.
(3) Each activity is carried out sequentially; hence this approach requires longer lead
time.
(4) Because of the above reasons, product quality will be low.
(5) If any modifications to be made on the product by down stream departments, it has
to be fed back and this often involves in additional expenditure and also results in
unnecessary delay in product cycle.
1.6 CONCURRENT ENGINEERING(CE)
In the conventional manufacturing method, both design and manufacturing are
separated. Because of this, quality may be lost and design modifications can be
possible at the last stage of production. Global competition pressurizes the firms to
produce products with high performance, reliable, low cost with less lead time.
To achieve this, in the product planning stage itself a co-operate work between design
and manufacturing and other specialists has to be made. This is known as Concurrent
Engineering or Simultaneous Engineering . Firms wherever possible converts the
sequential work flow into current work flow. For example, planning activity is made
as concurrent as shown in fig 1.6
Since activities start in parallel, the lead time reduces. Unlike sequential engineering,
in concurrent engineering the design decisions are taken by a multidisciplinary team.
A typical team consists of experts from
(1) Material
(2) Manufacturing process
(3) Assembly
(4) Maintenance
(5) Marketing
(6) Service personnel
(7) End users and
(8) Specialists in the product related field for
example:- Noise and vibration specialists. Now the work of the designer is to
evaluate his design ideas with this team repeatedly in the conceptualization of product
stage itself after getting approval from this team, design of product can be used for
further processing.
 Fig 1.6. Concurrent workflow in the planning stage

In concurrent engineering, the product design is the responsibility of this multi-

disciplinary team. This team follows the product from inception to complete
production and beyond.

Fig 1.7. Comparison of no of changes in sequential and concurrent engineering

1.6.1 Advantage of concurrent engineering:

1. The design decisions are taken by a team of multi disciplinary experts.
2. Changes and modifications on the product design will be faster.
3. Shorter lead time because all the activities related to product design and
development are carried out simultaneously.
4. Higher quality.
5. In sequential engineering the number of modifications changes will be distributed
throughout the product development cycle. But in concurrent engineering number of
changes/modifications will be maximum at the beginning of the product development
cycle. This is shown in fig 1.7
1.6.2 Characteristics of Concurrent Engineering:
1. Product responsibilities lie on team of multi disciplinary group.
2. Integration of design, process planning and production will be achieved.
3. Product lead time will be less, because cross-functional activities are started
simultaneously.
4. Most of the modification charges are carried in the planning stage itself.
5. Frequent review of design and development process.
6. Rapid prototyping.
7. More attention will be given to satisfy the customer needs and to include newer
technologies in product development.

1.6.3 Features Which Cause Success for Concurrent Engineering:

CE can be successfully implemented when whole of the organization involved is in it.
Every one accepts that problems exist and try to solve them together. The features of
C.E. are
1. In sequential engineering designers were involved in design of product. Now,
designers duty is getting changed. They are helping to design the product and getting
approval of the design from product team.
2. In sequential engineering, every one trying to implement the designer idea. But in
C.E. every one in the team is involved in product design and development activities.
3. C.E. eliminate the conflicts between the departments (like design, process plan) and
production and inspection departments).
4. In C.E., all the activities are started simultaneously to decrease the lead time.
5. C.E. yield high performance, high quality, reliable products with less lead time.

1.7 ROLE OF COMPUTERS

Computers are very much useful in
1. Design process and
2. Manufacturing process of a product cycle.
1.7.1 The Role of Computers in Design Process:
The various design related tasks in which the computers can be used are:
1. Geometric modeling.
2. Design simulation.
3. Design Analysis.
4. Design optimization.
5. Design review and evaluation.
6. Automated drafting.
Let us discuss each of them in detail
1. Geometric Modeling:
It is used to create image of the object in the CRT screen. It is concerned with
computer compatible mathematical description of geometry of an object. The
geometric modeling is classified into three types.
(a) Wire frame modeling: It is can be considered as advancement of drafting
software and basic for modeling software.
(b) Surface modeling: It is an advanced modeling technique than wire frame
modeling. Using which complex surface shapes such as aerofoil, car door panels, shoe
model etc can be modeled.
(c) Solid modeling: It is the most powerful 3D modeling technique. It provides the
user with complete information about the model.
2. Design Simulation:
It can be used for animation and assembly works. The animation work can be used to
understand how a designed system work without going for actual working model. The
assembly facility with the modeling software are provided with interference checking.
Using this, dimensional error can be identified before starting the production
activities.
3. Design Analysis:
The models which are created can be used for analysis. There are two important types
of design analysis as follows:
(1) Analysis for mass properties: Surface area, weight, volume, C.G. and MI. of the
solid object can be predicted.
(2) Finite element analysis: It is the most powerful feature of a CAD system. It is a
computer analysis to simulate the response of design change in its environment.
4. Design Optimization:
Optimization software tools are available in a CAD system. Some FEA packages are
provided with some of shape and structural optimization feature.
5. Design Review and Evaluation:
The accuracy of the design can be checked and rectified if required in the CRT screen
itself. Tolerance checking, interference checking, kinematic checking etc can be done
on com itself before commencing for actual production.
6. Automated drafting:
Automated drafting is a process of creating hard copies of design drawing. Drafting
software s such as Auto CAD, MCAD etc., are provided with features like automatic
dimensioning generating different views of object and sectional views of the object
etc.
1.8 Computer Aided Engineering(CAE):
• Computer aided engineering (CAE) means the use of computer in tasks
essential to engineering a product.
• It involves in many aspects and has evolved from computer aided drafting
through incorporation of computer-aided design (CAD) with computer-
automated machinery to provide comprehensive mechanical design,
automation.
• In general, the idea is to use computer processing and interactive computer
graphics to enable the engineers to create, modify and analyze designs. The
activities of CAE is shown in fig 1.8
• The recent trend in CAE is utilizing the knowledge based engineering system
which includes finite element analysis software as a major component.

Fig: 1.8 Activities of CAE

1.8.1 Benefits:
1. CAB consists of powerful tools in it, which saves time and reduces work in the
design office.
2. Using CAE better designs can be generated.
3. It offers the firm the ability to give faster quotations.
4. It provides automatic machine tool control to produce the designed parts on the
computer.
5. It is a tool which links the design and machinery process.
6. Implementation of knowledge based engineering software on CAB, yields better
design.
7. It facilitates concurrent engineering.
8. CAE combines man and machine together in a team to solve the production
problems.

1.9 COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN (CAD)

Fig 1.9. CAD process

The conventional design process has been accomplished on drawing boards with
design being documented in the form of a detailed engineering drawing. This process
is iterative in nature and is time consuming. The computer can be beneficially be used
in the design process.
The various design related tasks which are performed by a modem computer aided
design system can be grouped in to four functional areas.
1. Geometric modeling.
2. Engineering analysis.
3. Design review and evaluation.
4. Automated drafting.
These four areas correspond to the final four phases of Shigley s general design
process, illustrated in fig 1.19.
1. Geometric modeling:
The geometric modeling is concerned with computer compatible mathematical
description of geometry of an object. The mathematical description should be such
that
(a) the image of the object can be displayed and manipulated in the computer
terminal.
(b) Modification on the geometry of the object can be done easily,
(c) it can be stored in the computer memory and
(d) also can be retrieve back on the computer screen for review, analysis or alteration.
In geometric modeling, 3 types of commands will be used. They are
1. Commands used to generate basic geometric entities like points, lines, circles etc.
2. Commands used to do manipulation work like scaling, translation, rotation etc.
3. Commands used for Boolean operation to form the image of the object in the
computer screen.
The geometric modeling is classified into
1. Wire-frame modeling
2. Surface modeling
3. Solid modeling.
Description of each modeling in detail is discussed in unit III.
2. Design Analysis:
The computer can be used to aid the analysis work such as stress- ina heat transfer
analysis, etc. The analysis can be done either by using specific program generated for
it or by using general purpose software commercially available in the market.
The geometric models generated can be used for the analysis by properly interfacing
the modeling software with the analysis software.
Two types of important engineering analysis are
1. Analysis for mass properties.
2. Finite element analysis (FEA).
• By using mass properties analysis, properties of solid object can be
determined, such as surface area, weight volume, C.G. and MI. Similarly for
plane surfaces perimeter, Area and MI. can be determined.
• Finite element analysis is the most powerful feature of a CAD system. Here,
the object is divided into a large number of finite elements. The entire object
can be analysed for stress-analysis, heat transfer analysis etc. For solving he
FEA problems computers with larger memory and computational capabilities
are required.
• The graphical output of FEA is displayed in the computer terminal for better
understanding of results through visualization. Designer can modify/redesign
the model, and by using FEA software analysis can be done easily.
3. Design Review & Evaluation:
• The accuracy of the design can be checked and rectified if required in the CRT
screen itself.
 • Layering feature available in software are very useful for design review
purpose. For example, by layering procedure the finish product can be placed
over the casting image of the same product, it is easy to visualize that
allowance given in the casting are enough or not. Similarly, using the layer
procedure, every stage of production can be checked.

• Another review feature available in the modeling softwares are interference

checking . The dimensions of the mating parts can be checked. In some case,
two components may occupy same position in the assembly. These types of
errors can be eliminated before involving in manufacturing activities.
• Some of the modeling software is provided with Kinematic analysis feature.
This can be Suppose a new mechanism is to be designed, the same mechanism
can be simulated in the computer. By animation, the working of the
mechanism can be checked. This will relieve the designer from tedious
conventional method of mechanism checking. Another advantage of animating
the complete assembly of product is that whether any component fouls the
other components in its working.
• Many commercial softwares are available. One of which ADAMS (Automatic
Dynamic Analysis of Mechanical Systems) is one of the best software for
Kinematic analysis.
4. Automated Drafting:
• Automated drafting is the process of creating hard copies of design drawing.
• The important features of a drafting softwares are automated dimensioning,
scaling of the drawing and capable of generating sectional views, enlargement
of minute part details and ability to generate different views of the object like
g oblique, isomeric and perspective views.
• Thus, CAD systems can increase productivity on drafting.
1.10 DESIGN FOR MANUFACTURE
The design for manufacture (DFM) provides guidelines for the designer about the
good manufacturing practices. The guidelines of the DFM are grouped into four
groups.
(1) Guide lines for general approach to DFM.
(2) Guide lines for selection of the manufacturing processes.
(3) Guide lines for particular processes.
(4) Guide lines for assembly.
1.10.1 Guidelines for general approach To DFM:
Some of the important guidelines are
(1) Design parts can be used in multiple products. This can reduce the production cost
as the volume of parts to be manufacture gets increased.
(2) In a product there should be a minimum number of separable parts. This will
decrease the inventory cost, and also assist maintenance and assembly.
(3) Try to use standard parts as far as possible.
(4) Use parts of known capacity from known supplier, so that others expertise can
also be utilized.
(5) Use established & proven technology as far as possible.
(6) Avoid using high cost techniques unless it is technically required.
(7) Choose simple and regular shapes for the parts to be designed.
(8) Choose simple part assemblies.
(9) Select wide tolerance for size and surface finish of the product without affecting
its performance. This will reduce the manufacturing cost.
1.10.2. Choice of production processes:
(1) Before selecting a process, comparative assessment of different production
methods has to be made. By analysis the different production process in terms of cost
of production and volume of production, a production method has to be selected.
(2) Select a process which can satisfy the tolerance and surface finish required with
minimum cost.
(3) Select a process which has less rejection and hazardous.
1.10.3. Guidelines for particular processes:
Each process has its own guidelines to be followed. We will consider some of the
important guidelines for forming casting and machining operations.

1.Forming operation:
• Forging, extrusion, rolling are some of the forming operations.
• In the forming operation, the material plastically flows into the die cavity to
conform the shape of the product, here some guidelines are given.
1. The shape of the product should be simple and it should be such that it assist the
metal flow in the die cavity. In other words, shape of the product should not
hinder/restraint the metal flow in the die cavity as explained in fig 1.20(a) & (b).
2. The finish product can be easily removed from the die cavity. This has to be
achieved by means of taper on the outer surface of the job, but not by under cut
provision on the job.
3. Avoid narrow deep ribs on the job. In these places, try to have broad less deep ribs
as showing1.21

4. Sudden change in the cross-section should be avoided.

5. Sharp corner should be avoided.
6. Split lines of die should be in the same plane.
7. The shape of part to be formed should be as simple as possible.
8. The cost of tooling should be minimum.
2. Moulding Process:
In moulding process, the liquid metal flows in the mould cavity to confirm the shape
of the product. Some of guidelines to be followed are
(1) The casting should be easily removed from the mould.
(2) Use simple shape with minimum number of pattern pieces and cores.
(3) Cost of tooling should be minimum.
(4) Maintain the wall thickness of the casting as small as possible.
(5) Vary the wall thickness gradually when it is required.
(6) Avoid sloping surface on which further machining has to be done. Instead have
right angle surface so that machining can be done easily.
(7) Provide accurate location for core and easy removal of flash.
3. Metal Removal Process:

(1) The shape of the component should be such that material can be removed easily
and cheaply.
(2) Select proper machine tools to have acceptable tolerance and surface finish.
(3) Try to give wide tolerance and surface finish variation as far as possible. Allow
runout for tool

(4) Surfaces are to be machined with simple tool shapes.

(5) If there are multiple surfaces to be machined, try to have simple continuous
machined surface.
(6) Try to have machined surface parallel and perpendicular to each other, so that
locating the job on the machine bed is easy and also simple tools can be used for
machining.
(7) See that enough space on the job for clamping.
(8) Provide adequate run out.
(9) Provide boss for drilling on curved tapered surface.
(10). If single surface is to be machined, minimize the surface area to be machined.
Machined surface
(11) Try to have rectilinear shaped job.

1. Design for ease of insertion: - It is practically proved that inserting a part from top
in downward direction is easy, fast, efficient and less expensive than inserting a part
from bottom or from side directions.
2. Design for ease of fastening and joining: Before selecting a fastening/joining
process (screws, adhesive bounding etc.) do systematic listing, classification and
assessment of available joining method and select a suitable joining/fastening process
for assembly. Once a method is selected, use same method for other joining/fastening
operations as far as possible.
3. Design for ease of handling: - Parts handling may consume nearly 80% of
assembly time. For ease of handling, the material and surface of the job should be
adequate for handling.
4. Modular construction: - It means that main assembly should be divided in to a
number of modular/sub assemblies. This makes the assembly process easier; since sub
assembly works are carried separately and hence time for assembling reduces.
5. Sandwich construction: - Both in main assembly and sub assemblies, components
are to be assembled one by one. The positioning of a component is made easy by
previously assembled parts. Advantage is that, a pick and place robots can be used in
the assembly process.
6. To make the assembly process easier, avoid assigning close tolerance and high
surface finish for the components.
7. Use standardized components and sub assemblies, so that varieties can be reduced
and hence the cost of product can be reduced with increased volume of production
and also it makes the assembly process simpler.
8. Select a base component for assembly such that it should have adequate solid base.
9. Designer should plan for flexible sequencing of assembly operation, ie. avoiding
compulsory assembly sequence.
In general, designer should be supplied with information which will allow them to
know the consequences of their design from every aspect of manufacturing.
Recent trends:
The guidelines for DFM are converted into expert system to assist the designer in
decision making.
1.11 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING (CAM)
• The manufacturing functions such as process planning, scheduling, production
and quality control are carried out with assistances of computer known as
Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM). The typical CAM process is shown
in fig 1.10.
• The geometric model developed during the CAD process form the basis for
CAM activities.

Fig 1.10. Typical CAM process

• Various CAM activities may require various CAD information. Interface
algorithms are utilized to extract such information from CAD databases.
• With computer aided process planning, the order of processes and machine
tools and equipments required can be determined.
• In production planning and control, tools such as computer integrated
production management system (CIPMS), computerized scheduling etc, can
be utilized to plan, execute and control the entire manufacturing process.
• Computer controlled machines, robots etc can be used to carry out actual
production processes efficiently.
• In addition with computer aided quality control (CAQC), the lead time of
production can be decreased. CAQC ensures better quality control over
convention quality control activities.
• Automated special machines for assembly, robots etc can be instructed with
the help of computers to assemble the parts to produce the final product.
• Final products are packed and delivered to consumers. Application areas of
CAM and functions of each activities of CAM are discussed.
1.11 BENEFITS OF CAD
There are many benefits of computer-aided design; only some of the benefits are
described below.
1. New products are designed faster. CAD can drastically reduce the number of steps
involved in the design process for a particular product and can also make each design
step much easier and less tedious for designer to perform. For example, since the
analysis procedures are computerized, time and effort are reduced and the same time
the accuracy of design is getting increased.
2. Errors during change of design will be less.
3. Hard copy of the drawings are of better quality, hence there will be less ambiguity
and better clarity.
4. Detailed or assembly drawing can be automatically generated. This can be utilized
for production activities, MRP, inventory control etc.
5. Models generated can be utilized for rapid prototyping.
6. The model can be seen in the terminal and the designer can manipulate the model
easily. With this flexibility of manipulating the design drawings the designer can
visualize the complex problem arising in the design. This helps the designer to make
better decision and obtain a optimum solution. This leads to improvement in the
quality of the design.
7. DFM can be implemented easily.
8. Design model can be used to generate N.C part programming automatically.
9. Design can be linked with inspection for example online inspection using CMM,
which can compare the actual part geometry with design geometry in the design
database.
10. CAD is faster than traditional design process which results in shorter lead time.
11. In conventional design, designers/draftsman ratio is high but this is less in CAD
environment. It means that the productivity of the design department is getting
increased.
1.12 IMPLIMENTATION OF CAD
The following points may be considered while implementing CAD.
1. Setup a committee of consists of designers, manufacture management, workforce
etc.
2. Justify the implementation of CAD from financial, technical and social point of
view.
3. Decide the specifications of the system required.
4. Evaluate and select the system.
5. Install the selected system.
6. Arrange for the support services needed for the system.
7. Plan for future expansion of the system.
 PART- A-TWO MARKS QUESTIONS
1. What are the basic hardware components of a computer?
2. Name four secondary storage units?
3. Mention at least four input devices.
4. What are three main categories of CRT graphics display?
5. Classify printers.
6. Name two types of plotter.
7. What is design lead time?
8. Name three applications software used in CAD.
9. Name four utility commands used in a drafting software
10. Name four edit commands used in a drafting software.
11. What is the use of block option of a drafting software?
12. What is meant by morphology of design?
13. Mention the 3 phases of preliminary design phases in morphology of
design.
14. Name phases related to production-consumption cycle in morphology
of design
15. Why lead time in sequential product development is more?
16. Define geometric modeling.
17. Mention two important design analysis carried out using 3D model
18. What is ADAMS?
19. Define CAPP.
20. What are elements of CAE?
21. Mention one application of CAE.
22. Define CAD. Mentions areas of application of CAD.
23. Define CAM.
24. What is meant by modular construction and explain its use?
25. What is meant by sandwich construction and explain its use?
26. What is meant by concurrent engineering?
27. What is DFA?
28. What is DFM?
29. What is DFMA?
30. Define CAE.
31. Name any four reasons for implementing CAD in design.
32. Mention the CAD tools required to support various phase of the
design.
33. What are main features of a drafting software?
34. What is an operating system?
35. Mention anv four operating system.
36. What is pixel?
PART – B-REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. 2. Explain seven phases of morphology of design proposed by
ASIMOW?
2. Compare the conventional product cycle with computer aided product
cycle.
3. Compare sequential engineering with concurrent engineering.
4. List the benefits of concurrent engineering.
5. Explain the features of concurrent engineering.
6. Explain the role of computers in design.
7. Explain the role of computers in manufacturing.
8. Define CAD. Explain how the computer can assist the design process.
9. Define CAE? What are its elements? Explain with an example.
10. Explain the design process proposed by Shigley.
11. Explain the steps followed in design process proposed by Earle.
12. What is meant by knowledge based engineer (KBE)? Explain how
KBE improves the productivity of CAE?
13. Mention the importance of DFM? Explain why a designer should know
about DFM ?
14. Explain the general guidelines to be followed in DFM?
15. List some important DFM guide lines to be followed the moulding,
forming and metal removal processes.
16. State some of the important guide lines to be followed in DFA.
17. Define CAM? Also explain different activities carried out in CAM and
implementation of CAM on a CAD/CAM process.
18. List and explain benefits of CAD.
19. Explain the typical features of drafting software.
20. List and explain the functions of each input and output devices of a
CAD system?
21. Write short notes about graphics display devices.
22. Give specification of a computer used in CAD environment.
23. Explain the importance of CAD/CAM database.
24. What is product cycle and explain the various steps involved in
product cycle?
25. With the help of neat sketch explain the implementation of a typical
CAD process in a design department.
26. Briefly explain the benefits of computer aided design.
27. What is meant by computer aided engineering? Discuss how CAE can
help to optimize the product design.
28. What do you understand by design for manufacture and assembly
(DFMA)?
29. State the various design phases and brief explains them? Also explain
with block diagram the aid of computer in the design process.
30. Discuss the application of computer in the following computer aided
design process.
a. Engineering analysis b. Automated drafting.
31. Explain the terms layering, scaling and primitives in solid modeling.
3D CAD, CAM and Rapid Prototyping
by Mitch Heynick and Ivo Stotz

>> LAPA Digital Technology Seminar <<

Workshop 1: Mai 10 & 11 200/
Version 1.1
Prof H.Gugger, Assistant R.Loveridge
0.0 Contents

0.0 Table of Contents

1.0 Introduction

2.0 3D-modelling for Rapid Prototyping (geometry issues)

2.1 What is rapid prototyping?
2.2 How do I get my 3D CAD model to a rapid prototyping process?
2.3 What is an STL?
2.4 Mesh models and precision
2.5 Exporting from different software packages
2.6 Getting the .STL correctly into the RP machine software

3.0 Presentation of different RP-procedures

3.1 Stereolithography (SLA)
3.2 Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM)
3.3 Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)
3.4 Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)
3.5 Three Dimensional Printing (3DP)
3.6 Thermal Phase Change Inkjets
3.7 Photopolymer Phase Change Inkjets (PolyJet)
3.8 Contour Crafting (CC)

4.0 CAM/CAM/CNC in comparison to RP

5.0 List of Acronyms

1.0 Introduction

This document has been created for the LAPA Digital Technology Seminary at the EPFL. Its aim is
to give a basic overview of the different rapid prototyping (RP) technologies currently available. The first
part deals with 3D-CAD modeling including the technical and geometric constraints involved in creating 3D-
models for rapid prototyping purposes.
The second part of this document introduces the most common RP procedures and machines. A
single page illustrates each of the techniques with a brief description of the principle including a schematic
diagram, as well as pictures of the machines and some sample parts. Included at the end is a comparison
between additive RP techniques and subtractive CNC milled part production, pointing out the similarities
and differences between these two coexisting computer driven prototyping processes.
2.1 What is rapid prototyping?

Rapid Prototyping (RP) is a term most commonly used to describe a variety of processes, which are aimed at
quickly creating three-dimensional physical parts from virtual 3D computer models using automated machines.
The parts are “built” directly from the 3D CAD model and can match that model very closely (within the
precision limits of the chosen process).

Rapid prototyping is different from traditional fabrication in that it is only possible through the use of computers,
both to generate the 3D CAD model data, as well as to control the mechanical systems of the machines that build
the parts.

Virtually all RP processes are “additive”. Parts are built up by adding, depositing, or solidifying one or
more materials in a horizontal layer-wise process. The part is built up layer by layer until done. This is similar to
the result one would get if one made a topographical map of the object, with the contour lines representing the
layer thickness of the process.

A virtually geometry model is cut into slices for layer wise production. This is similar to the creation of topographic maps from
real landscapes or virtual terrain models.

In addition to additive production processes, one must also consider the possibilities of subtractive
processes such as CNC machining and laser cutting. Subtractive processes, as the name implies, create objects
by removing unwanted material from a large block or sheet in the form of chips. CNC machining of 3D CAD
models (normally called CAD/CAM) is not actually considered a rapid prototyping process (although it can be as
fast), but both additive and subtractive approaches are important aspects of today’s prototyping industry.

RP technologies are able to create one-piece part geometries which would be difficult if not impossible
to create by machining, including overhangs, undercuts and enclosed spaces. To create these types of structures
RP technologies often rely on a support material, which is used alongside the model material. These
automatically generated supports must be removed after the part is finished. Other processes rely on the unused
model material to support the part being built.

However, machining is still able to produce finer surfaces, more accurate and larger parts in a much
wider variety of materials than RP processes are currently able to, and complex models may often be built up out
of assemblies of simpler, easier to machine parts. Thus, the two types of technologies, additive and subtractive,
continue to co-exist and be complimentary in the 3D prototyping world.

The materials which are available for RP use will depend on the process chosen and are still relatively
limited, but the variety is growing. There are a number of plastics and resins commonly used, as well as some
process that can use things like starch, plaster, wax and metal.

The word “Rapid” in RP is a relative term, as most of these processes are actually quite slow. The rapid
actually refers to the reduced time from initial design to the production of the final part. This is due to the
elimination of extensive amounts of hand and machine work involved in making prototypes with traditional
methods, as well as the ability to quickly iterate and test a design through various stages. Also, as contrasted
with more complicated CAM programming and CNC machining, RP software and machines are generally
simple and quick to use, resulting in significantly reduced “human time” needed to produce prototype parts.

Example of a particularly office friendly 3D-printer (SD300 3D; Solidimension) and of an object produced with it.

RP processes are generally quiet, non-dangerous processes which can run in an office environment 24/7.
This contrasts with machining, which generally needs a workshop or factory environment (noise, dust, liquids)
and has a number of safety issues (including personal injury or the possible destruction of the machine if things
are not done properly).
2.2 How do I get my 3D CAD model to a rapid prototyping process?

3D CAD models can be made with many, many different software packages (and sometimes can pass
through several), each will have its own way of representing surfaces and volumes. The problem for the user is
to be able to prepare this model for 3D printing or Rapid prototyping.

In general, what is needed is one or more completely closed volumes. The RP software may be able to
understand and automatically correct small openings and errors, but large holes or open objects will result in not
being able to print (without the file being first repaired).

Since different programs work in different ways and have different file formats, it will be necessary to
“translate” the representation of the model in that software into something more “universal” that the RP software
can understand. This translation process (like any translation) can introduce problems into the process that were
not apparent in the original.

In general, from the 3D CAD software, we need to export the model as a .STL file. Nearly all 3D
programs can export an STL and most can import them.

In order to export a smooth object from a NURBS-modeler to an RP machine, the surface must first be converted into a polygon
mesh with a face-edge-vertex topology.

2.3 What is an STL?

An STL is a type of standardized computer exchange file which contains a 3D model. The representation
of the surface(s) of the object(s) in the file is in the form of one or more polygon meshes. The polygon meshes in
an STL file are entirely composed of triangular faces, edges and vertices. Further, the faces have assigned
normals which indicate their orientation (inside/outside).

The name “STL” is taken from its extension, .stl, originally because the files were intended for the rapid
prototyping process called Stereolithography. The file format has become a world standard for exchanging 3D
polygon mesh type objects between programs, and .stl’s are now used as input for virtually all rapid prototyping
processes, as well as some 3D machining.
2.4 Mesh models and precision

Mesh representations of objects are “facetted”, that is to say, they are not smooth, but composed of an
array of small faces which, if fine enough, can represent (approximate) smooth surfaces with a given degree of
accuracy. This is much the same as how what appears to be a smooth 2D image is actually composed of many
tiny discreet dots (pixels).

If the individual facets in a mesh model are too coarse or there is too much of an angle between them, the
appearance of the model will be rough, and it will lack precision (unless you are working with angular shapes).
The parallel to this in the 2D world is an image whose resolution is not fine enough resulting in a “grainy” look
(you can actually distinguish the individual dots).

The initially smooth NURBS-surface (on the left) is converted into a facetted polygon mesh. According to the chosen rapid
prototyping procedure, the user can define different level of detail.

If the individual facets in a mesh model are extremely fine, the surface representation will generally be
good, but - the model will be very data heavy and the file very large, which may cause problems with the
generating or receiving software, as well as the visual display on the screen. The goal is to create an STL model
which has enough accuracy and resolution for the final purpose/process, without going too far and making the
model too fine. The optimum resolution will depend on what RP procedure will be used.

Mesh precision may be thought of in one way as the maximum difference allowed between the facetted
mesh representation of the surfaces and the smooth surfaces themselves. For objects composed of entirely planar
surfaces, this is not really a problem, as the facets will correspond exactly with the surfaces. For curved surfaces,
the triangles will necessarily not lie entirely on the surface, and thus the degree of approximation becomes
important.
 Different tools exist which allow one to measure and to visualize the deviation between the initial NURBS-object and the
converted polygon mesh. In the image above, the “good” blue points are close enough to the original surface to be within the specified
tolerances, but the red points, being situated beyond the given tolerances, are marked as bad.

Which prototyping process will be used to create the final object will determine which is the optimum
level of precision and tolerance that will be required for the model. Rougher processes like FDM can
successfully use models with lower tolerances (lower precision) than something like a milling process which is
capable of very fine detail. In general, the precision target of the model should be around one order of magnitude
smaller than (1/10 the size of) the maximum precision of the process. For FDM, which can reproduce about
0.1mm detail, an STL with .01 is good. For machining, which can reproduce .01mm and finer, an STL precision
of .001 or finer is necessary.

2.5 Exporting from different software packages

If the part has been modeled with a NURBS surface or volume modeler, only the export .stl mesh
settings matter as outlined above. However, if the object was modeled in a software package that is based on
polygon meshes, and, if the object was modeled with insufficient resolution (facets too large), there is generally
nothing that can be done to fix this once the model has been exported. The facets will be seen in the model and
cannot be smoothed over without extensive rework. It is therefore important to plan ahead when using polygon
mesh based modelers such as 3D Studio Max, Cinema 4D, Lightwave, etc.
2.6 Getting the .STL correctly into the RP machine software
Since an STL mesh is composed entirely of triangles, it is the simplest form of mesh model format. Each
facet is necessarily planar. In principle, for rapid prototyping processes, a completely closed object is required,
that is to say, the mesh completely encloses a volume, with no holes, gaps, or overlaps. We sometimes speak of
this as a “watertight solid”. In addition, the software controlling some processes requires that there is only one
object (volume) in the file.

Each of the illustrations above show one slice of an .STL model. In order produce the layer, the RP machine software needs a
closed loop that defines an interior, which is then filled with the model material. Some procedures use the .STL normals to define the
interior with respect to the exterior of the curves, whereas others use nesting information.

In actual practice, there may be some tolerance allowed. Small errors or gaps may be tolerated by the
prototyping software, or can be quickly repaired. Some software may allow multiple and overlapping objects.
Each process and software will work differently, some are more error-tolerant than others. Therefore, in general
it is best to aim to achieve a perfect 100% closed model, otherwise, depending on who is doing the prototyping
and what process is being used, it may be time consuming (read: expensive) to fix.

Professional service bureaus and frequent users of RP parts will have specific software designed to
manipulate and fix .stl models and prepare them for prototyping. One example of this might be Magics by
Materialize (B). This type of software is expensive, but has specific tools for analyzing the integrity of .stl
models and rapidly correcting defects (often automatically). They may also have other functions that permit the
model to be cut into smaller parts, shelled, nested, etc.

Once the .stl is 100% correct and verified, it can then be imported into the machine-specific RP software
which will generate the commands to run the machine. This data is then sent to the machine (like a printer) and
the model construction is started.
3.1 Stereolithography (SLA)

SLA Model: The aspect of this model is translucent and slightly amber, however different resins can be used which have different
characteristics.

Stereolithography is the most widely used rapid prototyping technology. Stereolithography builds plastic
parts or objects one layer at a time by tracing a laser beam on the surface of a vat of liquid photopolymer, inside
of which is a movable stage to support the part being built. The photopolymer quickly solidifies wherever the
laser beam strikes the surface of the liquid. Once one layer is completely traced, the stage is lowered a small
distance into the vat and a second layer is traced directly on top of the first. The self-adhesive property of the
material causes each succeeding layer to bond to the previous one and thus form a complete, three-dimensional
object out of many layers.
Objects which have overhangs or undercuts must be supported during the fabrication process by support
structures. These are either manually or automatically designed with a computer program specifically developed
for rapid prototyping. Upon completion of the fabrication process, the object is removed from the vat and the
supports are cut or broken off.
Stereolithography generally is considered to provide the greatest accuracy and best surface finish of any
rapid prototyping technology. Over the years, a wide range of materials with properties mimicking those of
several engineering thermoplastics have been developed. Limited selectively color changing materials for
biomedical and other applications are available, and ceramic materials are currently being developed. The
technology is also notable for the relatively large size range of objects possible, from parts as big as a car wheel
to as small as a sugar cube, with excellent accuracy relative to the scale of the object.
On the negative side, the photopolymers are expensive and perishable, working with liquid materials can
be messy and parts require a post-curing operation in a separate oven-like apparatus for complete cure and
stability.

Photograph and scheme of an SLA-machine: 3DSystems, type SLA 5000 system

Principal commercial providers: 3DSystems, Aaroflex, envisionTEC (non-laser stereolithography)

Materials: Principally photo curing polymers which simulate polypropylene, ABS, PBT, rubber; development
of ceramic-metal alloys.
Most accurate Z-resolution: 0.025 mm
3.2 Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM)

LOM Model: the piece is freed from its orthogonal support matrix. The appearance of the final object is wood like.

Profiles of object cross sections are cut from paper or other web material using a laser. The paper is
unwound from a feed roll onto the stack and first bonded to the previous layer using a heated roller which melts
a plastic coating on the bottom side of the paper. The profiles are then traced by an optics system that is mounted
to an X-Y stage.
After cutting of each layer is complete, excess paper is cut away to separate the layer from the web.
Waste paper is wound on a take-up roll. The method is self-supporting for overhangs and undercuts. Areas of
cross sections which are to be removed in the final object are heavily cross-hatched with the laser to facilitate
removal. It can be time consuming to remove extra material for some part geometries, and there is a lot of
inherent waste in the process, as every object uses up an amount of material equivalent to a box that contains the
part - even if the part itself is very thin walled.
Variations on this method use a knife to cut each layer instead of a laser or apply adhesive to bond layers
using the xerographic process. There are also variations which seek to increase speed and/or material versatility
by cutting the edges of thick layers diagonally to avoid stair stepping.
In general, the finish, accuracy and dimensional stability of paper objects are not as good as for materials
used with other RP methods. In addition, the laser cutting of the material creates a lot of smoke and needs to be
ventilated to the outside. However, material costs are very low, and objects have the look and feel of wood and
can be worked and finished in the same manner. This has fostered applications such as patterns for sand castings.
While there are limitations on materials, work has been done with plastics, composites, ceramics and metals.
The principal commercial provider of LOM systems, Helisys, ceased operation in 2000, as this
technology did not compete well with other RP methods that were developing. However, there are several other
companies working on similar LOM technology, and 3D systems has recently marketed a small, low cost
machine (developed by an Israeli company) which uses PVC film (more controllable and stable than paper).
These companies are addressing market segments ranging from concept modeling to very large objects for
architectural applications.

Photograph and scheme of an LOM machine: Helisys, type 1015plus

Principal commercial providers: Helisys (paper); 3DSystems (plastic)

Materials: Typically paper rolls but recently also plastic films
Most accurate Z-resolution: 0.1 mm (paper) and 0.15(plastic)
3.3 Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)

SLS Model: in the detail you can see the porous aspect of the surface, which is typical for this method

Thermoplastic powder is spread by a roller over the surface of a build cylinder. The piston in the
cylinder moves down one object layer thickness to accommodate the new layer of powder. A piston moves
upward incrementally to supply a measured quantity of powder for each layer.
A laser beam is traced over the surface of this tightly compacted powder to selectively melt and weld the
grains together to form a layer of the object. The fabrication chamber is maintained at a temperature just below
the melting point of the powder so that the laser elevates the temperature slightly to cause sintering - the grains
are not entirely melted, just their outer surfaces - which greatly speeds up the process. The process is repeated,
layer by layer, until the entire object is formed.
After the object is fully formed, the piston is raised. Excess powder is simply brushed away and final
manual finishing may be carried out. No supports are required with this method since overhangs and undercuts
are supported by the solid powder bed. It takes a considerable cool-down time before the part can be removed
from the machine. Large parts with thin sections may require as much as two days of cooling.
SLS offers the key advantage of making large sized functional parts in essentially final materials.
However, the system is mechanically more complex than stereolithography and most other technologies. A
variety of thermoplastic materials such as nylon, glass filled nylon, and polystyrene are available. Surface
finishes and accuracy are not as good as with stereolithography, but material properties can be quite close to
those of the intrinsic materials. The method has also been extended to provide direct fabrication of metal and
ceramic objects and tools.
Since the objects are sintered they are porous. It may be necessary to infiltrate the part, especially metals,
with another material to improve mechanical characteristics.

Photograph and scheme of a SLS-machine: EOS, type EOSINT M

Principal commercial providers: 3D systems, DTM Corporation, EOS

Materials: Plastics - polystyrene, nylon, glass filled nylon, alumide (aluminum/nylon blend),
Materials: Metals - aluminum, stainless steel, titanium, gold (virtually any metal can be sintered)
Most accurate Z-resolution: 0.2mm for plastics, 0.02mm for metals
3.4 Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)

FDM Model: On the left, the model on the production base with its support material (brown). On the right, the final object.

FDM is the second most widely used rapid prototyping technology, after stereolithography. A plastic
filament is unwound from a coil and supplies material to an extrusion nozzle. The nozzle is heated to melt the
plastic and has a mechanism which allows the flow of the melted plastic to be turned on and off. The nozzle is
mounted to an X-Y plotter type mechanism which traces out the part contours, There is a second extrusion
nozzle for the support material (different from the model material).
As the nozzle is moved over the table in the required geometry, it deposits a thin bead of extruded plastic
to form each layer. The plastic hardens immediately after being squirted from the nozzle and bonds to the layer
below. The object is built on a mechanical stage which moves vertically downward layer by layer as the part is
formed. The entire system is contained within a chamber which is held at a temperature just below the melting
point of the plastic.
Several materials are available for the process including ABS and investment casting wax. ABS offers
good strength, while the polycarbonate (PC) and polyphenylsulfone (PPS) materials offer more strength and a
higher temperature range.
Support structures are automatically generated for overhanging geometries and are later removed by
breaking them away from the object. A “water-soluble” support material is also available for ABS parts. The
method is office-friendly and quiet. FDM is fairly fast for small parts on the order of a few cubic centimetres. It
can be very slow for large parts with a lot of volume, however. Depending on the part geometry and orientation,
it can also require more support material than the part itself (or virtually none). The finished parts are
anisotropic, that is they exhibit different mechanical characteristics in different directions. The resolution is not
as fine as with stereolithography, but the parts are more robust.

Photograph and scheme of a FDM machine: Stratasys, type Prodigy plus

Principal commercial providers: Stratasys

Materials: ABS, ABSi, PC, PC-ABS and PC-ISO, PPS (model material)
Most accurate Z-resolution: 0.13 mm (Range: 0.33mm- 0.13mm)
3.5 Three Dimensional Printing (3DP)

3DP Models: These models weren’t solidified in a bath of resin, which makes them quite brittle.

Three dimensional printing was developed at MIT. It's often used as a direct manufacturing process as
well as for rapid prototyping.
The process starts by depositing a layer of powder object material at the top of a fabrication chamber. To
accomplish this, a measured quantity of powder is first dispensed from a similar supply chamber by moving a
piston upward incrementally. A roller or scraper then distributes and compresses the powder at the top of the
fabrication chamber. The multi-channel jetting head subsequently deposits a liquid adhesive (binder) in a two
dimensional pattern onto the layer of the powder (similar to inkjet printing). The binder bonds the powder
particles together where it has been deposited, solidifying it to form a layer of the object.
Once a layer is completed, the fabrication piston moves down by one layer thickness, and the process is
repeated until the entire object is formed within the powder bed. After completion, the object must be removed
from the chamber still filled with powder (a delicate operation), and the excess powder brushed off, leaving a
"green" object. No external supports are required during fabrication since the powder bed supports overhangs.
Three dimensional printing offers the advantages of speedy fabrication and low materials and system
cost. In fact, it's probably the fastest of all RP methods. It is even possible to print colored parts and images onto
the part surfaces. However, there are limitations on resolution, surface finish, part fragility and available
materials. In order to face the problem of the fragility of the standard 3DP plaster and starch parts, the object can
be “infiltrated” with a resin, which hardens the object once it cures, but even then the break resistance does not
equal that of some other systems such as FDM.
3D printing is also being used with sand and a high temperature resin to create sand casting molds and
cores for metal casting, as well as acrylic for creating plastic prototype parts (voxeljet).

Photograph and scheme of a 3DP-machine: ZCorp, type Spectrum Z510

Principal commercial providers: Zcorp, Voxeljet

Model materials: plaster, sand, corn starch, acrylic
Binder and infiltration materials: various resins, cyanoacrylates (infiltrating)
Most accurate Z-resolution: 0.1 mm
3.6 Thermal Phase Change Inkjets

Thermal Phase Change Inkjet Models in different colors

This method uses a single jet each for a plastic build material and a wax-like support material, which are
held in a melted liquid state in reservoirs. The liquids are fed to individual jetting heads which squirt tiny
droplets of the materials as they are moved in X-Y fashion in the required pattern to form a layer of the object.
The materials harden by rapidly dropping in temperature as they are deposited.
After an entire layer of the object is formed by jetting, a milling head is passed over the layer to make it
a uniform thickness. Particles are vacuumed away and are captured in a filter. The process is repeated to form the
entire object. After the object is completed, the wax support material is either melted or dissolved away.
The most outstanding characteristic of the Solidscape system is the ability to produce extremely fine
resolution and surface finishes, essentially equivalent to CNC machines. The technique is very slow for large
objects. Materials selection is very limited.
Other manufacturers use considerably different inkjet techniques, but all rely on squirting a build
material in a liquid or melted state which cools or otherwise hardens to form a solid on impact. 3D Systems
produces an inkjet machine called the ThermoJet ModelerTM which utilizes several hundred nozzles in a wide
head configuration. It uses a hair-like matrix of build material to provide support for overhangs which can be
easily brushed off once the object is complete. This machine is much faster than the Solidscape approach, but
doesn't offer as good a surface finish or resolution.
All thermal phase change inkjets have material limitations and make fragile parts. The applications range
from concept models to precise casting patterns for industry and the arts, particularly jewellery.

Photograph and scheme of a Thermal Phase Change Inkjet printer: Solidscape, type T66

Principal commercial providers: 3DSystems, SolidScape Inc.

Materials: Acrylic based thermo polymeric Plastic, Natural and Synthetic Waxes, Fatty Esters
Most accurate Z-resolution: 0.013 mm
3.7 Photopolymer Phase Change Inkjets (PolyJet)

Photopolymer phase change inkjet models

Objet Geometries Ltd., an Israeli company, introduced its first machine based on PolyJetTM technology
in early 2000. It is a potentially promising replacement for stereolithography. The process is based on
photopolymers, but uses a wide area inkjet head to layer wise deposit both build and support materials. It
subsequently completely cures each layer after it is deposited with a UV flood lamp mounted on the print head.
The support material, which is also a photopolymer, is removed by washing it away with pressurized water in a
secondary operation.
Resolution of Objet printers essentially equals that of standard stereolithography systems, and
development is ongoing. Several materials are available, including transparent, flexible and black. The
advantage of polyjet systems over SLA systems is that the resins come in cartridge form (no vat of liquid
photopolymer), the machines are clean, quiet and office friendly. There is less post processing cleanup on parts.
Disadvantages are that the print heads are relatively expensive and need to be replaced regularly, adding to
maintenance costs.
In July, 2002, 3D Systems announced a similar photopolymer-based system called the InVisionTM. It
uses the technology originally developed for the ThermoJet ModelerTM and deliveries began in late 2003. The
company has priced the system a bit lower to better compete with 3D printers from Stratasys and Z Corp.

Photograph and scheme of an Photopolymer phase change inkjet machine: Objet, type Eden500V

Principal commercial providers: Objet Geometries Ltd.

Materials: Photopolymer resin
Most accurate Z-resolution: 0.015mm, X-Y 600 DPI (0.04mm)
3.8 Contour Crafting (CC)

[Article downloaded from the internet]

With [US] federal funding, Behrokh Khoshnevis, a professor of industrial and systems engineering at
USC, has devised a machine that takes its instructions from an architect's computerized drawings and then
squirts successive layers of concrete, one on top of the other, to build vertical walls and domed roofs.

The computer-guided nozzle squeezes out a line of wet concrete like toothpaste being deposited on a
toothbrush. Then a pair of trowels attached to the nozzle shape the concrete as the robot repeats the pouring as
many times as is necessary to achieve the programmed height. [This process can be thought of as large-scale
FDM for buildings]

The "Contour Crafter" can work around the clock, with no need for breaks. It needs only power and a
constant feed of semi-liquid building materials. The first robot-built house will be a shell. Initially, such robot-
built structures would be used as emergency housing and as low-cost homes for inner cities and emerging
nations. But the federal government is interested in them for military housing and possible space applications.

So far, Khoshnevis has tested his machine with cement, but he believes a mixture of mud and straw that
is dried by the sun as it is deposited could be suitable. Degussa AG of Düsseldorf, Germany, the world's largest
maker of building materials, is collaborating on the project to help find the best material.

Currently, the prototype machine hangs from a movable overhead gantry, much like a crane at shipping
depots. The scientist says it's possible the robot could run along rails on the ground, spitting out several houses at
a time. But it would be more difficult to create autonomous wheeled robots that have the same precision as more
stationary machines. Still, Khoshnevis thinks the technology might be used to create complex curving walls that
are too difficult or costly to build by hand. And since robots may one day build houses for a quarter of today's
cost, he believes that perhaps as soon as 2025, ‘all building will be done this way’.

CC prototype building a test wall; Illustration showing the principle of the this large-scale RP procedure
4.0 CAM/CAM/CNC in comparison to RP
Using computer controlled cutting machines to create parts with a subtractive type material-removal
procedure is no longer considered rapid prototyping, but it is included here because it is still an important, widely
used technique for creating prototype as well as production parts.

The process of creating machined parts from 2D or 3D CAD models is generally known as CAD/CAM
(Computer Aided Design/Computer Aided Machining or Manufacturing). CAD/CAM represents the software
and programming part of this manufacturing procedure. Its output is then sent to CNC (Computer Numerical
Controlled) machines for physically producing parts by cutting away unwanted material from solid blocks. The
most commonly used CNC controlled machines for creating 3D parts are milling machines and lathes.

CNC milled object: A 4 axis milling machine is cutting an object in three stages. First, a rough ‘Z-Level’ model is machined
with a large cutter, which quickly removes a most of the excess material, leaving a “stair-step” finish. This step is generally termed
“Roughing”. A second semi-finishing pass is made to reduce the step size, followed by a final pass for fine finishing. While the first and
second passes are realized quite rapidly, the third one will be much more time consuming due to the finer resolution, needing many more
closely spaced passes, which leads to a much longer machining time.

In milling, a block of material is clamped to the table of the machine, and a rotating cutting tool held in
the machine spindle moves around the block, removing material from it in the form of chips. In a lathe, it is the
material that is rotated in the spindle and a stationary sharp cutting tool moved across the work to remove the
chips. Both of these processes are subtractive, lathes being mostly used to produce parts of round cross section
(as the material is turning), milling machines being used to produce rectilinear or free-form parts. There are also
machines that combine these two functions.

The advantage of these types machines and processes is that virtually any material can be worked, and
the size range of the process is much larger than that of rapid prototyping. CNC machining can make parts that
range from nearly microscopic watch parts to entire boat hull molds 30m long, in any material from metal to
plastics to wood to composites. In general these raw materials are also much less expensive than the special
materials needed by RP machines.

In a CNC controlled machine, the material and/or the tool movements are executed by motors that are
controlled by the machine’s computer. The computer control allows the machine to move in a very precise and
controlled way, resulting in very precise machined parts that would be impossible to create with conventional
(hand-operated) machine tools.

The machine needs data to make the part, however. While simple parts can actually be programmed
right at the machine using a special programming language, for more complex objects, a computer model is
needed, as well as a way to interpret the model data so that the machine can cut the part correctly.
 3-axis milling machine cutting a site model: As for the previous model, the object is cut out of a solid block of dense foam via
“chip removal” (chips and dust can be seen around the object). In fact, milling is a noisy and dust producing modeling process.

The process of CAD/CAM thus starts with the same kind of computer model of the object that might be
used for a rapid prototyping process. It then has to be exported to a specialized machine programming software
(the CAM software). At that point, a person must work with the software to create the paths that the tool will use
to cut the material. This is not nearly as automatic as with rapid prototyping (except on the simplest types of
operations), and generally requires a well-paid, experienced operator. Complex parts can take hours or days to
program correctly. Further, the CAM programs themselves can be quite expensive.

Thus the CAD/CAM/CNC method of producing parts can possibly be expensive and time consuming,
but does allow one to produce many parts that would not be able to made using RP processes, especially with
regards to the fine surface finishing. Hence, the two types of processes - additive and subtractive - are
complimentary, and the intelligent user can choose which process will be best for which part, end even use both
together.

This last example demonstrates that parts from many different materials can be manufactured by milling. The parts being milled
in the image are out of nylon, but wood, stone or metal may be machined as well.
5.0 List of Acronyms (alphabetically ordered)

3D Three Dimensional
3DP Three Dimensional Printing
ABS Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene
CAD Computer Aided Design
CAM Computer Aided Machining (or Manufacturing)
CC Contour Crafting
CNC Computer Numerical Control
FDM Fused Deposition Modeling
LOM Laminated Object Manufacturing
NURBS Non-Uniform Rational Basis Spline
PC Polycarbonate
PPS Polyphenylsulfone
PVC Polyvinyl Chloride
PolyJet Photopolymer Phase Change Inkjets
RP Rapid Prototyping
SLA Stereolithography Apparatus
SLS Selective Laser Sintering
.STL Stereolithography (standard polygon file format)
COMPUTER
INTEGRATED
MANUFACTURING

UNIT –II

SOLID MODELING
UNIT-III

Solid modeling contains geometrical information necessary to unambiguously describe a

3D object: It is a well advanced geometric modeling technique.

1. GEOMETRIC MODELING
• The geometric modeling is the computer compatible mathematical description of
the geometry of the object.
• The mathematical description allows the image of the object to be displayed and
manipulated on the computer screen and also it can be stored in the memory and
retrieved back and displayed on the computer screen whenever required.

The geometric modeling can be classified into

1. Wire frame modeling.
2. Surface modeling
3. Solid modeling.

2. WIRE FRAME MODELING

• Wire frame modeling is the simplest method of modeling the object.
• Wire frame models can be considered as networks of inter connected lines to
represent the edges of the physical objects being modeled.
• A typical wire frame may consist of points, lines, arcs, circles, conies and curves.
• There are two types of wire frame modeling – 21/2 and 3D modeling.
• Projecting the 2D plane profile along its normal or rotating the 2D plane profile
about an axes is known as 21/2 D projection. A simplest 2’ /2 D model is shown in
fig 3.1

Fig 3.1. Simple model of 2! D projection

Similarly, a simple 3D wire frame model is shown in fig 3.2

(a). Without hidden line removal (b). With hidden line removal
Fig 3.2. A 3D wireframe model
Advantages:
1.Wire frame models are simple and easy to create, with little computer time and
memory.
2. Wire frame model form the basis for surface model.
3.CPU time required to retrieve, edit or update a wire frame model is usually small
compared with surface or solid models.

• Wire frame modeling can be considered as extension of computer aided drafting.

• Wire frame models provide accurate information about the location of surface
discontinuity on the part.
• It can be used as a basis for automatic generation of cutter paths to drive NC
machine tool to manufacture component.
Disadvantages:
1. There is always some ambiguity in visualizing the 3D model.

Fig 3.3 Interpretation of 3D wireframe model

The wire frame model shown in fig 3.3 (a) may be interpreted as a model shown in fig
3.3 (b) or 3.3 (c) i.e. 3D wire frame model can be interpreted in more number of ways.

2.Without hidden line removal object become clumsy and difficult to understand the
object.
3. Calculation of section properties and mass properties are impossible.
4. It has limited use in manufacturing and analysis.
5. Presentation of circular holes and curved surfaces are poor.
6. Interference checking will be difficult.

3. SURFACE MODELING
• The ambiguities of wire frame modeling are overcome with surface models.
• The surface modeling takes the modeling of an object one step beyond wire frame
model by providing information on surfaces connecting the object edges. i.e., A
surface model can be built by defining the surface on the wire frame. This is
analogous to stretching a thin sheet of material over a frame work.
The surfaces generated by the surface modeling are classified into
(a) Flat surface - most basic feature of surface model.
(b) Sculptured surfaces - based on flat face mostly used in FE analysis.
(c) Sculptured surfaces based on patches.
(d) Analytical surfaces (very rarely used).
(e) Combination of the above types.
 • Simple and basic form of surface is flat surface.
• The most general and complex surface representations are generally known as
sculptured surface.
• Sculptured surface means the surface produced from combining two families of
curves that intersects one another in a cross-cross manner, creating network of
inter connected patches.

Fig 3.4. Scultured surface

Common entities used in a surface modeling software’ s are

a. Plane surface.
b. Ruled (lofted) surface.
c. Surface of revolution.
d. Tabulated surface.
e. Bezier surface
f. B-spline surface
g. coons patch
h. Fillet surface.
i. Offset surface.
(a) Plane surface:
This is the simplest surface. It requires 3 non-coincident points on an infinite plane.

Fig 3.7 Surface of revolution

(b) Ruled (lofted) surface:
This is a linear surface. It interpolates linearly between two boundary curves as shown in
fig.

Fig 3.6. Ruled surface

(c) Surface of revolution:

This is an axis symmetric surface that can model axisymmetric objects. It is generated by
rotating a planer curve in a space about the axis of symmetry for certain angle of rotation.
(d) Tabulated surface:
This is a surface generated by translating a planner curve along a specified direction as
shown in fig 3.8.

Fig 3.8 Tabulated surface

(e) Bezier surface:

The Bezier surface is generated from the basis of Bezier curve. The simple fonn of the
Bezier curve is shown in fig 3.9.

The curve is represented by general equation that

Polygon P is known as control polygon. The points Po. P1, P2 and P3 are known as
control points. Since there are four control points, the curve which represents a cubic
curve (order of curve is (n —1) control points). The curve passes through only first and
last point P and P Using the same concept, the simple bezier surface can be generated as
shown in fig 3.10.
Fig 3.10. Bezier surface

Similar to the Bezier curve, it does not pass through all given data points. It is a general
surface that pennits, twist and kinks. The Bezier surface allows only global control of the
surface.
(1) B-spline surface:
The B-spline surface is generated from the basis of B-spline curve. The simple form of
the B splineis shown in fig 3.11.

Fig 3.11. B-spline curve

The general equation of the B-spline curve is in the fonn of

Fig 3.14. Filleted surface

(i) Offset surface:

• Existing surfaces can be offset to create new ones identical in shape but have
different dimension.
• The new surface will be created at a faster rate. For example, to create a holding
cylinder, first inner or outer cylinder can be created using a cylinder command.
• Based on this surface, other cylindrical surface can be created by using offset
command. This is shown in fig 3.15
Fig 3.15. Offset surface

Application:
• Surface modeling can be used generally to model exterior shell objects like sheet
metal works and thin moulded plastic parts.
• Other areas of applications of surface modeling are:
1. Body panels of passenger cars, structural components of aircraft and marine structures.
2.Plastic containers, telephones, impellers of pump and turbine, development of surface
for cutting shoe leather, glass marking etc.
Advantages:
1.Unambiguitiveness in the interpretation of object is less than wire frame models by
using the provision of hidden line removal.
2. Surface modeling can be used to perform interference checking (i.e. penetration of one
part with other).
3.Surface modeling can be used to check the aesthetic look of the product (By using
coloring and shade facilities).

• In Bezier curves, the degree of the polynomials is determined by number of track

points or control points where as in B-spline curve degree may be specified
independent of number of control points, as shown in fig 3.11.
• The B-spline curve will have local control.

Fig 3.12. B-spline surface

 • B-spline surface that can approximate or interpolate given data points as shown in
fig 3.12.
• It is a general surface like the Bezier surface but with the advantage of pennitting
local control of the surface.
(g) Coons patch:
The coons patch is used to create a surface using curves that forms closed boundaries.

(h) Fillet surface:

This is a B-spline surface that blends two surfaces together as shown in fig 3.14.
Fig 3.13. Coons patch

4.As the surface models precisely define the part geometry such as surface and
boundaries, they can help to produce NC machine instructions automatically.
5. Complex surface features like shoes, car panels, doors etc can be created very easily.

Disadvantages:
1. Interpretation of surface model is still ambiguous.
2.Surface models require more computational time when compared to wire frame models.
3. More skill is required for surface modeling.
4.Mass properties such as weight, volume and moment of inertia cannot be derived from
surface models.
5.Surface models cannot be used as a basis for finite element analysis for stress strain
prediction.
6.Neither hidden lines can be easily removed nor internal sections can be easily
displayed.

4. SOLID MODELING
• Solid modeling is the most powerful 3D modeling technique.
• There are more number of methods available to generate solid models.
• Out of which two basic approaches are important from our subject point of view.
They are
(1) Constructive solid geometry (CSG).
(2) Boundary representation (B-rep.)
3.4.1. Constructive solid geometry:
A solid modeler has a library of set of basic element shapes known as primitives like,
cuboid, cylinder, sphere, cone, wedge, torus etc (as shown in fig 3.16).

Fig 3.17 Types of Boolean operation

• In this approach, the physical objects are modeled by combining these primitives
by a set of Boolean operations.
• The type of Boolean operations is used in CSG are Union (U), difference and
intersection (n).
• These Boolean operations are explained in fig 3.17.
• Here, directed graph (Binary tree) scheme is used to store the model in the data
structure. The general form of the tree-type data structure used in CSG approach
is shown in fig 3.18.

Fig 3.18 General tree type data structure

• Any node may have one parent node and two-child node. The root node (R) has
no parent and leaf node (L) has no children.
• For example to create a model as shown in fig 3.19, four primitives — two
rectangular blocks and two cylinders are required.
• To create the final object following Boolean operation has to be carried out.
Fig 3.19 Tree structure of model

Advantages:
1. Since, the data to be stored are less, memory required will be less.
2. Create fully valid geometrical solid model.
3.Complex shapes may be developed relatively quicker with the available set of
primitives.
4. Less skill is enough.

Disadvantages:
1.More computational effort and time are required whenever the model is to be displayed
in the screen.
2. Getting fillet, chamfer and taperness in the model is very difficult.

3.4.2. Boundary representation (B - rep.)

This approach is widely used in most of solid modelers. The solid model created by using
B- rep technique may be stored in graph based on data structure system. This is illustrated
with an simple example of tetrahedron shown in fig 3.20.

Fig 3.20. Illustration of B-rep data structure of tetrahedron

 • The tetrahedron is composed of four vertices namely A, B, C and D.
• The co-ordinate of these vertices is stored in the database.
• The fig. (b) shows how the vertices are connected to form edges (a, b, c, d, e and
f) and how these edges are connected together to form the face (ABC, BCD, ACD,
ABD) which makes the complete solid of tetrahedron. These connectivities to
form the solid are popularly known as “topology”.
• In B-rep modeler, in addition to store the topology of solid, topological
consistency of the models is also carried out in order to create geometrically valid
solid models.
• For topological consistency, certain rules have to be followed.
• They are
(a)Faces should be bound by a simple loop of edges and should be not intersected by
itself
(b)Each edge should exactly adjoin two faces and each edge should have a vertex at each
end.
(c) At least three edges should meet at each vertex.

Fig 3.21. Elements of topology

(a) For bodies without holes should satisfy Euler’ s rule.

 • Even if the topological consistency is achieved, in some cases like solids
having concave faces will not give geometrically valid solid.
• The B-rep scheme is more widely used because
• In CSG the number of basic primitives available are limited.
• The performance of B-rep scheme is very much superior to that of CSG
scheme for complex engineering models.
• Conversion of CSG to B-rep is possible, but conversion from B-rep to CSG is
not possible.
• Combining the wire frame and surface model is possible only through B-rep
solid representation.

Advantages:
1.Computational effort and time required to display the model are less compared with
CSG.
2. Combining wire frame and surface model are possible.
3. Complex engineering objects can be modeled very easily compared with CSG.
4.Since the topology and geometry are treated separately, incorporating new
geometries in the existing model is easy.
5. It is particularly suitable for modeling part having internal symmetry.
Disadvantages:
1. The data to be stored is more and hence it requires more memory.
2. Some times geometrically valid solids are not possible.
3.5. FUNCTIONS OF SOLID MODELING

Fig 3.22. Functions of solid modeling.

Fig 3.26 Structural parameterization

In the above example shown in fig 3.26, it can be seen that both topology (no. of
holes) and size of flange are varied.
Steps followed:
1. Input numerical value for parametric variables.
2.Calculate the other dimensions of the components/parts for either geometrical or
structural parameterization.
Automatic generation of history of commands (for geometrical entities, Boolean
operation etc) to create the geometric modeling of the object.
Advantages:
The design modifications can be done easily.
The effort of the designer can be reduced.
It can be used where repeated tedious design works involved.
Error in the design can be reduced.
Time for modeling the design change can be reduced.

3.8.2. Feature based modeling:

Fig 3.27. Types features

• First of all, we should know what is the meaning of features. Feature has two
meaning (1) Geometrical meaning (2) Engineering meaning.
• Shapes such as drilled holes, ribs, bosses in castings, grooves in the shaft etc
are considered as features from geometrical meaning. And, from the
engineering meaning, feature means related machining operations or attributes
of components or data of the components like material properties.
• More widely used definition of feature is that it is a prototypical shape with
some engineering significance or meaning.
(1) Techniques of feature based modeling:
• Features can be considered as higher-level primitives which can be used to
model the object.
• There are two techniques available to model the object by using feature
facilities.
• The first one is known as “Destructive solid geometry”. Here, features
typically represent the machining operations (Ex. Driller/mill), which subtracts
material from the raw material or blank piece from which object is produced.
• Example: the fig 3.28, explain the steps involved in making such feature on
the work piece.
Fig 3.28 Example of material subtraction by destructive solid modeling

• These operations can be considered as machining with computers. This

technique helps to generate automated process plan.
• The second technique of constructing the model by adding features with the
base model is known as “Constructional design by features”. In the fig 3.29,
shows the design of plastic moudling by feature.

Fig 3.29. Design of a plastic moulding by features

Most of the features are developed by solid modeling approaches B-rep, CSG and
combination of both and these features are stored in the library of a solid modeler.

2. ClassWcation:
Library or user defined feature may be classified into
1. Elementary - Simple features
2.Composite — Two or more elementary features added together. The composite
feature further classified as
3.Patterns-Repeated usage of simple feature. Example: Bolt holes set of gear teeth
etc.
4.Compound-Which is built from simple features. Example: Counter sink- bored
holes.
The features are also classified into
1.Implicit/unevaluated feature: - In this, the full detail of the feature will not be given
but only essential details will be given. Other data are calculated from essential
details.
Example: For gears —only module and number of teeth are given.
2. Explicit/Evaluated feature: All the details of the feature will be given.

Advantages:
a. Rapid designing of the components using standard features are possible.
b. Assisting the integration of CAD/CAM.

Example: Feature based on models are very much useful in computer aided process
planning works where the sequence of operations required to manufacture the
component will be generated automatically. This is possible only when the computers
are able to recognize these from CAD model popularly known as feature recognition.
3.8.3.

Other general features of modeling softwares:

1. Sketching
2. Part creation
3. Assembling
4. Documentation
1. Sketching:
Many of 3D engineering solids are created from 2D sketch of cross-section of the
solid.
This is explained with simple examples in fig 3.30.

Fig 3.30.
2. Part creation:
Creates each individual components of assembly using the features, Bookan operators
available with modeling software.
3. Assembling:
Each individual developed component is assembled together. Interference checking
and animation facilities can be utilized for checking the design.
4. Documentation:
Finally, hardcopy of individual components and assembly may be taken out. Most of
the modelers have semi-automatic tolerance facility.

3.9. INTERFACING IN CAD-CAM ENVIRONMENT

Interfacing means compatible ways of transferring the data from one system to
another system and vice versa. There are 3 types of interfacing in CAD-CAM
environment.
They are
1. Hardware-Hardware interface.
2. Hardware-Software interface.
3. Software-Software interface.
1. Hardware-Hardware interface:
• It can be classified into two types (1) Internal interface. (2) External interface.
• The computer CPU is connected with Input/Output units and memory by
hardware link. This is known as internal interface.
• The computers are connected to variety of machines and processes as well as
to computers of different makes are known as external interface. This is once
again a category into serial and parallel interfacing.
a) Serial interface:
• In serial interface, the communication is at the rate of one bit at a time. RS
232C connection which is a standard of Electronic Industries Association
(ETA) is used for serial interfacing.
• The advantage of this technique is only fewer components are required for
interfacing and also it is easy to install.
• The disadvantage is lower speed of communication. Example moderns and
Terminals are connected by serial interfacing technique.
b) Parallel interfacing:
The data is communicated as one packet (one or several bytes properly packed).
Simultaneously, it results in higher data transmission rate. The disadvantage is that it
requires more data lines.
Example: Data acquisition and some printers require parallel interfacing technique.
2. Hardware-Software interface:
Softwares are used to link the hardware of computer with software program.
Example: The operating system is used to interface the hardware and application
program.
3. Software-Software interface:
It is necessary to export the model data from a CAD package to other packages like
analysis, NC programming or other packages. One of the ways to achieve this is done
by writing a neutral file formats shown in fig3.31.
1. IGES —Initial Graphics Exchange Specification.
2. DXF —Data Exchange Format.
3. STEP —Standard for Exchange of Product data.
4. PDES —Product Data Exchange Specification

Fig 3.31. Exchange of data file format

For online CAD data transfer between two computers, the following five steps are
involved as shown in fig 3.32.
1. Choose a data exchange format common to both systems.
2. Select a common data transfer mode.
3. Convert source data into common data exchange format.
4. Transfer the converted data into the receiver format

Fig 3.32. Method of CAD model data transfer

• There is always some loss while transferring data between systems.
• To reduce the data loss, CAD softwares have their own data exchange system
for example Ansys /AutoCAD, Ansys/Pro-E, NISA1AutoCAD, NISAIPro-E,
etc.

10. DESIGN ANALYSIS

• The computer can be used to aid the analysis work such as stress-strain
analysis, heat transfer analysis, etc.
• The analysis can be done either by using specific program generated for it or
by using general purpose software commercially available in the market.
• The geometric models generated can be used for the analysis by properly
interfacing the modeling software with the analysis software.

Two types of important engineering analysis are

1. Analysis for mass properties.
2. Finite element analysis (FEA).
• By using mass properties analysis, properties of solid object can be
determined, such as surface area, weight volume, C.G. and Ml. Similarly, for
plane surfaces perimeter, Area and ML can be determined.
• Finite element analysis is the most powerful feature of a CAD system. Here,
the object is divided into a large number of finite elements.
• The entire object can be analysed for stress-analysis, heat transfer analysis etc.
For solving the FEA problems, computers with larger memory and
computational capabilities are required.
The graphical output of FEA is displayed in the computer terminal for better
understanding of results through visualization. Designer can modify/redesign the
model, and using FEA software analysis can be done easily.
First 72 columns are data columns. 73 to 80 columns are for the sequence number
(utilized as pointer) with identification for data. An IGES file consists of the
following file sections.

They are.
(i) Start section - for initializing IGES file.
(ii)Global section — they are necessary to translate the file from any graphic
software to other.
(iii) Directory section:- Reference the entities and necessary data required for entities
which are given in the next section.
(iv) Parameter data section: - Constraint details, co-ordinate value, text and so on.
(v) Termination section: - Marks the end of file.
(d) PDES-Product Data Exchange Specification:
To overcome limitations in application of IGES as standard for CAD data exchange,
new standard were developed by IGES organization in 1984 called PDES-Product
Data Exchange Specification.
(e) CAD * I —Computer Aided Design Interface:
It is also a CAD data exchange format developed by European country Research
project group.
(f) STEP- Standard for Exchange of Product Model Data:
New CAD data standard is developed through worldwide effort known as STEP in
year 1997. The STEP overcomes many of the limitations ol’ IGES.
(g) CGM-Computer Graphics Metafile:
It establishes a format for device independent definition, to capture. store and transfer
any Graphic image. Here picture is described as collection of graphic entities such as
lines, polv lines, arc, ellipse, filled areas, texts, etc and attributes such as colour, line
wide, text style etc.
(i,) Bitmaps:
Each pixel of image will be assigned with number equal to colour on that pixel. Now
a days. 3 2bits are used to represent the colour of the pixel. Some of standard formats
are
(i) BMP-Windows Bitmap format. (ii) JPEG-Joint Photographic Expert Group. (iii)
GIF- Graphic Interchange Format
(iv) TIFF-Tagged Image File Format
GRAPHICAL KERNEL SYSTEM (GKS)
IGES STANDARD
STEP (Standard for the Exchange of Product model Data)

• Standard for Exchange of Product Model Data

• Uses a formal model for data exchange

• Information is modeled using the EXPRESS language

• EXPRESS has elements of Pascal, C, and other languages

• It contains constructs for defining data types and structures, but not for processing data

• EXPRESS describes geometry and other information in a standard, unambiguous way

Classes of STEP Parts
•Introductory •Description methods
•Implementation methods
•Conformance testing methodology and framework
•Integrated resources
•Application protocols
•Abstract test suites
•Application inter preted constructs
Status of STEP
•STEP has been under development for many years, and will continue for many more
•Over a dozen STEP parts have been approved as international standards
•Many others are under development
Continuous Acquisition and Life-cycle Support (CALS)
•Developed by US Department of Defense
•Prescribes formats for storage and exchange of technical data •Technical publications an important
focus
Important CALS Standards
• Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML) -developed in 1960s IBM

ii. document description language

iii. separates content from structure (formatting)

iv. uses ―tags‖ to define headings, sections, chapters, etc.

v. HTML is based on SGML

• Computer Graphics Metafile (CGM)

i. Developed in 1986

ii. vector file format for illustrations and drawings

iii. All graphical elements can be specified in a textual source file that can be compiled into a binary
file or one of two text representations
OpenGL (Open Graphics Library)
OpenGL is a cross-language, multi-platform application programming
interface (API) for rendering 2D and 3D vector graphics. The API is typically used to interact with a
graphics processing u nit (GPU), to achieve hardware-accelerated rendering.
The OpenGL specification describes an abstract API for drawing 2D and 3D graphics. Although it is
possible for the API to be implemented entirely in software, it is designed to be implemented mostly
or entirely in hardware.
The API is defined as a number of functions which may be called by the client program, alongside a
number of named integer constants (for example, the constant GL_TEXTURE_2D, which
Corresponds to the decimal number 3553). Although the function definitions are superficially similar
to those of the C programming language, they are language-independent. As Such, OpenGL has
many language bindings, so me of the most noteworthy being the JavaScript binding Web GL (API,
based on OpenGL ES 2.0, for 3D rendering from within a web browser); the C bindings WGL, GLX
and C G L; the C binding provided by iOS; and the Java and C bindings provided by Android.
In addition to being language-independent, OpenGL is also platform-independent. The specification
says nothing on the subject of obtaining, and managing, an OpenGL context, leaving this as a detail
of the underlying windowing system. For the same reason, OpenGL is purely concerned with
rendering, providing no APIs related t o input, audio, or windowing.

OpenGL Command Syntax

As you might have observed from the simple program in the previous section, OpenGL commands
use the prefix gl and initial capital letters for each word making up the command name (recall
glClearColor(), for example). Similarly, OpenGL defined constants begin with GL_, use all capital
letters, and use underscores to separate words (like GL_COLOR_BUFFER_BIT).
You might also have noticed some seemingly extraneous letters appended to some command names
(for example, the 3f in glColor3f() and glVertex3f()). It's true that the Color part of the command
name glColor3f() is enough to define the command as one that sets the current color. However,
more than one such command has been defined so that you can use different types of arguments. In
particular, the 3 part of the suffix indicates that three arguments are given; another version of the
Color command takes four arguments. The f part of the suffix indicates that the arguments are
floating-point numbers. Having different formats allows OpenGL to accept the user's data in his or
her own data format.
Some OpenGL commands accept as many as 8 different data types for their arguments. The letters
used as suffixes to specify these data types for ISO C implementations of OpenGL are shown in
Table 1-1, along with the corresponding OpenGL type definitions. The particular implementation of
OpenGL that you're using might not follow this scheme exactly; an implementation in C++ or Ada,
for example, wouldn't need to.

Table: Command Suffixes and Argument Data Types

OpenGL-Related
 COMPUTER
INTEGRATED
MANUFACTURING

UNIT –III

FUNDAMENTALS OF CNC
MACHINES
 FUNDAMENTALS OF CNC MACHINES

CNC Technology:

• If various functions of machine tools are controlled by means of prepared

program, which consists of letters, numbers and symbols, then the machine tools
are called Numerical Control of machine tools.

The NC program consist of the following criteria:

1. Methodology o manufacture
2. The movement of machine tools
3. What tool is to be used?
4. At what speed?
5. At what feed?
6. To move from which point to which point in what path?

Refer the Fig

• The basic information are given to the. NC system in the form of part drawing
along with the cutting process parameters and the cutting tools used.
• By using these, the part programs are written in the form of letters, numbers and
symbols. This part program is entered in the punched tape.
• The program is then read by the punched tape reader.
• This numerical codes are translated by the Machine Control Unit (MCU) into a
form so that the machine can understand and the motion of the machine tool are
controlled.
• With the availability of powerful computers, the functions of machine control units
are done by the computers.

2
 FUNDAMENTALS OF CNC MACHINES

CNC Technology:

• If various functions of machine tools are controlled by means of prepared

program, which consists of letters, numbers and symbols, then the machine tools
are called Numerical Control of machine tools.

The NC program consist of the following criteria:

1. Methodology o manufacture
2. The movement of machine tools
3. What tool is to be used?
4. At what speed?
5. At what feed?
6. To move from which point to which point in what path?

Refer the Fig

• The basic information are given to the. NC system in the form of part drawing
along with the cutting process parameters and the cutting tools used.
• By using these, the part programs are written in the form of letters, numbers and
symbols. This part program is entered in the punched tape.
• The program is then read by the punched tape reader.
• This numerical codes are translated by the Machine Control Unit (MCU) into a
form so that the machine can understand and the motion of the machine tool are
controlled.
• With the availability of powerful computers, the functions of machine control units
are done by the computers.

3
 • The part programs are written as a software using high level Languages. Since
computer has enhanced memory capacity, the NC m operations are controlled
completely by computer.
• This NC system controlled by the computers are known as Computer Numerical
control (ON Here the punched tapes are replaced by floppy (or) CD ROM disc.

• To manufacture complicated and accurate parts in less time, CNC is used.

The following are advantages of CNC machines over conventional machines

1.Accuracy is more and it is repeatable.. i.e. accuracy is kept in all ranges of speeds and
feeds. .
2. Production time is less.
3. Complicated part can be manufactured
4. Highly skilled and experienced operator is not necessary.

Since the operator can have more free time,. he can look after other machine operations
also.

Disadvantages
1. The price of CNC machine is very high.
2. Maintenance is complicated. Special care should be taken by specially trained people.
3. Well trained software professionals are needed for writing part programs.

CNC control in machine tools:

The principle of operation of CNC machine tools is shown in Figure.

• In the CNC system, part program’s which is required for producing part is
maintained in a floppy (or) CD ROM.
• The .separate software — part program — is developed for each part. Once this
part program is loaded in the computer, it will control the operations of the
machines.
• The part program contains all the information needed for processing a segment .of
the work piece. The dimensional information like length, width

4
and radii of circles and the profile of linear and circular form will be taken from the part
drawing.
• Instructions are given separately for each axis of rotation (X, Y and Z).
• The cutting speed, feed and auxiliary function like coolant on and off, spindle
direction, gear change etc. are programmed according to surface finish and
tolerance requirements.

Basic components of CNC system

1. Program of instructions
2. Computer (Controller Unit)
3. Machine tool

• The program of instruction known as part program is developed by a part

programmer. The part programmer must have knowledge and experience in
mechanical engineering field with software developing skill.
• He must have the knowledge of tools, cutting fluids, fixture design techniques and
various processes of engineering.
• He must be familiar with functions of CNC processes. He must be a skilled person
in developing software in high level languages like C, C++ and special software
like APT language and manual part programming language FANUC etc.,
• This program should be made available in a floppy or CD ROM and it should be
copied in the hard disc of a computer of CNC system.

• The computer reads the part program and decode it. The decoded instructions
control the machine axis of motion and machine tool actions.
• So the computer interprets the program of instructions and convert it into
mechanical actions of the machine tool.

The computer controller unit includes

1. Data Processing Unit (DPU) with memory, Refer Fig (a).
2.Control loops unit which are connected to the servo motors to control the machine tool
operation Refer Fig. (b)
3. Feed back device to make sure that the instructions have been properly executed by the
machine. This feed back is sent back to the computer controller by feed back signals..

5
 • The control loop unit provides signals stating that the previous operation is
completed and the DPU has to read new set of data.
• The control loop unit controls the driving motors of the machine lead screws (or)
any other motion and receives feed back signals about the actual position and
velocity of each one of the axes.
• The control loop unit circuit is shown in figure.

The following automatic functions are carried out by CNC machines.

• The spindle of machine is started and stopped automatically.

• Spindle speed is controlled automatically.
• The tools are positioned at desired locations and guided along automatically.
• Feed rate of tool is controlled automatically.
• Tools in the spindle are automatically changed.
• Standard Axes

• The cutting tool movement with respect to work piece is known as axis of motion.
• This axis of motion is achieved by the movement of the machine tool slides. The
X, Y and Z are the main three axes of motion.
• The main axes to be designated are the rectangular axes and rotary axes.
• The right handed coordinate, system is shown in fig.
• This is the coordinate system approved by International Standard 150fR841 to
designate the axes of, their machines.
• The Z axis motion is set parallel to the spindle axis in the machines like drilling,
vertical milling boring etc.
• In shapers and planers, the Z axis is set perpendicular to the surface of the work
holding table.
• If the tool is moving away from the workpiece, it is considered as positive Z axis.
So, in case of drilling machine, if the drill moves into the workpiece, then it is
moving the desired path

6
in (— Z) negative direction. This set up will reduce the accidents if the part program is
wrongly typed in the coordinate signs.
• For other machines, the positive + Z motion increases the clearance between the
work piece and tool holder.
• The X axis and Y axis are set perpendicular to each other and they both together
are perpendicular to Z axis i.e. X and Y axes are horizontal.
• The X axis is normally parallel to the work holding surfaces wherever possible.
• The X axis is from left to right when operator is facing the ONC machine. The
positive X axis is towards right.
• But for the turning machines like CNC lathe, it is parallel to the cross slide i.e. X is
positive when the tool moves away from the axis of rotation of the work piece.
• The Y axis is set perpendicular to both X and Z axes.
• The Y axis motion is from front to back. The Y axis moving away from the
operator is ± Y direction.

Rotary motions
• Refer Fig. (c) A, B and C are the positive rotary motions about X axis, Y axis and
Z axis respectively.
• These are positive in (— Z) negative direction. This set up will reduce the
accidents if the part program is wrongly typed in the coordinate signs.
• For other machines, the positive + Z motion increases the clearance between the
workpiece and tool holder.
• The X axis and 1’ axis are set perpendicular to each other and they both together
are perpendicular to Z axis i.e. X and Y axes are horizontal.
• The X axis is normally parallel to the work holding surfaces wherever possible.
• The X axis is from left to right when operator is facing the CNC machine.
• The positive (+) X axis is towards right. But for the turning machines like CNC
lathe, it is parallel to the cross slide i.e. X is positive when the tool moves away
from the axis of rotation of the work piece.

7
 • The Y axis is set perpendicular to both X and Z axes. The Y axis motion is from
front to back. The Y axis moving away from the operator is ± Y direction.

• In CNC machine tools, each axis of motion is rotated by a separate driving motors
which replace the hand wheel in conventional.
• The driving motor can be a dc motor, a stepping motor or operated by hydraulic
system.

Feed Back Device

• The product dimensions are checked by a feed back devices which are the part of
the CNC system.
• In conventional machines, the parts are produced by moving a cutting tool around
a work piece by means of hand wheels, which are guided by the operator.
• The complicated
• contour cuttings are done by the expert operator with his experience and skill. But
in case of CNC machine tools, skilled operators are not at all necessary. The semi
skilled operators are sufficient to monitor only the operation of the machine, to
insert the floppy (or) CD and usually to replace the workpiece.

Functions of CNC

The important functions of CNC are:

1. To control the machine tool.

2. To do the in-process compensation
3. To improve the programming and operating features
4. To diagnose the machine tool.

1. The Control of machine tool

CNC system’s main function is to control the machine tool.
This is done by decoding the part program into an understandable form of machine tool
and carry out the machine tool motions with the aid of computer and servo system.
2. In process compensation
In-process compensation means dynamic correction of the machine tool motions for any
change or errors which occur during processing.
3. Improved programming and operating features:

• The part program can be edited at any time.

• We can verify the tool path in the graphic display terminal.
• Circular, parabolic, cubic and linear interpolations can be done
• Old units and new units (S.1 unit) are supported.
• Specially written subroutines are used
• Data can be entered manually using Manual Data Input feature.
• More than one part program can be stored.

4. Diagnostics:
• Diagnostics features are used in CNC machines in order to assist in maintaining
and repairing the system. Due to this feature,

8
 • The down time is minimised. The possible failures are felt.
• Some unreliable components are stacked as spares and these are known as
redundant components.
• When any one of these components fails, the diagnostics will automatically
disconnect the faulty component from the system, and activate the redundant
component in place of faulty one.
• So, repairs can be corrected without any breaks in normal operations of the CNC
machine.
• After getting corrected, the redundant com withdrawn from the system
automatically so that newly installed component can perform its function.

Classification of CNC systems:

The CNC systems are classified based on the following.

1. Based an. Feed back control, it is classified as open loop and closed loop systems.
2.Based on Motion. Control, it is classified as positional(Point to point), paraxial
and continuous path (Contouring) systems.
3. Based on Power Drive, it is classified as hydraulic, electric and pneumatic systems. -
4. Based on Circuit Technology, it is classified as Analog and Digital systems.
5.Based on Positioning system, it is classified as absolute positioning and
Incremental positioning systems -
6. Based on axis identification, it is classified as 2-axis, 3-axis, 4-axis and 5-axis systems.

Classification based on feed back control:

The position and velocity of a machine slide is controlled by Servo Mechanism (servo
motor). One data for each axis of machine motion is passed to servo system in order to
drive the machine slides.

Open - loop control system

• If there is no feed back, device to compare the actual position of tool slide with the
desired one, then it is known as open loop control system.
• A control system in which the output value is not checked against the desired
value, is known as open loop control system.
• In this system, if the command signal to servo-motor is stopped, then it means that
the desired location is reached.

9
 • The open loop systems are usually of digital type.
• They are the stepping motors to drive the machine slide.
• A stepping motor rotates, through a fixed angle in response to an input signal.
• It converts the digital electrical signals into proportional movement. For each pulse
signal the stepper motor rotates exactly by 1.8 degree. So, 200 ‘electric pulse
signals’ are required to complete one full revolution of motor i.e. 360°. Since there
i no check on the machine slide position, the system accuracy solely depends on
the stepping motor’s ability to step through exact number of steps provided at the
input.
• Applications of open loop control system
• It is best suited for the following applications,
• where light duty machinery is required.
• when less money can be invested.
• when there is no need of much accuracy.
• where ‘less maintenance is required due. to absence of monitoring devices.

Disadvantages of open loop control system

• Due to wear and tear, back lash errors are found in lead screw.
• The operator may feel that the slide has moved (say) 200mm, but actually, it may
be only 199.8 mm.
• To compensate the change in drive mechanism (or) to compensate the error, a
periodical adjustments are required. . -
• It is less accurate. -
• Some of the above drawbacks can be avoided by introducing ‘SLO—SYN’
stepping mater which will run in exact synchronism with its input pulse signal.

10
Closed loop control system

• If there is a feed back device to compare and correct the actual position of tool
slide with the desired one, it is known as closed loop control system..

• A control system in which movement of the machine slide is checked and

corrected with respect to input signals and mainly by the signals from feed back
devices, is closed loop control system.
• There are two signals to drive a stepper motor. One signal is a command signal by
which the servomotor is driven.
• Once the machine slide starts moving, another signal is generated by the position
sensor known as Transducer.
• Transducer is used to indicate whether, desired position is attained or not.
• The above two signals are compared, in the Comparator Device known as
Differential Analyzer and it produce new electrical signal proportional to the
difference between the two.
• This new signal is sent to the servo motor through an amplifier to move the
machine slide in a direction to reduce the difference’ (‘to reduce the error).
• This loop is repeated (‘do-looped’) until the difference between the input signal
and feed back signal to be zero.
• At this point, the comparator output becomes zero and the machine slide occupies
the correct position.
• The inertia effects of machine slide is also taken care o. by this closed ioop control
systems..

11
 • In case of contouring system (continuous path system), another feed back
transducer is used to control the velocity of the motor.
• It is required to control the cutter speed and feed so that the cutter follows the right
path to get the required profile.
• These control systems have capabilities of up to 0.0001 mm and speeds up to 10
m/mm.
• So the closed loop control system measures the actual position of slide and its
velocity x compares them it with the desired position and desired velocity
respectively.
• The difference between the actual and the desired values is the error and this
control system eliminates the error.
• This closed loop control system is used for obtaining higher degree of accuracy.
Most of the contouring (continuous path) systems are controlled by this closed
loop.
• Classification based on motion Control system

The CNC machines are classified

1. Point to Point (Positional) motion control system

2. Straight-line motion (or) Paraxial control system.
3. Contouring (or) continuous path motion control system
4. Combined motion control system.
Point to Point (Positional) control system (PTP)
• Point to Point (PTP) is also called as positioning system. In PTP, the importance is
given to move the cutting tool to a predefined location with respect to the work
piece (or) to move the workpiece to a predefined location with respect to the
cutting tool.
• The speed (or) path of the cutting tool is not important here. Once the cutting tool

12
2: Flame cutting (or) torching and (3) Fabrication of intricate die templates.
This also known as C-type motion control system.

Interpolators:

• In any profile, the coordinates of points vary continuously.

• So each and every point of path of the profile should be defined;
• This tedious work is done by a subsystem of, computer namely Interpolator.
• Hence the interpolator will do the interpolation work. - he method of calculating
intermediate points and speed of the motor is known as interpo1ation

There are three types of interpolation:

1. Linear Interpolation
2. Circular Interpolation
3. Parabolic Interpolation

• By knowing extreme end points of straight line, calculating the intermediate points
of straight line is known as linear interpolation.
• This is used for machining tapers.

• For forming circles and arcs, circular interpolation is used.

13
 • By knowing ‘end points and centre of arc’ (or) ‘radius and centre of circle’,
calculating the intermediate points of arc (or) circle is known as circular
interpolation.

Absolute positioning system

• If all the measurements are taken from a fixed origin with coordinates
• X =0 ; Y= 0 and Z =0, then the system is known as Absolute Positioning system.
• So all the position commands are given as absolute distances from the origin
which is known a Zero Point.

The origin can be defined in two ways:

1. Fixed origin and
2. Floating origin.
• Fixed Origin is a fixed poir4t at the lower left corner of the worktable.
• Here all the measurements are positive with respect to origin. Refer the following
fig.

14
 • Floating Origin will be useful for symmetrical parts.
• Here, the centre of symmetrical part will be taken as origin and a the right side and
upside measurements are taken as positive and left side and downward
measurements are taken as negative.

• In this absolute coordinate system, the origin O(G,O,O) is stored in the computer
memory and the control system returns the table to origin by simply pressing
‘Zero Reset’ button on the control panel.
• Here all the dimensions are independent of each other. This system is mostly used
in PTP system.

Incremental Coordinate system

• In an incremental system: all measurements for the next position are calculated in
the form of increments of distance from the previous position.

15
 • This incremental system needs no predetermined datum point. This system is
mostly used in CNC lathes.

• The coordinates of the workpiece in the absolute system is calculated in

incremental system in the above fig.
• The coordinates of all the six holes calculated by both the systems are tabulated
here.

CNC controllers

• Machine Control Unit (MCU) is known as ONC controllers.

• The powerful computer has enhanced the capability of the machine control unit.
• In Olden days, MCU is a bigger unit but present days MCU is very smaller unit.
• By having tremendous computing power of computers, MCU become versatile for
doing following functions easily and successfully.
1. Complicated Graphics profile can be machined and the corresponding part ptogram
can’ be developed and edited.

16
2, Since computer has got more memory capacity, large part program of more than 1 MB
can be stored.
3. Advanced part programming like ‘English Statements’ can be developed.
4.In case of parabolic and helical (or) even complicated profile defined by mathematical
equation can be done by using complex interpolations.
5. Do loops are used for repetitive part programming;
6. Subroutines and macros are used.
7. Use of parameters in part programming.
8. There are help topics for operators.
9. Special geometric calculation facilities.
10. Better interfaces to outside world with serial and parallel communications.
11. Diagnostic facilitates.
12.Direct Numerical Control (DNC) functions are possible with links to factory
networks.
13. Using Programmable Logic Control(PLC), a better shop floor control is possible.
14.Adaptive control, lead screw pitch error compensation, thermal l are possible proving
enhanced the machine control.
15. Contouring control system with multiple axis machining simultaneously can be easily
controlled.
So the CNC controller — ie CNC Machine Control Unit (MCU) has number ‘of
subsystem to perform the above functions.

Communication (Butter memory)

• MCU memory will not be sufficient when the part program is very large.
• In such situations, a buffer memory in the DNC computer will store the part
program and communication will be flowing from DNC to ON

Macros Tool Management

• Tool Management is very much important in running the CNC machines to have
great accuracy of the parts machined and to have high productivity.

Visual Display Unit (Monitor)

• Monitors are very much useful for having interaction with the computers.
• We can view the graphical displays, part programs etc.

17
Diagnostics
• It is necessary to check the functions of the machine tool continuously to make the
machine utilization high.
• Hence, a number of sensors are normally inserted in the machine tools. These
sensors will send the information to the controller so that any fault already- present
(or) likely to come in future will be identified and corrective action can be taken.
• Such diagnosis is communicated as alarms to operator through Video Display Unit
(VDU).
• In some CNC controllers, a built in modem and a telephone line will send such
information to the service people for corrective action.

External Inputs:
• This unit is useful for CNC to have interaction with the outside world.
• The computer in CNC can be linked with DNC to down load part program, to have
remote datum, and to link with Robots and Automated Guided Vehicles (AGV)
etc.

External Outputs
• For sending output from CNC to outside world ie for works is uploading the
generated or corrected programs, sending information to the controller such as
certain PLO register status, diagnostic information etc.

Graphic Proving
• To verify the accuracy of the part generated, the machining process can be
simulated on the ‘video •display unit’ of the MOU. Most modem controls provide
a solid simulation process where the workpiece and the tool are actually shown in
3D shaded image:
• When the tool moves through the work piece, the material is removed layer by
layer.
• The layer removed is shown in different colour to have a realistic, feel of material
removal process.
• This process is able to simulate uncut material at the corners because of tool radius,
burr information etc more realistically.
• By changing speeds and feeds, the surface finish generation process also can be
simulated to get a feel of final surface finish which will be obtained on the
component.

Part programming Like English statement (Conversational Part Programming)

• Part programs are developed in such a way that it can be read as English statement
so that everyone can understand easily.
• This type of part programming is as conversational part programming. Many of
the controllers are available, with conversational part programming facility built in.
FAPT-TURN is a conversational part program which uses vector drawing
technique for making the turning part contour in 2D

18
Advanced Management
• The modern CNC controllers provide additional facilities to carry out the
activities like axis calibration, Adaptive control, thermal compensation and Lead
screw pitch error compensation.

Control Program
• The control program controls the various elements of the CNC machine tool.
• This program is useful for interactions between the control system components,
the machine tool mechanics, tooling, material changes during machining etc.
• This program reads and studies the part program a few lines ahead so that the speed
of tool can be adjusted to cater to the future difficulties in the tool path like sharp
changes in direction.
• This control program is fully integrated with the servo and feed back systems
involved.

Direct Numerical Control (DNC system)

• When several CNC machines are used, it is a common practice to use a Central
Computer to connect all the CNC machines for preparing part programs at a
central place and to transfer the same to the CNC system whenever required.
• This feature is called DNC system.
• So Direct Numerical control (DNC) can be defined as a type of manufacturing
system in which several CNC machines are controlled remotely by a main frame
computer. It is similar to many computers are controlled by server. In DNC
system, one large computer can be used to control more than 100 separate CNC
machines In a DNC system, the processing and post processing of part program is
performed in a central computer.
• This enables the programmer to modify and edit the part programs easily.
• The tape reader is eliminated in DNC. Instead, the part program is transmitted to
the machine tool directly from the computer memory. -
• The DNC computer provides instruction to each CNC machines on demand.
• The 2 way communication interface option (11S232C) enables the user to
immediately access any program from the library of programs in the central
computer.
• Also., this link permits transmission of messages and other critical data.
• So DNC also involves data collection and processing from the machine tool back
to the central computer.

Component of DNC system

1. Central computer (or) Main frame computer
2. Bulk memory to store part programs
3 Communication Network.
4: CNC machine tools.
• When the’ number of CNC machines are more and the computational
requirements are more, it is necessary to make use of satellite computers.
• These satellite computers relieve some of the burden off the central computer.
• The part programs are received from the central computer and stored in the
satellite computer and they are delivered to individual CNC machines whenever
required.

19
 • Feed back data from the machines are also stored in the satellite computer and then
delivered to central computer.
• So, the communication network connects the central computer with the lengthy
cables to the CNC machines’ directly Refer fig (a), (or) it connects the central
computer with each satellite ‘computer at each individual CNC machine. Refer fig
(b).

Types of DNC
There are two types of DNC, depending upon the communication network between the
computer and the CNC machine tool.
1. Special Machine Control Unit
2. Behind— Tape — Reader (BTR) system

Special Machine Control Unit

• In this configuration, the regular CNC controller is eliminated and it is replaced by
a special MCIJ. This special MCU facilitates the communication between the CNC
and computer.

20
 • This type is very much useful in circular interpolation of the cutter path.
• It achieves superior accuracy of interpolation with fast metal removal rates.
• The special MCU is soft wired with flexibility.

• In this system the central computer is directly linked with the GNU controller unit.
• Since the tape reader, is replaced by telecommunication lines, the name BTR has
given to this system.
• The central computer is connected with the CNC controller by by-passing the tape
reader (i.e. without tape reader) - i.e. behind the tape reader;
• The CNC controller has two storage buffers.
• One receives block of instruction from the DNC computer and convert them into
machine actions and another one receives data from the CNC machine and it will
be sent to DNC computer.

• BTR system cost is less since minor changes are enough to convert conventional
NC
• into DNC.
• However, this BTR advantage is not a permanent one.- Because, most of the NC
machines are nowadays CNC machines computer numerical control machines.
• So the CNC controller will serve the same purpose as a special MCU when
incorporated with DNC system.

Advantages of DNC
1. The punched tapes and tape readers are eliminated.
2.Enhanced computational capability and flexibility are possible in DNC. Part
programming can be modified and edited at any time. Heavy computational work and
data processing functions are performed efficiently.
3. Part programmes can be stored as a file in the computer memory.
4. The computer can give commands to many CNC machines simultaneously.
5.The production performance data from the CNC machines can be collected, processed,
analysed and reported for further actions.

21
6.The DNC system makes the production• plant fully automated factory with the use of
computers.
7. The central computer can be located any where.

Combined DNC/CNC system:

1.The combination of DNC/CNC system eliminates the use of punched tape and tape
reader.
2.The DNC computer downloads the part program directly tq the CNC computer memory.
This reduces the amount of communication required between the central
computer and each CNC machine tool.
3. The CNC controller unit has sufficient storage capacity to store the entire part program.
4.This combination creates redundancy. If the central computer (DNC) fails, the individual
CNC machine need not be down. It is possible to provide necessary backup to make the
CNC machines to operate on a stand-alone basis.
5.This backup capability consists of duplicate part’ programs contained in the DNC
computer files.
6. This combined DNC/CNC system improves communication between the central
computer and the shop floor. With the computer located at both ends of the factory, many
of the constraints in- the factory managements information systems are removed. It
becomes easy for computers to communicate with other computers than with hard wired
devices

22
 UNIT IV
FUNDAMENTALS OF CNC MACHINES
PART A

1. Write down the classification of CNC machines based on feedback control.

❖ Open loop system
❖ Closed loop system

2. Write down the classification of CNC machines based on control system features.
➢ Point-to-point or contouring: depending on whether the machine cuts metal while
the work piece moves relative to the tool
➢ Incremental or absolute: depending on the type of coordinate system adopted to
parameterize the motion commands

3. List the various areas where design changes are required in CNC machine
❖ Machine structure
❖ Slide ways
❖ Spindle mounting
❖ Drive units
❖ Elements of transmission and positioning slides
❖ Location of transducers
❖ Tool and work holding devices
❖ Swarf removal
❖ Safety

4. What are the factors considered while designing the structure of a CNC machine?
• High precision and repeatability
• Reliability
• Efficiency

5. List the two major type of spindle drives used in CNC machine tools.
❖ Electrical drive
❖ Hydraulic or pneumatic drive

6. What are the requirements of a good slideway system?

➢ Reduce friction
➢ Reduce wear
➢ Satisfy the requirements of movement of the slides
➢ Improve the smoothness of the drive

7. Write down the classification of ATC.

❖ Turret head
❖ 180-degree rotation
❖ Pivot insertion
❖ Multi axis
❖ Spindle direct
08. Describe shortly about the requirements of spindles for CNC machines.

➢ The spindle drives are used to provide angular motion to the workpiece or a
cutting tool. Fig. shows the components of a spindle drive. These drives are
essentially required to maintain the speed accurately within a power band which
will enable machining of a variety of materials with variations in material
hardness.
➢ The speed ranges can be from 10 to 20,000 rpm. The machine tools mostly
employ DC spindle drives. But as of late, the AC drives are preferred to DC drives
due to the advent of microprocessor - based AC frequency inverter.
➢ High overload capacity is also needed for unintended overloads on the spindle due
to an inappropriate feed. It is desirous to have a compact drive with highly smooth
operation.

09. Why is feedback necessary in machine tools?

By using feedback, it is able to correct errors in position, velocity, and acceleration, and
also fault the system if the error is too large.

10. List the broad classification of Feedback devices.

❖ Velocity feedback to measure and monitor the speed of the drive motor
❖ Positional feedback to measure and monitor the position or displacement of the
machine slides.

11. Classify the machining centers according to the spindle configuration.

➢ Vertical machining centre
➢ Horizontal machining centre
➢ Universal machining centre

12. What are the various types of DC motors used in a CNC machine tools?
❖ Brush type DC motor
❖ Brushless DC motor
13. Define the term Interpolation.
Interpolations are done to execute contouring tool paths. It produces a series of
intermediate data points between given coordinate positions and computes the axial
velocity of an individual axis along the contour path.

14. Write down the types of interpolators.

➢ Linear Interpolators
➢ Continuous path approximated by incremental straight lines
➢ Circular Interpolators

15. What are advantages of digital feedback devices over analog feedback devices?
The analog systems measure the variation of physical variables such as position and
velocity in terms of voltage levels whereas Digital systems monitor output variations by
means of electrical pulses

16. What are the different types of Inductosyns?

❖ Linear Inductosyns
❖ Rotary Inductosyns

17. Write any two advantages of laser interferometer.

❖ Measurement of Distance
o frequency stabilized He-Ne laser tube
o combination of beam-splitter and retroreflector
o a moving retroreflector
o detection electronics
❖ Other Applications
o Measure angles, flatness, straightness, velocity and vibrations, etc.

18. Describe shortly about DNC.

Direct numerical control (DNC), also known as distributed numerical control (also DNC),
is a common manufacturing term for networking CNC machine tools. On some CNC
machine controllers, the available memory is too small to contain the machining program
(for example machining complex surfaces), so in this case the program is stored in a
separate computer and sent directly to the machine, one block at a time.

19. What is meant by qualified tools?

Tool which fits into a location on the machine, where its cutting edge is accurately
positioned within close limits relative to a specified datum on the tool holder or slide, is
known as qualified tool.

20. What are the special features of work holding devices used in CNC machines?

(a) Work holding devices must have required accuracy and must have matching reference
surfaces with the reference system.
(b)Work holding devices are allowed to perform a number of operations on different faces
in a single setting.
(c) Work holding devices must enable quick loading and unloading.
(d) Work holding devices must be fool-proofing to avoid incorrect loading of the job.
(e) Work holding devices must be sufficient rigidity to fully withstand the cutting forces.
(f) Work holding devices must be safe in use and loading and unloading.
(g)Work holding devices must have a sufficient of clamping force for use of full roughing
cuts.
(h) Work holding devices must be simple in construction maximum as possible.
 PART B
1. Explain the functions of CNC control in machine tools?

A CNC system basically consists of the following:

(a) Central processing unit (CPU)
(b) Servo control unit
(c) Operator control panel
(d) Machine control panel
(e) Programmable logic controller
(f) Other peripheral devices.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

• The CPU is the heart of a CNC system. It accepts the information stored in the
memory as part program. This data is decoded and transformed into specific
position control and velocity signals. It also oversees the movement of the control
axis or spindle and whenever this does not match with the programmed values, a
corrective action was taken.

• All the compensation required for machine acquires (like lead screw pitch error,
tool wear out, backlashes.) are calculated by CPU depending upon the
corresponding inputs made available to the system. The same will be taken care of
during the generation of control signals for the axis movement.

• Also, some basic safety checks are built into the system through this unit and
continuous necessary corrective actions will be provided by CPU unit. Whenever
the situation goes beyond control of the CPU, it takes the final action of shutting
down the system and in turn the machine.

Servo Control Unit

• The decoded position and velocity control signals, generated by the CPU for the
axis movement forms the input to the servo control unit. This unit in turn
generates suitable signals as command values. The command values are converted
by the servo drive units which are interfaced with the axes and the spindle motors.
The servo control unit receives the position feedback signals for the actual
movement of the machine tool axes from the feedback devices (like linear scales,
rotary encoders, revolvers, etc.)

Operator Control Panel

• The Operator Control Panel provides control panel provides the user interface to
facilitate a two way communication between the user, CNC system and the
machine tool. This consists of two parts are Video display unit and Keyboard.

Machine Control Panel

 • It is the direct interface between the operator and the NC system, enabling the
operation of the machine through the CNC system. During program execution, the
CNC controls the axis the motion, spindle function or tool function on a machine
tool, depending upon the part program stored in the memory. Prior to the starting
of the machining process, machine should first be prepared with some specific
takes like, establishing a correct reference point, loading the system memory with
the required part program, loading and checking of tool offsets, zero offsets, etc.
Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)
• A PLC matches the NC to the machine. PLC’s were basically as replacement for
hard wired relay control panels. They were basically introduced as replacement
for hard wired relay panels. They developed to be re-programmed without
hardware changes when requirements were altered and thus are re-usable.

• PLC’s are now available with increased functions, more memory and larger
input/output capabilities. In the CPU, all the decisions are made relative to
controlling a machine or a process. The CPU receives input data, performs logical
decisions based upon stored programs and drives the output connection to a
computer for hierarchical control are done through CPU.

Other Peripheral Devices

• These include sensor interface, provision for communication equipment,
programming units, printer, tape reader interface, etc.

02. With the help of block diagram, explain the closed loop control system in CNC
machines.
In a close loop system, feedback devices closely monitor the output and any disturbance
will be corrected in the first instance. Therefore high system accuracy is achievable. This
system is more

powerful than the open loop system and can be applied to the case where the output is
subjected to frequent change. Nowadays, almost all CNC machines use this control
system.
 Block Diagram of a Close Loop System

03. Explain in detail

about motion
control system in
CNC

machines.

Point to Point Motion Control System

Some machine tools for example drilling, boring and tapping machines etc, require the cutter
and the work piece to be placed at a certain fixed relative positions at which they must
remain while the cutter does its work. These machines are known as point-to-point machines.
The control equipment for use with them is known as point-to-point control equipment. Feed
rates need not to be programmed. In theses machine tools, each axis is driven separately. In a
point-to-point control system, the dimensional information that must be given to the machine
tool will be a series of required position of the two slides. Servo systems can be used to move
the slides and no attempt is made to move the slide until the cutter has been retracted back.
Straight Line Motion Control System
The NC systems, in which the tool works along a straight line in the direction of a major
coordinate axis, such as along the direction of feed during turning, boring or milling
operation at a controlled rate, are known as Straight line control system.

Contouring or Continuous Path Motion Control System

Other type of machine tools involves motion of work piece with respect to the cutter while
cutting operation is taking place. These machine tools include milling, routing machines etc.
and are known as contouring machines and the controls required for their control are known
as contouring control. Contouring machines can also be used as point-to-point machines, but
it will be uneconomical to use them unless the work piece also requires having a contouring
operation to be performed on it. These machines require simultaneous control of axes. In
contouring
machines, relative
positions of the work piece
and the tool should be
continuously
controlled. The
control system must be
able to accept information
regarding
velocities and
positions of the machines
slides. Feed rates should
be programmed.
Combined Motion Control
System
The above all the control
systems are combined as
groups. Most of the Jig boring,
horizontal boring and drilling
machines employ this type
of control system. This
motions controls systems
are having 3 or 4 linear axes to
be controlled continuously and
2 or 3 rotary movements controlled along with the positioning facility. This combination is
used for complex contouring operations, to be carried out on machining centers.

04. Discuss the methods used for position and velocity feedback in CNC machines.

Positional Feed Back Devices

There are two types of positional feedback devices: linear transducer for direct positional
measurement and rotary encoder for angular or indirect linear measurement.
Linear Transducers –
A linear transducer is a device mounted on the machine table to measure the actual
displacement of the slide in such a way that backlash of screws; motors, etc would not cause
any error in the feedback data. This device is considered to be of the highest accuracy and
also more expensive in comparison with other measuring devices mounted on screws or
motors.

Rotary
Encoders
–
A rotary
encoder is a device mounted at the end of the motor shaft or screw to measure the angular
displacement. This device cannot measure linear displacement directly so that error may
occur due to the backlash of screw and motor etc. Generally, this error can be compensated
for by the machine builder in the machine calibration process.

Velocity
Feedback Device
The actual speed of the motor can be measured in terms of voltage generated from a
tachometer mounted at the end of the motor shaft. DC tachometer is essentially a small
generator that produces an output voltage proportional to the speed. The voltage generated is
compared with the command voltage corresponding to the desired speed. The difference of
the voltages can is then used to actuate the motor to eliminate the error.

Tachogenerator

05. Explain with neat sketch, the working principle of Recirculating Ball screws.

Ball screw is also called as ball bearing screw or recirculating ball-screw. It consists of a
screw spindle, a nut, balls and integrated ball return mechanism a shown in Figure. The
flanged nut is attached to the moving part of CNC machine tool.

As the screw rotates, the nut translates the moving part along the guide ways. However, since
the groove in the ball screw is helical, its steel balls roll along the helical groove, and, then,
they may go out of the ball nut unless they are arrested at a certain spot. Thus, it is necessary
to change their path after they have reached a certain spot by guiding them, one after another,
back to their “starting point” (formation of a recirculation path).

The recirculation parts play that role. When the screw shaft is rotating, as shown in Figure, a
steel ball at point (A) travels 3 turns of screw groove, rolling along the grooves of the screw
shaft and the ball nut, and eventually reaches point (B). Then, the ball is forced to change its
pathway at the tip of the tube, passing back through the tube, until it finally returns to point
(A). Whenever the nut strokes on the screw shaft, the balls repeat the same recirculation
inside the return tube.
When debris or foreign matter enter the inside of the nut, it could affect smoothness in
operation or cause premature wearing, either of which could adversely affect the ball screw’s
functions. To prevent such things from occurring, seals are provided to keep contaminants
out. There are various types of seals viz. plastic seal or brush type of seal used in ball-screw
drives.

Characteristics of ball screws:

High mechanical efficiency
In ball screws, about 90% or more of the force used to rotate the screw shaft can be converted
to the force to move the ball nut. Since friction loss is extremely low, the amount of force
used to rotate the screw shaft is as low as one third of that needed for the acme thread lead
screw.
Low in wear
Because of rolling contact, wear is less than that of sliding contact. Thus, the accuracy is
high. Ball screws move smoothly enough under very slow speed. They run smoothly even
under a load.
Thread Form
The thread form used in these screws can either be gothic arc type (Fig.1) or circular arc type
(Fig 2). The friction in this kind of arrangement is of rolling type. This reduces its wear as
comparison with conventional sliding friction screws drives.
Recirculating ball screws are of two types. In one arrangement the balls are returned using an
external tube. In the other arrangement the balls are returned to the start of the thread in the
nut through a channel inside the nut.

Advantages of ball screws

➢ Highly efficient and reliable.
➢ Less starting torque.
➢ Lower co efficient of friction compared to sliding type screws and run at cooler
temperatures
➢ Power transmission efficiency is very high and is of the order of 95 %.
➢ Could be easily preloaded to eliminate backlash.
➢ The friction force is virtually independent of the travel velocity and the friction at rest
is very small; consequently, the stick-slip phenomenon is practically absent, ensuring
uniformity of motion.
➢ Has longer thread life hence need to be replaced less frequently.
➢ Ball screws are well -suited to high through output, high speed applications or those
with continuous or long cycle times.
➢ Smooth movement over full range of travel.

Disadvantages of ball screws

➢ Tend to vibrate.
➢ Require periodic overhauling to maintain their efficiency.
➢ Inclusion of dirt or foreign particles reduces the life of the screws.
➢ Not as stiff as other power screws, thus deflection and critical speed can cause
difficulties.
➢ They are not self-locking screws hence cannot be used in holding devices such as
vices.
➢ Require high levels of lubrication.

Applications of ball screws:

➢ Ball screws are employed in cutting machines, such as machining center and NC lathe
where accurate positioning of the table is desired
➢ Used in the equipments such as lithographic equipment or inspection apparatus where
precise positioning is vital
➢ High precision ball screws are used in steppers for semiconductor manufacturing
industries for precision assembly of micro parts.
➢ Used in robotics application where precision positioning is needed.
➢ Used in medical examination equipments since they are highly accurate and provide
smooth motion.

06. Discuss in detail about DNC.

Direct Numerical Control can be defined as a type of manufacturing system in which several
NC or CNC machines are controlled remotely from a Host/Main frame computer or direct
numerical control (DNC) – control of multiple machine tools by a single (mainframe)
computer through direct connection.
A DNC is specifically defined as “A system connecting a set of numerically controlled
machines to a common memory for part program or machine program storage with provision
for on-demand distribution of data to machines” by Electronic Industries Association (EIA).
In DNC, several NC machines are directly controlled by a computer, eliminating substantial
hardware from the individual controller of each machine tool.

The part-program is downloaded to the machines directly (thus omitting the tape reader) from
the computer memory. The basic DNC system requires following basic component are Main
frame computer, Memory, Communication network, NC machine tool. The communication
network can be done either through connecting the remotely located computer, with lengthy
cables to the individual machine control directly or connecting the main frame computer with
a small computer at individual operator’s station known as satellite computer.

DNC system is expensive and is preferably used in large organizations. The combination of
DNC/CNC makes possible to eliminate the use of programme as the input media for CNC
machines. The DNC computer downloads the program directly to the CNC computer
memory. This reduces the amount of communication required between the central computer
and each machine tool.

Advantages of DNC
(a) The computer can be remotely located, even a thousand miles away.
(b) The computer can program simultaneously many NC machines.

07. Describe in detail about the work holding and tool holding devices of a CNC.
In the CNC machines, fixtures are still required to locate and hold the work pieces while
machining. The work holding devices should have the following uniqueness:
(a)Work holding devices must have required accuracy and must have matching reference
surfaces with the reference system.
(b)Work holding devices are allowed to perform a number of operations on different faces
in a single setting.
(c) Work holding devices must enable quick loading and unloading.
(d) Work holding devices must be fool-proofing to avoid incorrect loading of the job.
(e) Work holding devices must be sufficient rigidity to fully withstand the cutting forces.
(f) Work holding devices must be safe in use and loading and unloading.
(g)Work holding devices must have a sufficient of clamping force for use of full roughing
cuts.
(h) Work holding devices must be simple in construction maximum as possible.

Automatic pallet changes

Automatic pallet changes over systems are used in modern CNC machines. These pallets
simply move for interchanging their positions on the machine table. While machining is
being done on a job kept on one pallet, the other pallets are accessible to the operator for
clamping and unclamping raw material or finished product. This saves a lot of material
handling and set up time, resulting in higher productivity.

08. With neat sketch, explain the working principle of double gripper type ATC.
The tools from the magazines and spindle are exchanged by a tool changer arm (Fig.). The
tool change activity requires the following motions:
❖ The spindle stops at the correct orientation for the tool change arm to pick the tool
from the spindle.
❖ Tool change arm moves to the spindle.
❖ Tool change arm picks the tool from the spindle.
❖ Tool change arm indexes to reach the tool magazine.
❖ Tool magazine indexes so that the tool from the spindle can be placed.
❖ The tool is placed in the tool magazine.
❖ The tool magazine indexes to bring the required tool to the tool change position.
❖ Tool change arm picks the tool from the tool magazine.
❖ Tool change arm indexes to reach the spindle.
❖ New tool is placed in the spindle.
❖ Tool change arm moves back to its parking position.

Advantages of automatic tool changer

➢ Increase in operator safety by changing tools automatically

➢ Changes the tools in seconds for maintenance and repair
➢ Increases flexibility
➢ Heavy and large multi-tools can easily be handled
➢ Decreases total production time

09. Describe the principle of working of Incremental rotary encoders.

A rotary encoder is a device mounted at the end of the motor shaft or screw to measure the
angular displacement. This device cannot measure linear displacement directly so that error
may occur due to the backlash of screw and motor etc. Generally, this error can be
compensated for by the machine builder in the machine calibration process.

Incremental and Absolute Rotary Encoder

An encoder is a rotational transducer converting an angular movement into a series of
electrical digital pulses. If associated to racks or endless screws, these generated pulses can
be used to control angular or linear movements. During rotation, electrical signals can be
elaborated by numerical controls (CNC), programmable logic controls (PLC), control
systems, etc. Main applications of these transducers are: machinery, robots, and motor
feedback, measure and control devices.

In Eltra’s encoders the angular movement transduction is based on the photoelectric scanning
principle. The reading system is based on the rotation of the radial graduated disk formed by
opaque windows and transparent ones alternated. The system is perpendicularly illuminated
by an infrared light source. The light projects the disk image on the receivers surface which
are covered by a grating called collimator having the same disk steps. The receivers trasduce
the light variation occurring with the disk shifting, converting them into their corresponding
electrical variations.

Electrical signals raised to generate squared pulses without any interference must be
electronically processed. The reading system is always carried out in differential modality, in
order to compare different signals nearly identical but out of phase for 180 electrical degrees.
That in order to increase quality and stability of output signals. The reading is designed
comparing the difference between the two channels eliminating the disturb note as “shifted
common way” because signals are overlapped in equal way on every kind of wave.

Incremental encoders

The incremental encoder usually gives two types of squared waves out of phase for 90
electrical degrees. They are usually called channel A and B. The first channel gives
information about the rotation speed while the second, basing on the states sequence
produced by the two signals, provides the sense of rotation. A further signals, called Z or
zero channel, is also available. It gives
 the absolute zero position of the encoder shaft. This signal is a squared impulse with the
phase and the width centred on A channel.

The incremental encoder precision depends on mechanical and electrical factors. These
errors could be: grating division, disk eccentricity, bearings eccentricity, electronic
reading and optic inaccuracy. The measurement unit to define encoder precision is the
electrical degree. It determinates the division of the impulse generated by the encoder:
360 electric degrees correspond to the mechanical rotation of the shaft which is necessary
to carry out a complete cycle. To know how many mechanical degrees correspond to
electrical 360° the following formula has to be applied:

The encoder division error is given from the

maximum shifting shown in the electrical
degrees of two consecutive surges. This error
exists in any encoder and is due to the above
mentioned factors. For Eltra’s encoders this
error is included in electrical +/- 25° Max in
whatever allowed condition, which corresponds
to a shifting of +/- 7 % from the nominal value.
Regarding the 90 electrical degrees shifting
between the two channels, it differs by +/- 35 electrical degrees Max. It corresponds to
+/- 10 %.

10. Discuss in detail about tooling for CNC machines.

Cutting Tools for CNC Machines

Cutting tools are available in three basic material types: high-speed steel, tungsten
carbide, and ceramic. High-speed steel is generally used on aluminum and other
nonferrous alloys, while tungsten carbide is used on high-silicon aluminums, steels,
stainless steels, and exotic metals. Ceramic inserts are used on hard steels and exotic
metals. Inserted carbide tooling is becoming the preferred tooling for many CNC
applications. For the full utilization of CNC machines it is essential to pay due attention
to the selection and usage of tooling, namely tool holders, cutting tools and work holding
devices. The tools for CNC machines must be quickly changeable to reduce non-cutting
time, preset and reset outside the machine, high degree of interchangeability, increased
reliability and high rigidity.

The cutting tools can be classified on the basis of setting up of tool, tool construction and
cutting tool material:
❖ On the Basis of Setting up of Cutting Tool
(a) Preset tools.
(b) Qualified tools.
(c) Semi qualified tools.
❖ On the Basis of Cutting Tool Construction
(a) Solid tools.
(b) Brazed tools.
(c) Inserted bit tools.
❖ On the Basis of Cutting Tool Material
(a) High speed steel (HSS).
(b) High carbon tool steel (HCS).
(c) Cast alloy.
(d) Cemented carbide.
(e) Ceramics.
(f) Boraon Nitride.
(g) Diamond.
(h) Sialon.
Preset Tools

The setting of tools in advance at a place away from the machine tool or offline,
in special holders is known as preset tools. A presetting device is used to preset axial and
radial positions of the tool tip on the tool holder. Once this is done, the tool holder is
ready to be mounted on the machine and produce a known dimension.

Qualified Tools

Tool which fits into a location on the machine, where its cutting edge is accurately
positioned within close limits relative to a specified datum on the tool holder or slide, is
known as qualified tool.

Semi-qualified Tools

The qualified tools which can be adjusted to the dimensions by using several
adjustable buttons on the tool shank are known as semi qualified tools
Solid Tools

Solid tools are usually made of High speed steel or High carbon steel. These tools
are used on high speeds with sufficient quantity of cutting fluid to get good suface finish
and longer tool life.

Brazed Tools

A forged shank of high strength steel with belt of high speed steel, tungusten
carbide stellite brazed to the shank on the cutting edge.

Inserted Bit Tools

The tools with indexible inserts of harder and special grade carbide or ceramic
materials. A wear resistant layer of Titanium nitride of Titanium carbide is coated on the
insert it reduces the cost of tool. Inserts can be easily removed from the tool holder. So
tool changing time and cost of machining are less.

High Speed Steel

The H.S.S. is carbon steel to which alloying elements like tungusten, chromium,
vanadium, cobalt and molyblemum to be added to increase their hardness and wear
resistance.

High Carbon Tool Steel

High carbon tool steel is suitable for low cutting speeds and low temperatures.
The hardness of this tool is determined by the carbon contents.

Cast Alloy

This is a non ferrous alloy and gives high machining performance than that of
H.S.Steel. Its hardness and toughness are high at higher temperatures.

Cemented Carbides

It contains 5% carbon, 13% cobalt and 81%tungsten. This tool is widely used in
modern costly machines as tip tools. The tool setting time is reduced.

Ceramics

It can be used for higher cutting speed, superior surface finish and greate
machining flexibility. The Aluminium oxides, boron carbides, silicon carbide, titanium
borides and titanium carbides are known as ceramics.
Boraon Nitride

(a) High wear resistance.

(b) Used for machining hardened steel and high temperature alloys.

Diamond

(a) Low friction and high wear resistance.

(b) Good cutting edge.

(c) Single crystal diamond is used to machine copper to a high surface finish.

Sialon

Used for machining aerospace alloys.

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UNIT III
FUNDAMENTALS OF CNC MACHINES

CNC MACHINING CENTERS

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER NUMERICAL CONTROL

The variety being demanded in view of the varying tastes of the consumer calls for
a very small batch sizes. Small batch sizes will not be able to take advantage of the mass
production techniques such as special purpose machines or transfer lines. Hence, the need
for flexible automation is felt , where you not only get the benefits of rigid automation but
are also able to vary the products manufactured thus bringing in the flexibility. Numerical
control fits the bill perfectly and we would see that manufacturing would increasingly be
dependent on numerical control in future.

Numerical control

Numerical control of machine tools may be defined as a method of automation in

which various functions of machine tools are controlled by letters, numbers and symbols.
Basically a NC machine runs on a program fed to it. The program consists of precise
instructions about the methodology of manufacture as well as movements. For example,
what tool is to be used, at what speed, at what feed and to move from which point to which
point in what path. Since the program is the controlling point for product manufacture, the
machine becomes versatile and can be used for any part. All the functions of a NC machine
tool are therefore controlled electronically, hydraulically or pneumatically. In NC machine
tools, one or more of the following functions may be automatic.

a. Starting and stopping of machine tool spindle.

b. Controlling the spindle speed.
c. Positioning the tool tip at desired locations and guiding it along desired paths
by automatic control of motion of slides.
d. Controlling the rate of movement of tool tip ( feed rate)
e. Changing of tools in the spindle.

Functions of a machine tool

The purpose of a machine tool is to cut away surplus material, usually metal from
the material supplied to leave a work piece of the required shape and size, produced to an
acceptable degree of accuracy and surface finish. The machine tool should possess certain
capabilities in order to fulfill these requirements. It must be
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a. Able to hold the work piece and cutting tool securely.

b. Endowed the sufficient power to enable the tool to cut the work piece material at
economical rates.
c. Capable of displacing the tool and work piece relative to one another to produce the
required work piece shape. The displacements must be controlled with a degree of
precision which will ensure the desired accuracy of surface finish and size.

Concept of numerical control

Formerly, the machine tool operator guided a cutting tool around a work piece by
manipulating hand wheels and dials to get a finished or somewhat finished part. In his
procedure many judgments of speeds, feeds, mathematics and sometimes even tool
configuration were his responsibility. The number of judgments the machinist had to make
usually depended on the type of stock he worked in and the kind of organization that
prevailed. If his judgment was an error, it resulted in rejects or at best parts to be reworked
or repaired in some fashion.

Decisions concerning the efficient and correct use of the machine tool then
depended on the craftsmanship, knowledge and skill of the machinist himself. It is rare that
two expert operators produced identical parts using identical procedure and identical
judgment of speeds, feeds and tooling. In fact even one craftsman may not proceed in same
manner the second time around.

. Process planners and programmers have now the responsibilities for these matters.

It must be understood that NC does not alter the capabilities of the machine tool. The With
NC the correct and most efficient use of a machine no longer rests with the operator.Actual
machine tool with a capable operator can do nothing more than it was capable of
doing before a MCU was joined to it. New metal removing principles are not involved.
Cutting speeds, feeds and tooling principles must still be adhered to. The advantage is idle
time is reduced and the actual utilization rate is mush higher (compresses into one or
two years that a conventional machine receives in ten years).

Historical Development

1947 was the year in which Numerical control was born. It began because of an urgent
need. John C Parsons of the parson’s corporation, Michigan, a manufacturer of helicopter
rotor blades could not make his templates fast enough. so he invented a way of coupling
computer equipment with a jig borer.
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The US air force realized in 1949 that parts for its planes and missiles were becoming
more complex. Also the designs were constantly being improved; changes in drawings were
frequently made. Thus in their search for methods of speeding up production, an air force
study contract was awarded to the Parson’s Corporation. The servomechanisms lab of MIT
was the subcontractor.

In 1951, the MIT took over the complete job and in 1952; a prototype of NC machine was
successfully demonstrated. The term “Numerical Control” was coined at MIT. In 1955
seven companies had tape controlled machines. In 1960, there were 100 NC machines at the
machine tool shown in Chicago and a majority of them were relatively simple point to point
application.

During these years the electronics industry was busy. First miniature electronic tubes
were developed, then solid state circuitry and then modular or integrated circuits. Thus the
reliability of the controls has been greatly increased and they have become most compact
and less expensive.

Today there are several hundred sizes and varieties of machines, many options and many
varieties of control system available.

Definition:

The simplest definition is as the name implies, “a process a controlled by numbers

“. Numerical Control is a system in which the direct insertions of programmed numerical
value, stored on some form of input medium are automatically read and decoded to cause a
corresponding function on the machine tool which it is controlling.

Advantages of NC machine tools:

1. Reduced lead time:

Lead time includes the time needed for planning, design and manufacture of
jigs, etc. This time may amount to several months. Since the need for special jigs
and fixtures is often entirely eliminated, the whole time needed for their design and
manufacture is saved.

2. Elimination of operator errors:

The machine is controlled by instructions registered on the tape provided the
tape is correct and machine and tool operate correctly, no errors will occur in the
job. Fatigue, boredom, or inattention by operator will not affect the quality or
duration of the machining. Responsibility is transferred from the operator to the
tape, machine settings are achieved without the operator reading the dial.
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3. Operator activity:
The operator is relieved of tasks performed by the machine and is free to
attend to matters for which his skills and ability are essential. Presetting of tools,
setting of components and preparation and planning of future jobs fall into this
category. It is possible for two work stations to be prepared on a single machine
table, even with small batches. Two setting positions are used, and the operator can
be setting one station while machining takes place at the other.

4. Lower labor cost

More time is actually spent on cutting the metal. Machine manipulation time
ex.:. Gear changing and often setting time are less with NC machines and help
reduce the labor cost per job considerably.

5. Smaller batches
By the use of preset tooling and presetting techniques downtime between
batches is kept at a minimum. Large storage facilities for work in progress are not
required. Machining centers eliminate some of the setups needed for a succession of
operation on one job; time spent in waiting until each of a succession of machine is
free is also cut. The components circulate round the machine shop in a shorter
period, inter department costs are saved and ‘program chasing’ is reduced.

6. Longer tool life

Tools can be used at optimum speeds and feeds because these functions are
controlled by the program.

7. Elimination of special jigs and fixtures

Because standard locating fixtures are often sufficient of work on machines.
the cost of special jigs and fixture is frequently eliminated. The capital cost of
storage facilities is greatly reduced. The storage of a tape in a simple matter, it may
be kept for many years and manufacturing of spare parts, repeat orders or
replacements is made much more convenient.

8. Flexibility in changes of component design

The modification of component design can be readily accommodated by
reprogramming and altering the tape. Savings are affected in time and cost.

9. Reduced inspection.
The time spent on inspection and in waiting for inspection to begin is greatly
reduced. Normally it is necessary to inspect the first component only once the tape is
proved; the repetitive accuracy of the machine maintains a consistent product.
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10. Reduced scrap

Operator error is eliminated and a proven tape results in accurate component.

11. Accurate costing and scheduling

The time taken in machining is predictable, consistent and results in a greater
accuracy in estimating and more consistency in costing.

Evolution of CNC:

With the availability of microprocessors in mid 70’s the controller technology has made a
tremendous progress. The new control systems are termed as computer numerical control
(CNC) which are characterized by the availability of a dedicated computer and enhanced
memory in the controller. These may also be termed “soft wired numerical control”.

There are many advantages which are derived from the use of CNC as compared to NC.

Part program storage memory.

Part program editing.
Part program downloading and uploading.
Part program simulation using tool path.
Tool offset data and tool life management.
Additional part programming facilities.
Macros and subroutines.
Background tape preparation, etc.

The controls with the machine tools these days are all CNC and the old NC control do not
exist any more.
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DEFINITION AND FEATURES OF CNC

Computer Numerical Control (CNC)

CNC refers to a computer that is joined to the NC machine to make the machine versatile.
Information can be stored in a memory bank. The programme is read from a storage
medium such as the punched tape and retrieved to the memory of the CNC computer. Some
CNC machines have a magnetic medium (tape or disk) for storing programs. This gives
more flexibility for editing or saving CNC programs. Figure 1 illustrates the general
configuration of CNC.

Magnetic
tape or disk Miscellaneous
or paper tape control -e.g. limit
reader switches, coolant,
spindle, etc.

CNC
controller
with keypad
and display Machine tool

Axis drive and

Paper control
tape punch (x,y,z,a,b,w)
spindle speed

Figure 1 The general configuration of CNC.

Advantages of CNC
1. Increased productivity.
2. High accuracy and repeatability.
3. Reduced production costs.
4. Reduced indirect operating costs.
5. Facilitation of complex machining operations.
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6. Greater flexibility.
7. Improved production planning and control.
8. Lower operator skill requirement.
9. Facilitation of flexible automation.

Limitations of CNC:
1. High initial investment.
2. High maintenance requirement.
3. Not cost-effective for low production cost.

Features of CNC

Computer NC systems include additional features beyond what is feasible with

conventional hard-wired NC. These features, many of which are standard on most CNC
Machine Control units (MCU), include the following:

 Storage of more than one part program : With improvements in computer storage
technology, newer CNC controllers have sufficient capacity to store multiple
programs. Controller manufacturers generally offer one or more memory expansions
as options to the MCU

 Various forms of program input : Whereas conventional (hard-wired) MCUs are

limited to punched tape as the input medium for entering part programs, CNC
controllers generally possess multiple data entry capabilities, such as punched tape,
magnetic tape, floppy diskettes, RS-232 communications with external computers,
and manual data input (operator entry of program).

 Program editing at the machine tool : CNC permits a part program to be edited
while it resides in the MCU computer memory. Hence, a part program can be tested
and corrected entirely at the machine site, rather than being returned to the
programming office for corrections. In addition to part program corrections, editing
also permits cutting conditions in the machining cycle to be optimized. After the
program has been corrected and optimized, the revised version can be stored on
punched tape or other media for future use.

 Fixed cycles and programming subroutines : The increased memory capacity and the
ability to program the control computer provide the opportunity to store frequently used
machining cycles as macros, that can be called by the part program. Instead of writing
the full instructions for the particular cycle into every program, a programmer includes a
call statement in the part program to indicate that the macro cycle should be executed.
These cycles often require that certain parameters be defined, for
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example, a bolt hole circle, in which the diameter of the bolt circle, the spacing of
the bolt holes, and other parameters must be specified.

 Interpolation : Some of the interpolation schemes are normally executed only on a

CNC system because of computational requirements. Linear and circular
interpolation are sometimes hard-wired into the control unit, but helical, parabolic,
and cubic interpolations are usually executed by a stored program algorithm.

 Positioning features for setup : Setting up the machine tool for a given workpart
involves installing and aligning a fixture on the machine tool table. This must be
accomplished so that the machine axes are established with respect to the workpart.
The alignment task can be facilitated using certain features made possible by
software options in the CNC system. Position set is one of the features. With
position set, the operator is not required to locate the fixture on the machine table
with extreme accuracy. Instead, the machine tool axes are referenced to the location
of the fixture using a target point or set of target points on the work or fixture.

 Cutter length and size compensation : In older style controls, cutter dimensions hade
to be set precisely to agree with the tool path defined in the part program. Alternative
methods for ensuring accurate tool path definition have been incorporated into the CNC
controls. One method involves manually entering the actual tool dimensions into the
MCU. These actual dimensions may differ from those originally programmed.
Compensations are then automatically made in the computed tool path. Another method
involves use of a tool length sensor built into the machine. In this technique, the cutter is
mounted in the spindle and the sensor measures its length. This measured value is then
used to correct the programmed tool path.

 Acceleration and deceleration calculations : This feature is applicable when the

cutter moves at high feed rates. It is designed to avoid tool marks on the work
surface that would be generated due to machine tool dynamics when the cutter path
changes abruptly. Instead, the feed rate is smoothly decelerated in anticipation of a
tool path change and then accelerated back up to the programmed feed rate after the
direction change.

 Communications interface : With the trend toward interfacing and networking in

plants today, most modern CNC controllers are equipped with a standard RS-232 or
other communications interface to link the machine to other computers and
computer-driven devices. This is useful for various applications, such as
(1)downloading part programs from a central data file; (2)collecting operational data
such as workpiece counts, cycle times, and machine utilization; and (3)interfacing
with peripheral equipment, such as robots that unload and load parts.
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 Diagnostics : Many modern CNC systems possess a diagnostics capability that

monitors certain aspects of the machine tool to detect malfunctions or signs of
impending malfunctions or to diagnose system breakdowns.

The Machine Control Unit (MCU) for CNC

The MCU is the hardware that distinguishes CNC from conventional NC. The general
configuration of the MCU in a CNC system is illustrated in Figure 2. The MCU consists of
the following components and subsystems: (1) Central Processing Unit, (2) Memory, (3)
Input/Output Interface, (4) Controls for Machine Tool Axes and Spindle Speed, and (5)
Sequence Controls for Other Machine Tool Functions. These subsystems are interconnected
by means of a system bus, which communicates data and signals among the components of
a network.

 Central Processing Unit : The central processing unit (CPU) is the brain of the MCU.
It manages the other components in the MCU based on software contained in main
memory. The CPU can be divided into three sections: (1) control section, (2) arithmetic-
logic unit, and (3) immediate access memory. The control section retrieves commands
and data from memory and generates signals to activate other components in the MCU.
In short, it sequences, coordinates, and regulates all the activities of the MCU computer.
The arithmetic-logic unit (ALU) consists of the circuitry to perform various calculations
(addition, subtraction, multiplication), counting, and logical functions required by
software residing in memory. The immediate access memory provides a temporary
storage of data being processed by the CPU. It is connected to main memory of the
system data bus.

 Memory : The immediate access memory in the CPU is not intended for storing CNC
software. A much greater storage capacity is required for the various programs and data
needed to operate the CNC system. As with most other computer systems, CNC
memory can be divided into two categories: (1) primary memory, and (2) secondary
memory. Main memory (also known as primary storage) consists of ROM (read-only
memory) and RAM (random access memory) devices. Operating system software and
machine interface programs are generally stored in ROM. These programs are usually
installed by the manufacturer of the MCU. Numerical control part programs are stored
in RAM devices. Current programs in RAM can be erased and replaced by new
programs as jobs are changed.
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Memory Central Input/output interface

 ROM – Operating System Processing  Operator panel
 RAM – Part Program Unit (CPU)  Tape reader

System bus

Machine tool controls Sequence controls

 Position control  Coolant
 Spindle speed control  Fixture clamping
 Tool changer

Figure 2 Configuration of CNC machine control unit

High-capacity secondary memory (also called auxiliary storage or secondary storage)

devices are used to store large programs and data files, which are transferred to main
memory as needed. Common among the secondary memory devices are hard disks and
portable devices that have replaced most of the punched paper tape traditionally used to
store part programs. Hard disks are high-capacity storage devices that are permanently
installed in the CNC machine control unit. CNC secondary memory is used to store part
programs, macros, and other software.

 Input/Output Interface : The I/O interface provides communication software between

the various components of the CNC system, other computer systems, and the machine
operator. As its name suggests, The I/O interface transmits and receives data and signals
to and from external devices, several of which are illustrated in Figure 2. The operator
control panel is the basic interface by which the machine operator communicates to the
CNC system. This is used to enter commands related to part program editing, MCU
operating mode (e.g., program control vs. manual control), speeds and feeds, cutting
fluid pump on/off, and similar functions. Either an alphanumeric keypad or keyboard is
usually included in the operator control panel. The I/O interface also includes a display
(CRT or LED) for communication of data and information from the MCU to the
machine operator. The display is used to indicate current status of the program as it is
being executed and to warn the operator of any malfunctions in the CNC system.

Also included in the I/O interface are one or more means of entering the part program
into storage. As indicated previously, NC part programs are stored in a variety of ways.
Programs can also be entered manually by the machine operator or stored at a central
computer site and transmitted via local area network (LAN) to the CNC system.
Whichever means is employed by the plant, a suitable device must be included in the
I/O interface to allow input of the program into MCU memory.
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 Controls for Machine Tool Axes and Spindle Speed : These are hardware
components that control the position and velocity (feed rate) of each machine axis as
well as the rotational speed of the machine tool spindle. The control signals generated
by MCU must be converted to a form and power level suited to the particular position
control systems used to drive the machine axes. Positioning systems can be classified as
open loop or closed loop, and different hardware components are required in each case.

Depending on the type of machine tool, the spindle is used to drive either (1) workpiece
or (2) a rotating cutter. Turning exemplifies the first case, whereas milling and drilling
exemplify the second. Spindle speed is a programmed parameter for most CNC machine
tools. Spindle speed components in the MCU usually consist of s drive control circuit
and a feedback sensor interface. The particular hardware components depend on the
type of spindle drive.

 Sequence Controls for Other Machine Tool Functions :

In addition to control of table position, feed rate, and spindle speed, several additional
functions are accomplished under part program control. These auxiliary functions are
generally on/off (binary) actuations, interlocks, and discrete numerical data. To avoid
overloading the CPU, a programmable logic controller is sometimes used to manage the
I/O interface for these auxiliary functions.

Classification Of CNC Machine Tools

(1) Based on the motion type 'Point-to-point & Contouring systems’

There are two main types of machine tools and the control systems required for use with
them differ because of the basic differences in the functions of the machines to be
controlled. They are known as point-to-point and contouring controls.

(1.1)Point-to-point systems

Some machine tools for example drilling, boring and tapping machines etc, require the
cutter and the work piece to be placed at a certain fixed relative positions at which they
must remain while the cutter does its work. These machines are known as point-to-point
machines as shown in figure 3 (a) and the control equipment for use with them are
known as point-to-point control equipment. Feed rates need not to be programmed. In
these machine tools, each axis is driven separately. In a point-to-point control system,
the dimensional information that must be given to the machine tool will be a series of
required position of the two slides. Servo systems can be used to move the slides and no
attempt is made to move the slide until the cutter has been retracted back.
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(1.2) Contouring systems (Continuous path systems)

Other type of machine tools involves motion of work piece with respect to the cutter
while cutting operation is taking place. These machine tools include milling, routing
machines etc. and are known as contouring machines as shown in figure 3 (b), 3 (c) and
the controls required for their control are known as contouring control. Contouring
machines can also be used as point-to-point machines, but it will be uneconomical to
use them unless the work piece also requires having a contouring operation to be
performed on it. These machines require simultaneous control of axes. In contouring
machines, relative positions of the work piece and the tool should be continuously
controlled. The control system must be able to accept information regarding velocities
and positions of the machines slides. Feed rates should be programmed.

Figure 3 (a) Point-to-point system Figure 3 (b) Contouring system

Figure 3 (c) Contouring systems

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(2) Based on the control loops ‘Open loop & Closed loop systems’

(2.1) Open loop systems (Fig 4(a)):

Programmed instructions are fed into the controller through an input device. These instructions
are then converted to electrical pulses (signals) by the controller and sent to the servo amplifier
to energize the servo motors. The primary drawback of the open-loop system is that there is no
feedback system to check whether the program position and velocity has been achieved. If the
system performance is affected by load, temperature, humidity, or lubrication then the actual
output could deviate from the desired output. For these reasons the open -loop system is
generally used in point-to-point systems where the accuracy requirements are not critical. Very
few continuous-path systems utilize open-loop control.

Figure 4(a) Open loop control system Figure 4(b) Closed loop control system

(2.2) Closed loop systems (Fig 4(b)):

The closed-loop system has a feedback subsystem to monitor the actual output and correct any
discrepancy from the programmed input. These systems use position and velocity feed back.
The feedback system could be either analog or digital. The analog systems measure the
variation of physical variables such as position and velocity in terms of voltage levels. Digital
systems monitor output variations by means of electrical pulses. To control the dynamic
behavior and the final position of the machine slides, a variety of position transducers are
employed. Majority of CNC systems operate on servo mechanism, a closed loop principle. If a
discrepancy is revealed between where the machine element should be and where it actually is,
the sensing device signals the driving unit to make an adjustment, bringing the movable
component to the required location. Closed-loop systems are very powerful and accurate
because they are capable of monitoring operating conditions through feedback subsystems
and automatically compensating for any variations in real-time.
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Figure 4 (c) Closed loop system

(3) Based on the number of axes ‘2, 3, 4 & 5 axes CNC machines’

(3.1) 2& 3 axes CNC machines:

CNC lathes will be coming under 2 axes machines. There will be two axes along which
motion takes place. The saddle will be moving longitudinally on the bed (Z-axis) and the
cross slide moves transversely on the saddle (along X-axis). In 3-axes machines, there will
be one more axis, perpendicular to the above two axes. By the simultaneous control of all
the 3 axes, complex surfaces can be machined.

(3.2) 4 & 5 axes CNC machines (Fig. 5):

4 and 5 axes CNC machines provide multi-axis machining capabilities beyond the standard 3-
axis CNC tool path movements. A 5-axis milling centre includes the three X, Y, Z axes, the A
axis which is rotary tilting of the spindle and the B-axis, which can be a rotary index table.

Figure 5: Five axes CNC machine

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Importance of higher axes machining:

Reduced cycle time by machining complex components using a single setup. In addition
to time savings, improved accuracy can also be achieved as positioning errors between
setups are eliminated.
 Improved surface finish and tool life by tilting the tool to maintain optimum tool
to part contact all the times.
 Improved access to under cuts and deep pockets. By tilting the tool, the tool can
be made normal to the work surface and the errors may be reduced as the major
component of cutting force will be along the tool axis.
 Higher axes machining has been widely used for machining sculptures surfaces
in aerospace and automobile industry.

(4) Based on the power supply ‘Electric, Hydraulic & Pneumatic systems’

Mechanical power unit refers to a device which transforms some form of energy to
mechanical power which may be used for driving slides, saddles or gantries forming a part
of machine tool. The input power may be of electrical, hydraulic or pneumatic.

(4.1) Electric systems :

Electric motors may be used for controlling both positioning and contouring machines. They
may be either a.c. or d.c. motor and the torque and direction of rotation need to be controlled.
The speed of a d.c. motor can be controlled by varying either the field or the armature supply.
The clutch-controlled motor can either be an a.c. or d.c. motor. They are generally used for
small machine tools because of heat losses in the clutches. Split field motors are the simplest
form of motors and can be controlled in a manner according to the machine tool. These are
small and generally run at high maximum speeds and so require reduction gears of high ratio.
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Separately excited motors are used with control systems for driving the slides of large
machine tools.

(4.2) Hydraulic systems:

These hydraulic systems may be used with positioning and contouring machine tools of all
sizes. These systems may be either in the form of rams or motors. Hydraulic motors are
smaller than electric motors of equivalent power. There are several types of hydraulic
motors. The advantage of using hydraulic motors is that they can be very small and have
considerable torque. This means that they may be incorporated in servosystems which
require having a rapid response.
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CNC MACHINING CENTERS

The machining centre, developed in the late 50’s is a machine tool capable of multiple
machining operations on a work part in one setup under NC program control.

Classification

Machining centres are classified as vertical, horizontal, or universal. The designation refers
to the orientation of the machine spindle.

1. A vertical machining centre has its spindle on a vertical axis relative to the work table.
A vertical machining centre (VMC) is typically used for flat work that requires tool
access from top. E.g. mould and die cavities, Large components of aircraft

2. A horizontal machining centre (HMC) is used for cube shaped parts where tool access
can be best achieved on the sides of the cube.

3. A universal machining centre (UMC) has a work head that swivels its spindle axis to
any angle between horizontal and vertical making this a very flexible machine tool.
E.g.: Aerofoil shapes, Curvilinear geometries.

The term “Multi tasking machine” is used to include all of these machine tools that
accomplish multiple and often quite different types of operations. The processes that might
be available on a single multi tasking machine include milling, drilling, tapping, grinding
and welding. Advantage of this new class of highly versatile machine compared to more
conventional CNC machine tolls include:

 Fewer steps,
 Reduced part handling,
 Increased accuracy and repeatability because the parts utilize the same fixture
through out their processing
 Faster delivery of parts in small lot sizes.

Features of CNC machining centers:

CNC machining centers are usually designed with features to reduce non productive time.
The features are:

 Automatic tool changer :

The tools are contained in a storage unit that is integrated with the machine tool.
When a cutter needs to be changed, the tool drum rotates to the proper position and
an automatic tool changer (ATC) operating under program control, exchanges the
tool in the spindle for the tool in the tool storage unit. Capacities of tool storage unit
commonly range from 16 to 80 cutting tools.
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 Automatic work part positioner:

Many horizontal and vertical machining centers have the capability to orient the work
part relative to the spindle. This is accomplished by means of a rotary table on which
work part is fixtured. The table can be oriented at any angle about a vertical axis to
permit the cutting tool to access almost the entire surface of the part in a single setup.

 Automatic pallet changer:

Machining centers are often equipped with two (or more) separate pallets that can be
presented to the cutting tool using an automatic pallet changer. While machining is
performed with one pallet in position at the machine, the other pallet is in a safe
location away from the spindle. In this location, the operator can unload the finished
part and then fixture the raw work part for next cycle.

Axes Designation in horizontal and vertical machining centres (Fig 1) :

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CNC PART PROGRAMMING

(1) Programming fundamentals

Machining involves an important aspect of relative movement between cutting tool and
workpiece. In machine tools this is accomplished by either moving the tool with respect to
workpiece or vice versa. In order to define relative motion of two objects, reference
directions are required to be defined. These reference directions depend on type of machine
tool and are defined by considering an imaginary coordinate system on the machine tool. A
program defining motion of tool / workpiece in this coordinate system is known as a part
program. Lathe and Milling machines are taken for case study but other machine tools like
CNC grinding, CNC hobbing, CNC filament winding machine, etc. can also be dealt with in
the same manner.

(1.1) Reference Point

Part programming requires establishment of some reference points. Three reference points
are either set by manufacturer or user.

a) Machine Origin

The machine origin is a fixed point set by the machine tool builder. Usually it cannot
be changed. Any tool movement is measured from this point. The controller always
remembers tool distance from the machine origin.

b) Program Origin

It is also called home position of the tool. Program origin is point from where the tool
starts for its motion while executing a program and returns back at the end of the cycle.
This can be any point within the workspace of the tool which is sufficiently away from
the part. In case of CNC lathe it is a point where tool change is carried out.

c) Part Origin

The part origin can be set at any point inside the machine's electronic grid system.
Establishing the part origin is also known as zero shift, work shift, floating zero or
datum. Usually part origin needs to be defined for each new setup. Zero shifting allows
the relocation of the part. Sometimes the part accuracy is affected by the location of the
part origin. Figure 1 and 2 shows the reference points on a lathe and milling machine.
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Figure 1 - Reference points and axis on a lathe

Figure 2 - Reference points and axis on a Milling Machine

1.2 )Axis Designation

An object in space can have six degrees of freedom with respect to an imaginary Cartesian
coordinate system. Three of them are liner movements and other three are rotary.
Machining of simple part does not require all degrees of freedom. With the increase in
degrees of freedom, complexity of hardware and programming increases. Number of degree
of freedom defines axis of machine.

Axes interpolation means simultaneous movement of two or more different axes generate
required contour.
For typical lathe machine degree of freedom is 2 and so it called 2 axis machines. For typical
milling machine degree of freedom is , which means that two axes can be interpolated at
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a time and third remains independent. Typical direction for the lathe and milling machine is
as shown in figure 1 and figure 2.

1.3 ) Setting up of Origin

In case of CNC machine tool rotation of the reference axis is not possible. Origin can set by
selecting three reference planes X, Y and Z. Planes can be set by touching tool on the
surfaces of the workpiece and setting that surfaces as X=x, Y=y and Z=z.

(1.4 ) Coding Systems

The programmer and the operator must use a coding system to represent information, which
the controller can interpret and execute. A frequently used coding system is the Binary-
Coded Decimal or BCD system. This system is also known as the EIA Code set because it
was developed by Electronics Industries Association. The newer coding system is ASCII
and it has become the ISO code set because of its wide acceptance.

(2) CNC Code Syntax

The CNC machine uses a set of rules to enter, edit, receive and output data. These rules are
known as CNC Syntax, Programming format, or tape format. The format specifies the order
and arrangement of information entered. This is an area where controls differ widely. There
are rules for the maximum and minimum numerical values and word lengths and can be
entered, and the arrangement of the characters and word is important. The most common
CNC format is the word address format and the other two formats are fixed sequential block
address format and tab sequential format, which are obsolete. The instruction block consists
of one or more words. A word consists of an address followed by numerals. For the address,
one of the letters from A to Z is used. The address defines the meaning of the number that
follows. In other words, the address determines what the number stands for. For example it
may be an instruction to move the tool along the X axis, or to select a particular tool.

Most controllers allow suppressing the leading zeros when entering data. This is known as
leading zero suppression. When this method is used, the machine control reads the numbers
from right to left, allowing the zeros to the left of the significant digit to be omitted. Some
controls allow entering data without using the trailing zeros. Consequently it is called
trailing zero suppression. The machine control reads from left to right, and zeros to the right
of the significant digit may be omitted.
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3) Types of CNC codes

(3.1) Preparatory codes

The term "preparatory" in NC means that it "prepares" the control system to be ready for
implementing the information that follows in the next block of instructions. A preparatory
function is designated in a program by the word address G followed by two digits.
Preparatory functions are also called G-codes and they specify the control mode of the
operation.

(3.2) Miscellaneous codes

Miscellaneous functions use the address letter M followed by two digits. They perform a
group of instructions such as coolant on/off, spindle on/off, tool change, program stop, or
program end. They are often referred to as machine functions or M-functions. Some of the
M codes are given below.

M00 Unconditional stop

M02 End of program
M03 Spindle clockwise
M04 Spindle counterclockwise
M05 Spindle stop
M06 Tool change (see Note below)
M30 End of program

In principle, all codes are either modal or non-modal. Modal code stays in effect until
cancelled by another code in the same group. The control remembers modal codes. This
gives the programmer an opportunity to save programming time. Non-modal code stays in
effect only for the block in which it is programmed. Afterwards, its function is turned off
automatically. For instance G04 is a non-modal code to program a dwell. After one second,
which is say, the programmed dwell time in one particular case, this function is cancelled.
To perform dwell in the next blocks, this code has to be reprogrammed. The control does
not memorize the non-modal code, so it is called as one shot codes. One-shot commands are
non-modal. Commands known as "canned cycles" (a controller's internal set of
preprogrammed subroutines for generating commonly machined features such as internal
pockets and drilled holes) are non-modal and only function during the call.

On some older controllers, cutter positioning (axis) commands (e.g., G00, G01, G02, G03,
& G04) are non-modal requiring a new positioning command to be entered each time the
cutter (or axis) is moved to another location.
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Command G- Function and Command

Illustration
group code Statement

Rapid traverse
G00
G00 Xx Yy Zz

Linear interpolation
G01
G01 Xx Yy Zz Ff

Tool motion
Circular Interpolation
in clock-wise direction
G02
G02 Xx Yy Ii Jj
G02 Xx Zz Ii Kk
G02 Yy Zz Jj Kk

Circular interpolation
in counter- clockwise
direction

G03 Xx Yy Ii Jj
G03 G03 Xx Zz Ii Kk
G03 Yy Zz Jj Kk
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Function and
G-
Command group Command Illustration code
Statement

Cutter
diameter
G40
compensation
cancel

Cutter
G41 diameter
Offset and compensation
compensation left

Cutter
G42 diameter
compensation
right
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Command Function and Command

G-code Illustration
group Statement

Rapid traverse
G00
G00 Xx Zz

Linear interpolation
G01
G01 Xx Zz

Tool
motion
Circular Interpolation in
clock-wise direction
G02 G02 Xx Zz Ii Kk
(or)
G02 Xx Zz Rr

Circular interpolation in
counter- clockwise
G03 direction
G03 Xx Zz Ii Kk
(or)
G03 Yy Zz Rr
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Illustrative Example Program

A contour illustrated in figure 3 is to be machined using a CNC milling machine. The

details of the codes and programs used are given below.

Example:

Figure 3 : An illustrative example

O5678 Program number

N02 G21 Metric programming
N03 M03 S1000 Spindle start clockwise with 1000rpm
N04 G00 X0 Y0 Rapid motion towards (0,0)
N05 G00 Z-10.0 Rapid motion towards Z=-10 plane
N06 G01 X50.0 Linear interpolation
N07 G01 Y20.0 Linear interpolation
N08 G02 X25.0
Circular interpolation clockwise(cw)
Y45.0 R25.0
N09 G03 X-25.0
Circular interpolation counter clockwise(ccw)
Y45.0 R25.0
N10 G02 X-50.0
Circular interpolation clockwise(cw)
Y20.0 R25.0
N11 G01 Y0.0 Linear interpolation
N12 G01 X0.0 Linear interpolation
N13 G00 Z10.0 Rapid motion towards Z=10 plane
N14 M05 M09 Spindle stop and program end
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4. CNC Part Programming II

In the previous section, fundamentals of programming as well basic motion commands for
milling and turning have been discussed. This section gives an overview of G codes used for
changing the programming mode, applying transformations etc.

4.1 Programming modes

Programming mode should be specified when it needs to be changed from absolute to
incremental and vice versa. There are two programming modes, absolute and incremental
and is discussed below.

4.1.1 Absolute programming (G90)

In absolute programming, all measurements are made from the part origin established by the
programmer and set up by the operator. Any programmed coordinate has the absolute value in
respect to the absolute coordinate system zero point. The machine control uses the part origin as
the reference point in order to position the tool during program execution (Figure 4).

4.1.2 Relative programming (G91)

In incremental programming, the tool movement is measured from the last tool position.
The programmed movement is based on the change in position between two successive
points. The coordinate value is always incremented according to the preceding tool location.
The programmer enters the relative distance between current location and the next point (
Figure 5).
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4.2 Spindle control

The spindle speed is programmed by the letter 'S' followed by four digit number, such as
S1000. There are two ways to define speed :
1. Revolutions per minute (RPM
2. Constant surface speed

The spindle speed in revolutions per minute is also known as constant rpm or direct rpm.
The change in tool position does not affect the rpm commanded. It means that the spindle
RPM will remain constant until another RPM is programmed. Constant surface speed is
almost exclusively used on lathes. The RPM changes according to diameter being cut. The
smaller the diameter, the more RPM is achieved; the bigger the diameter, the less RPM is
commanded. This is changed automatically by the machine speed control unit while the tool
is changing positions. This is the reason that, this spindle speed mode is known as diameter
speed.

4.3 Tool selection

Tool selection is accomplished using 'T' function followed by a four digit number where,
first two digits are used to call the particular tool and last two digits are used to represent
tool offset in the program. The tool offset is used to correct the values entered in the
coordinate system preset block. This can be done quickly on the machine without actually
changing the values in the program.

Using the tool offsets, it is easy to set up the tools and to make
adjustments

4.4 Feed rate control

Cutting operations may be programmed using two basic feed rate modes:
1. Feed rate per spindle revolution
2. Feed rate per time

The feed rate per spindle revolution depends on the RPM programmed.

5.0 Tool radius Compensation

The programmed point on the part is the command point. It is the destination point of the
tool. The point on the tool that is used for programming is the tool reference point. These
points may or may not coincide, depending on the type of tool used and machining
operation being performed. When drilling, tapping, reaming, countersinking or boring on
the machining center, the tool is programmed to the position of the hole or bore center - this
is the command point.

When milling a contour, the tool radius center is used as the reference point on the tool while
writing the program, but the part is actually cut by the point on the cutter periphery. This point
is at 'r' distance from the tool center. This means that the programmer should shift the tool
center away from the part in order to perform the cutting by the tool cutting edge. The
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shift amount depends upon the part geometry and tool radius. This technique is known as
tool radius compensation or cutter radius compensation.

In case of machining with a single point cutting tool, the nose radius of the tool tip is
required to be accounted for, as programs are being written assuming zero nose radius. The
tool nose radius center is not only the reference point that can be used for programming
contours. On the tool there is a point known as imaginary tool tip, which is at the
intersection of the lines tangent to the tool nose radius.

Cutter compensation allows programming the geometry and not the toolpath. It also allows
adjusting the size of the part, based on the tool radius used to cut part. This is useful when
cutter of the proper diameter is not found. This is best explained in the Figure 11.

Figure 11. Cutter diameter compensation

The information on the diameter of the tool, which the control system uses to calculate the
required compensation, must be input into the control unit's memory before the operation.
Tool diameter compensation is activated by the relevant preparatory functions (G codes) as
shown in Figure 12.

Compensation for tool radius can be of either right or left side compensation. This can be
determined by direction of tool motion. If you are on the tool path facing direction of
tool path and if tool is on your left and workpiece is on your right side then use G41 (left
side compensation). For, reverse use other code G42 (Right side compensation). Both
the codes are modal in nature and remain active in the program until it is cancelled by
using another code, G40.
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5.1 Subroutines
Any frequently programmed order of instruction or unchanging sequences can benefit by
becoming a subprogram. Typical applications for subprogram applications in CNC
programming are :
 Repetitive machining motions
 Functions relating to tool change
 Hole patterns
 Grooves and threads
 Machine warm-up routines
 Pallet changing
 Special functions and others

Structurally, subprograms are similar to standard programs. They use the same syntax rules.
The benefits of subroutines involve the reduction in length of program, and reduction in
program errors. There is a definition statement and subroutine call function.

Standard sub-routine
N10
N20
N30
….
N70 G22 N5
N80
N90
….
N100 G24
….
N160 G20 N5

In the above example G22 statement defines the start block of the sub-routine and G24
marks the end of the sub-routine statement. The subroutine is called by another code G20
identified by the label N5.

Parametric subroutine
..
..
G23 N18
G01 X P0 Y P1
..
..
G21 N18 P0=k10 P1=k20

In the above example G23 starts the subprogram label and starts the definition, and the
parameters P0, P1 are defined for values of x and y. The G21 statement is used to call
the subroutine and to assign the values to the parameters.
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5.2 Canned Cycles

A canned cycle is a preprogrammed sequence of events / motions of tool / spindle stored
in memory of controller. Every canned cycle has a format. Canned cycle is modal in
nature and remains activated until cancelled. Canned cycles are a great resource to make
manual programming easier. Often underutilized, canned cycles save time and effort.

5.2.1 Machining a Rectangular pocket

This cycle assumes the cutter is initially placed over the center of the pocket and at some
clearance distance (typically 0.100 inch) above the top of the pocket. Then the cycle will
take over from that point, plunging the cutter down to the "peck depth" and feeding the
cutter around the pocket in ever increasing increments until the final size is attained. The
process is repeated until the desired total depth is attained. Then the cutter is returned to the
center of the pocket at the clearance height as shown in figure 14

Figure 14. Pocket machining

The overall length and width of the pocket, rather than the distance of cutter motion, are
programmed into this cycle.

The syntax is : G87 Xx Yy Zz Ii Jj Kk Bb Cc Dd Hh Ll Ss (This g code is entirely

controller specific and the syntax may vary between controller to controller).
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Description:
x,y - Center of the part
z - Distance of the reference plane from top of part
i - Pocket depth
j,k - Half dimensions of the target geometry (pocket)
b - Step depth
c - Step over
d - Distance of the reference plane from top of part
h - Feed for finish pass
l - Finishing allowance
s - Speed

For machining a circular pocket, the same syntax with code G88 is used

Common G-Words:
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Common M-Words
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Part programming for vertical machining centres

Part programming example 1:

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Part programming example 2:

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Programming on turning centre

Example 1:

N01 G91 G71 M03 S800 (incremental mode,metric, spindle start

with a speed of 800 rpm)
N02 G00 X1.0 (tool away from work piece 1mm, rapid)
N03 G00 Z-1.0 (tool to left 1mm for facing)
N04 G01 X-16.0 F200 (facing cut at a feed rate 200mm/min)
N05 G00 Z1.0 (move tool to right 1mm from that
position)
N06 G00 X10.0 (move 10 mm away from the centre in x
direction)
N07G01 Z-36.0 (plane turning over a length of 35 mm)
N08 G01 X5.0 Z-30.0 (simultaneous movement in X and
Z directions for taper turning)
N09 G00 X1.0 Z66.0 (move to the starting position)
N10 M02 (end of program)

Note:

 I is the X offset is defined as the distance from the beginning of the arc to the centre
of the arc in the X-direction
 K is the Z offset is defined as the distance from the beginning of the arc to the centre of
the arc the Z direction
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Example 2:

N01 G90 G71 M03 S800 (absolute, metric, start spindle at a

speed 800 rpm)
N02 G00 X0.0 Y0.0 (move tool to the beginning of cut)
N03 G02 X10.0 Z-10.0 I 0.0 K-10.0 F150 (clockwise circular interpolation, I&K are
offsets, feed rate 150mm/min)
N04 G00 Z-30.0 (move from point B to point C)
N05 G03 X15.0 Z-35.0 I5.0 K0.0 (counterclockwise interpolation, I&K are
offsets, move to point D)
N06 M02 (end of program)

Note:

 I is the X offset is defined as the distance from the beginning of the arc to the centre
of the arc in the X-direction
 K is the Z offset is defined as the distance from the beginning of the arc to the centre of
the arc the Z direction
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Program without the use of canned cycles:

N01 G00 X25.0 Y35.0 Z2.0 *

N02 G01 Z-18.0 F125 *
N03 G00 Z2.0 *
N04 X55.0 Y50.0 *
N05 G01 Z-18.0 F125 *
N06 G00 Z2.0 *
N07 X75.0 Y70.0 *
N08 G00 Z2.0 *
N09 X0 Y0 Z50.0 *

Program using
canned cycles:
N01 G81 X25.0 Y35.0 Z-
18.0 \R2.0 F125 *
N02 X55.0 Y50.0 *
N03 X75.0 Y70.0 *
N04 G80 X0 Y0 Z50.0 *
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PART PROGRAMMING WITH APT

APT is an acronym that stands for Automatically Programmed Tooling. It is a three

dimensional NC part programming system that was developed in the late 1950s and early
1960s. Today it remains an important language in the United States and around the world,
and most of the CAD/CAM approaches to part programming are based on APT. APT is also
important because many of the concepts incorporated into it formed the basis for other
subsequently developed systems in interactive graphics. APT was originally intended as a
contouring language, but modern versions can be used for both point-to-point and
contouring operations in upto five axes. Our discussion will be limited to the three linear
axes, x, y and z. APT can be used for a variety of machining operations. Our coverage will
concentrate on drilling (point-to-point) and milling (contouring) operations. There are more
than 500 words in the APT vocabulary. Only a small (but important) fraction of the total
lexicon will be covered here.

APT is not a language; it is also the computer program that processes the APT statements to
calculate the corresponding cutter positions and generate the machine tool control
commands. To program in APT, the programmer must first define the part geometry. Then
the tool is directed to various point locations and along surfaces of the workpart to
accomplish the required machining operations. The viewpoint of the programmer is that the
workpiece remains stationary, and the tool is instructed to move relative to the part.
To complete the program, speeds and feeds must be specific, tools must be called,
tolerances must be given for circular interpolation, and so forth. Thus, there are four basic
types of statements in the APT language.

1. Geometry statements are used to define the geometry elements that comprise the
part.
2. Motion commands are used to specify the tool path
3. Postprocessor statements control the machine tool operation, for example, to
specify speeds and feeds, set tolerance values for circular interpolation, and actuate
other capabilities of the machine tool.
4. Auxiliary statements are a group of miscellaneous statements used to name the part
program, insert comments in the program, and accomplish similar functions.

These statements are constructed of APT vocabulary words, symbols, and numbers, all
arranged using appropriate punctuation. APT vocabulary words consist of six or fewer
characters. Such a restriction seems archaic today, but it must be remembered that APT was
developed in the 1950s, when computer memory technology was extremely limited. Most
APT statements include a slash (/) as part of the punctuation. APT vocabulary words that
immediately precede the slash are called major words, whereas those that follow the slash
are called minor words.
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APT Geometry Statements

The geometry of the part must be defined to identify the surfaces and features that are to be
machined. Accordingly, the points, lines, and surfaces must be defined in the program prior
to specifying the motion statements. The general form of an APT geometry statements is
the following:

SYMBOL = GEOMETRY TYPE/descriptive data

An example of such a statement is

P1 = POINT/20.0, 40.0, 60.0

An APT geometry statement consists of three sections. The first is the symbol used to
identify the geometry element. A symbol can be any combination of six or fewer
alphabetical and numerical characters, at least one of which must be alphabetical. Also, the
symbol cannot be an APT vocabulary word. The second section of the APT geometry
statement is an APT major word that identifies the type of geometry element. Examples are
POINT, LINE, CIRCLE and PLANE. The third section of the APT geometry statement
provides the descriptive data that define the element precisely, completely, and uniquely.
These data may include numerical values to specify dimensional and position data,
previously defined geometry elements, and APT minor words.
Punctuation in an APT geometry statement is indicated in the preceding geometry
statements. The geometry definition is written as an equation, the symbol being equated to
the element type, followed by a slash with descriptive data to the right of the slash. Commas
are used to separate the words and numerical values in the descriptive data. There are a
variety of ways to specify geometry elements. In the following discussion, examples of
APT statements will be presented for points, lines, planes, and circles.

Points :

Specification of a point is most easily accomplished by designating its x-,y-, and z-

coordinates.

P1 = POINT/20.0, 40.0, 60.0

where the descriptive data following the slash indicate x-,y-, and z-coordinates. The
specification can be done in either inches or millimeters (metric). We use metric values in
our examples. As an alternative, a point can be defined as the intersection of two
intersecting lines, as in the following:

P1 = POINT/INTOF, L1, L2

where the APT word INTOF in the descriptive data stands for “intersection of”.

Other methods of defining points are also available. Several are illustrated in Figure 1. The
associated points are identified in the following APT statements:
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P2= POINT/YLARGE, INTOF, L3, C2

P2= POINT/XSMALL, INTOF, L3, C2
P3= POINT/XLARGE, INTOF, L3, C2
P3= POINT/YSMALL, INTOF, L3, C2
P4= POINT/YLARGE, INTOF, C1, C2
P5= POINT/YSMALL, INTOF, C1, C2
P6= POINT/CENTER, C1
P7= POINT/C2, ATANGL, 45

Lines :

A line defined in APT is considered to be of infinite length in both directions. Also, APT
treats a line as a vertical plane that is perpendicular to the x-y plane. The easiest way to
specify a line is by two points through which it passes, as in Figure 2:

L1= LINE/P1, P2

The same line can be defined by indicating the coordinate positions of the two points
by giving their x-,y-, and z-coordinates in sequence; for example,

L1= LINE/20, 30, 0, 70, 50, 0

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In some situations, the part programmer may find it more convenient to define a new line as
being parallel to or perpendicular to one of the axes or another line that has been previously
defined; for example, with reference to Figure 3,

L5= LINE/P2, PARLEL, L3

L6= LINE/P2, PERPTO, L3
L7= LINE/P2, PERPTO, XAXIS

where PARLEL and PERPTO are APT’s way of spelling “parallel to” and “perpendicular
to”, respectively.

Figure 3 : Defining a line using a point and parallelism or perpendicularity to another line

Lines can also be defined in relation to a point and a circle, as in Figure 4, as in the
geometry statements

L1= LINE/P1, LEFT, TANTO, C1

L2= LINE/P1, RIGHT, TANTO, C1

where the words LEFT and RIGHT are used by looking in the direction of the circle from
the point P1, and TANTO means “tangent to”.
 VINAYAKA MISSION’S RESEARCH FOUNDATION
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Finally, lines can be defined using a point and the angle of the line relative to the x-axis or
some other line, as in Figure B7.5. The following statements illustrate the definitions:

L3= LINE/P1, ATANGL, 20, XAXIS

L4= LINE/P1, ATANGL, 30, L3

Planes :

A plane can be defined by specifying three points through which the plane passes, as in the
following:

PL1= PLANE/P1, P2, P3

Of course, the three points must be non-collinear. A plane can also be defined as being
parallel to another plane that has been previously defined; for instance,

PL2= PLANE/P2, PARLEL, PL1

which states that plane PL2 passes through point P2 and is parallel to plane PL1. In APT, a
plane extends indefinitely.

Circles :

In APT, a circle is considered to be a cylindrical surface that is perpendicular to the x-y

plane and extends to infinity in the z-direction. The easiest way to define a circle is by its
center and radius, as in the following two statements, illustrated in Figure 6.

C1= CIRCLE/CENTER, P1, RADIUS, 32

C1= CIRCLE/CENTER, 100, 50, 0, RADIUS, 32

Two additional ways of defining a circle utilize previously defined points P2, P3, and P4, or
line L1 in the same figure:

C1= CIRCLE/CENTER, P2, P3, P4 (P2, P3 and P4 must not be collinear)

C1= CIRCLE/CENTER, P1, TANTO, L1
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Other ways to define circles make use of existing lines L2 and L3 in Figure 7. The
statements for the four circles in the figure are the following:

C2= CIRCLE/XSMALL, L2, YSMALL, L3, RADIUS, 25

C3= CIRCLE/YLARGE, L2, YLARGE, L3, RADIUS, 25
C4= CIRCLE/XLARGE, L2, YLARGE, L3, RADIUS, 25
C5= CIRCLE/YSMALL, L2, YSMALL, L3, RADIUS, 25

Ground Rules :

Certain ground rules must be obeyed when formulating APT geometry statement.
Following are four important rules in APT:

1. Coordinate data must be specified in the order x, then y, then z, because the
statement P1=POINT/20.5, 40.0, 60.0

is interpreted to mean x = 20.5 mm, y = 40.0 mm, and z = 60.0 mm

2. Any symbols used as descriptive data must have been previously defined: for
example, in the statement

P1=POINT/INTOF, L1, L2
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the two lines L1and L2 must have been previously defined. In setting up the list of
geometry statements, the APT programmer must be sure to define symbols before
using them in subsequent statements.

3. A symbol can be used to define only one geometry element. The same symbol
cannot be used to define two different elements. For example, the following
statements would be incorrect if they were included in the same program:

P1=POINT/20, 40, 60
P1=POINT/30, 50, 70

4. Only one symbol can be used to define any given element. For example, the
following two statements in the same part program would be incorrect:

P1=POINT/20, 40, 60
P2=POINT/20, 40, 60

Contouring motions :

Contouring commands are more complicated that PTP commands because the tool’s position
must be continuously controlled throughout the move. To exercise this control, the tool is
directed along two intersecting surfaces until it reaches a third surface, as shown in Figure 8.

These three surfaces have specific names in APT:

1. Drive surface : This is the surface that guides the side of the cutter. It is pictured as
a plane in our figure.
2. Part surface : This is the surface, again pictured as a plane, on which the bottom or
nose of the tool is guided.
3. Check surface : This is the surface that stops the forward motion of the tool in the
execution of the current command. One might say that the surface “checks” the
advance of the tool.
 VINAYAKA MISSION’S RESEARCH FOUNDATION
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Example 1 : Apt programming

MACHIN/CNC1
CLPRNT
STPT=POINT/0,0
L1=LINE/50,50,100,50
L2=LINE/50,50,100,150
L3==LINE/50,50,50,150
C1=CIRCLE/100,100,RADIUS,50
P1=POINT/0,0,-20
P2=POINT/50,0,-20
P3=POINT/50,50,-20
PLN=PLANE/P1,P2,P3
CUTTER/10
SPINDL/350
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FEDRAT/30
COOLNT/ON

FROM/STPT
GO/TOL1,TO,L3,TO,PLN
TLRGT,GORGT/L1,TANTO,C1
GOFWD/C1,TANTO,L2
GOFWD/L2,PAST,L3
GOLFT/L3,PAST,L1
GOTO/STPT
COOLNT/OFF
FINI
Note: GO/TO is used to initiate a sequence of contouring motions. Example: motion start
up command in contouring to position cutter against the drive surface, part surface and
check surface.
GOTO moves the cutter to only one point. E.g. GOTO/STPT

Example 2 : Apt programming

 VINAYAKA MISSION’S RESEARCH FOUNDATION
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MACHIN/TMATIC
CLPRNT
NOPOST
STPT=POINT/0,0,0
P1=POINT/125,150
P2=POINT/125,226.6
P3=POINT/377.42,150
L1=LINE/P1,P3
L2=LINE/P2,PERPTO,L1
C1=CIRCLE/294,303.18,53.18
L3=LINE/P2,LEFT,TANTO,C1
L4=LINE/P3,RIGHT,TANTO,C1
P4=POINT/0,0,-25
P5=POINT/50,0,-25
P6=POINT/50,25,-25
PL1=PLANE/P4,P5,P6
CUTTER/12
FEDRAT/300
OUTTOL/0.025
SPINDL/800
FROM/STPT
INDIRV/1,1,0
GO/TO,L1,TO,L2,TO,PL1
TLRGT,GORGT/L1,PAST,L4
GOLFT/L4,TANTO,C1
GOFWD/C1,TANTO,L3
GOFWD/L3,PAST,L2
GOLFT/L2,PAST,L1
SPINDL/OFF
GOTO/STPT
FINI
 VINAYAKA MISSION’S RESEARCH FOUNDATION
AARUPADAI VEEDU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, PAIYANOOR

Example 3 : Apt contouring example

Example 4 : Apt contouring example

 VINAYAKA MISSION’S RESEARCH FOUNDATION
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Example 5 : Apt programming

P0 = POINT/ 0, -2, 0
P1 = POINT/ 0.312, 0.312, 0
P2 = POINT/ 4, 1, 0
C1 = CIRCLE/ CENTER, P1, RADIUS, 0.312
C2 = CIRCLE/ CENTER, P2, RADIUS, 1
L2 = LINE/ RIGHT, TANTO, C2, RIGHT, TANTO,
C1
L1 = LINE/ LEFT, TANTO, C2, LEFT, TANTO, C1
PL1 = PLANE/ P0, P1, P2
MILL = MACRO/ DIA
L2
FROM/ P0
GO/TO, L1, TO, PL1, TO, C2 P2
P1
GOLFT/ L1, PAST, C1 C1 C2
GOFWD/ C1, PAST, L2
L1
GOFWD/ L2, PAST, C2
GOFWD/ C2, PAST, L1
GOTO/ P0
TERMAC P0
CALL MILL / DIA = 0.70
END
FINI
 VINAYAKA MISSION’S RESEARCH FOUNDATION
AARUPADAI VEEDU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, PAIYANOOR
 MANUFACTURING SYSTEM
Planning Manufacturing Systems: When planning manufacturing systems, the degree of
automation that can economically be justified must be considered. Experience has shown that the
most successful ones are those which are not fully automated.

I. Group Technology
II. Process Planning
III. Production Scheduling

Group Technology (GT) in Manufacturing

 Parts in the medium production quantity range are usually made in batches
 Disadvantages of batch production:
 Downtime for changeovers
 High inventory carrying costs
 GT minimizes these disadvantages by recognizing that although the parts are different, there
are groups of parts that possess similarities

Overview of Group Technology in Manufacturing

 An approach to manufacturing in which similar parts are identified and grouped together in
order to take advantage of their similarities in design and production
 The improvement is typically achieved by organizing the production facilities into
manufacturing cells that specialize in production of certain part families
 GT can be implemented by manual or automated techniques
 When automated, the term flexible manufacturing system is often applied

I. Group Technology
Definition: GT is a manufacturing concept in which similar parts are grouped together in parts
groups families.
i). In their Design characteristics (differ in the production processes)
#1 #2
Cold rolled steel Aluminum
tolerance: 0.0125“ 0.003"
Finish: Two coats primer Sand & Puff
.75D
.75D

ii). In the manufacturing processed required to produce them (differ design)

GT exploits the part similarities by utilizing similar processes and tooling to produce them
#1 #2
Material: SS SS
Tolerance: 0.002" 0.002"

Part family concept

 A part that has been designed for manufacturing usually has to be produced by several
succeeding manufacturing operations. If there is a large spectrum of parts to be produced, it
will be necessary for workpieces to share common processing equipment.
 It is advantage to group parts together to families either according to their geometric
similarities or to similar fabrication methods.
 A change of parts would only require a new part program to generate a new contour. The parts
form a design family, they are similar in design, and in this case can also be produced by a
similar manufacturing process.

 The cubical parts which are not very similar any more; however, they also form a production
family and can be made on the same multi-axis machining center.

 The dissimilar parts requiring at least one common process, which is to drill four holes. In this
case, the other processes needed to shape the part would have to be done with different
machine tools. These parts are typical for companies producing a wide spectrum of products.

 Two completely identical designed parts, one made from plastic and the other from steel. The
manufacturing processes would be injection molding for the plastic reel and turning for the
metal reel. In this case we have a common design family; however, the production processes
are unrelated.

 If the parts were to be manufacturing according to group technology considerations, the plant
would have to be realigned.

 The production process assumes a flow line operation with machine tools located in the flow
line where they are needed. It can readily be seen that intra-plant transportation is minimized.
Setup operations and tool changes are also reduced.

Ways to Identify Part Families

1. Visual inspection - using best judgment to group parts into appropriate families, based on the
parts or photos of the parts
2. Production flow analysis - using information contained on route sheets to classify parts
3. Parts classification and coding - identifying similarities and differences among parts and
relating them by means of a coding scheme

Classification Procedures
 With group technology the workpieces and machining operations have to be classified. This
implies that a suitable method of coding must be found which can easily be used for manual
method or computer-aided classification procedures.
 With the manual method the description of parts and processed are cataloged. When a
 workpiece is scheduled for production, a catalog search is made to find a suitable
manufacturing process and sequence.
 When the computer is used, the information about the part and the fabrication process is
stored in a memory peripheral and the manufacturing data are retrieved automatically.
 One of the main difficulties for coding is to decide which parameters are important for
classification. No rigid rule can be given since the parameters may vary, depending on the part
spectrum. A common practice is to separate rotational from non-rotational parts.
 Classification by shape usually determines the manufacturing process, whereas the function is
of interest to the designer. If a part that has similar functions is already in existence, the
designer does not have to duplicate it.
 The result of an industry survey where different parameters for typical workpieces were ranked
in order of importance. The most important ones are candidates to be included in a
classification system

Comparative rankings for major parameters

 Example: A similar study with sheet metal parts. The major shape, the material, and the
material specification had the highest ranking.

Comparative rankings for major parameters

Other Classification Consideration:
 For classification there are also many processing parameters that must be taken into
consideration. This means that the types of processes within the plant and their limitations must
be known.
 Tool changes and setup times usually add considerably to processing cost. Similarly, the
number of machining sequences should be kept to a minimum. The entire machining operation
should be controllable by one operator; otherwise, difficulties may be encountered during
rescheduling of production runs.
 One of the most difficult tasks is to balance the load of available machine tools. In adverse
conditions it may even happen that most operations are done on only a small number of
machine tools and that the rest of the machines are underutilized. This may require an unduly
large effort to balance machine tools.
 There are many parts that cannot be handled by any known classification method. It is
important to perform economic studies when group technology is introduced and to limit its
application to parts that can be grouped together in a family reasonably well.
 A structured bill of materials and common part families *, no part family found.
 In this example group technology can be applied to only about two-thirds of the parts at the
lowest level. This figure shows the importance of investigating the entire product spectrum.

Classification and Coding:

1. Design Attribute Group
 Dimensions
 Tolerances
 Shape
 Finnish
 Material
2. Manufacturing Attribute Group
 Production process
 Operational time
 Tools required
 Fixtures required
 Batch size
3. Combined

Benefits of Classification:
I. Engineering
 Reduction of number of similar parts
 Elimination of duplication parts
 Identification of expensive parts
 Reduction of drafting efforts
 Easy retrieval of similar functional parts
 Identification of substitute parts
II. Equipment Specification and Facility Planning
 Flow line layout of production equipment
 Location of bottlenecks
 Location underutilized machine tools
 Reduction of part transportation times
 Improvement of facility planning

III. Process Planning

 Reduction of number of machining operations
 Shortening of production cycles
 Improvement of machine loading operation
 Easier prediction of tool wear and tool changes

IV. Others

Code Number System:

3 basic code structure used in GT applications
1. Chain-Type Code Structure (Polycode)

2. Hierarchical Code Structure (Monocode and Tree Structure)

3. Hybrid Code Structure

Some of the important systems

 Opitz classification system –the University of Aachen in Germany, nonproprietary, Chain
type.
 Brisch System –(Brisch-Birn Inc.)
 CODE (Manufacturing Data System, Inc.)
 CUTPLAN (Metcut Associates)
 DCLASS (Brigham Young University)
 MultiClass (OIR: Organization for Industrial Research), hierarchical or decision-tree coding
structure
 Part Analog System (Lovelace, Lawrence & Co., Inc.)

Basic Structure of the Opitz Parts Classification and Coding System

1. The Opitz Classification System (Developed by the Technical University of Aachen): the
code number has a maximum of 13 positions. Each position may assume 10 different values
(attributes).
Basic structure of the Opitz system

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D
Form Code Supplementary Secondary Code
Code

Form code: describes the primary design attributes of a part

Supplementary code: describes manufacturing related attributes
Secondary code: more detail of manufacturing attributes

Form code for rotational parts of the Opitz system

 Example of Classification of a rotational part

Example of Classification of a square cast-iron flange classified by the Opitz system

Possible ambiguity with a coding system

2. CODE System (Developed by industry and is marketed by Manufacturing Data System Inc.)

Example of a workpiece coded by the CODE system

3. MICLASS System (Developed in the Netherlands): the abbreviation is derived from the name
Metal Institute Classification System.
Developed to help automate & standardize a number of design, production and management
function.
These include:
Standardization of engineering drawings
Retrieval of drawings according to classification
Standardization of process routing
Automated process planning
Selection of parts processing on particular group of machine tools
 Machine tool investment analysis etc.
The System consists of 30 digits (maximum)
1 2 3 4 ..... 12 13 14 15 ..... 30
Universal Code Special Code
(for any part) (for any company or industry including lot size, cost data,
time, operation sequence, etc.)

The structure of the MICLASS coding system

 Basic form: Basic shape (1), Shape element (2 & 3), Location of the shape element (4)
 Supplementary design and mfg. information: Number of outside diameters (19), Number of
inside diameters or specific shape (20), Rotational grooves or knurls (21), Close tolerance diameters
(22), Splines (23), Gears (24), Sprockets (25), Pitch diameter/diameter pitch (26), Number of teeth
(27)
An example of coding a part using the MICLASS system

4. MultiClass –developed by the Organization for Industrial Research (OIR)

First 18 digits of the Multiclass Classification and Coding System
MultiClass Coding System example –the rotational part design

MultiClass code number for the rotational part

5. DCLASS System
 It is a decision-making and classification system.
 It is a tree-structured system that generates codes for components, material, processes,
machines, and tools. Each branch of the system represents a condition in which a code is
formed at the junction of each branch.
 The complete code is obtained by taking multiple passes in the decision tree.
 Sample of DCLASS code representation
General Code (AA BC DD)
 The code is a numerical code of constant length and is divided into two groups of six digits
each:

 The first digit (AA) has 10 possible values, the second and third digits (B and C) are combined
to give 99 possible subclasses of each item classified, and the last digit (DD) in the general
code has 10 possible values.
 The general code gives a general description of the part, the type of operation it performs, and
other specifications that uniquely identify the product.
Specific Code (XX X X X X)
 The specific code gives us a more detailed description about a part by classifying it into
subclasses.
 Some parts do not need all 12 digits. The extra digits are reserved for possible future
expansion of the company of the company line of products.

Method Used for the Proposed Classification System

 The first step taken in designing the proposed classification system is to break down all of the
compa ny ’sc ompone ntsorpa rtsintoe ightma jorde sig nc lassesa sf
ol lowi ng:
1. Designed piece parts
2. Designed assemblies
3. Designed products
4. Purchased piece parts
5. Purchased assemblies
6. Purchased products
7. Raw material
8. Miscellaneous
Division of a design class into subclasses

Construction of a proposed code

Benefits of a Well-Designed Classification and Coding System
 Facilitates formation of part families
 Permits quick retrieval of part design drawings
 Reduces design duplication
 Promotes design standardization
 Improves cost estimating and cost accounting
 Facilitates NC part programming by allowing new parts to use the same part program as
existing parts in the same family
 Computer-aided process planning (CAPP) becomes feasible

Types of GT cells

(a) Single machine

(b) Multiple machines with manual handling
(c) Multiple machines with mechanized handling
(d) Flexible manufacturing cell
(e) Flexible manufacturing system
 Computer Aided
UNIT 9 COMPUTER AIDED PROCESS Process Planning

PLANNING (CAPP)
Structure
9.1 Introduction
Objectives

9.2 Introduction to Process Planning

9.3 Approaches to Process Planning
9.3.1 Manual Experience-based Process Planning
9.3.2 Computer Aided Process Planning

9.4 Approaches to Computer Aided Process Planning (CAPP)

9.4.1 Variant Process Planning, Advantages and Disadvantages
9.4.2 Generative Process Planning, Advantages and Disadvantages
9.4.3 Knowledge-based Process Planning
9.4.4 Variant or Generative, Which to Use?

9.5 Feature Recognition in Computer Aided Process Planning

9.5.1 Approaches to Part Feature Recognition
9.5.2 Attributed Adjacency Graph Based Approach for Feature Recognition
9.5.3 An Illustrated Example

9.6 Recent Trends in Computer Aided Process Planning

9.7 Summary
9.8 Key Words
9.9 Answers to SAQs

9.1 INTRODUCTION
Before introduction to the role of computer aided process planning (CAPP), it is
worthwhile to understand the role of process planning in the product cycle. Once the
design of the product has been evolved from customer’s views, its manufacturing
necessitates careful planning and scheduling of the various processes of manufacture. So
that, the product is made to right specifications and delivered at the right time at a
minimal cost. The cycle from concept to design, planning, production, quality control
and feedback to design goes on in which one can easily understand the crucial role of
planning. In job/batch manufacture, as an enormous amount of data is needed for
planning as well as other activities, data bases are required and the flow of information
should be fast for a high performance of the total manufacturing system.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
 understand what is process planning and CAPP,
 know the various steps involved in CAPP,
 classify the various methods of CAPP, and
 understand the feature recognition in CAPP.

9.2 INTRODUCTION TO PROCESS PLANNING

In manufacturing, the goal is to produce components that meet the design specifications.
The design specification ensures the functionality aspect. Next step to follow is to
assemble these components into final product. Process planning acts as a bridge 15
CIM Modelling and between design and manufacturing by translating design specification into
Operations
manufacturing process detail. Hence, in general, process planning is a production
organization activity that transforms a product design into a set of instruction (sequence,
machine tool setup etc.) to manufacture machined part economically and competitively.
The information provided in design includes dimensional specification (geometric shape
and its feature) and technical specification (tolerance, surface finish etc.)
Now-a-days, process planning is applied to many manufacturing industries like metal
cutting, sheet metal forming, composite and ceramic fabrication and other manufacturing
processes. Figure 9.1 represents the various steps involved in developing a process plan.
Yes
Error!
Design Specification

Required Product No Analysis of Part Requirements

Selection of Raw Workpiece

Determining Manufacturing
Operation and their Sequences

Selection of Machine
Tools

Implementation
Selection of Tools, Work Holding Devices
(Fixtures) and Inspection Equipments

Determining Machine Conditions (Cutting Speed, Feed,

Process and Depth of Cut and Manufacturing Times (Processing
Planner Time and LeadTime)

Figure 9.1
Various steps are discussed as follows :
The analysis of finished part requirement is the first step in process planning. Initially
the features of parts are analyzed. Examples of geometric feature include plane, cylinder,
cone step, edge and include fillet. These common features can be modified by the
addition of slots, pockets, grooves, holes and others. The second step is the selection of
raw work piece shape, size (dimensions and weight), material and other attributes are
determined. Weight and material of the raw part are determined by the functional
requirement of plan.
The next logical step in process planning is to determine the appropriate types of
processing operations and their sequences to transform the features, dimensions and
tolerances of a part from the raw to the finished state. There may be many ways to
produce a design some times constraints are also considered like some feature be
machined before or after other. Furthermore, the types of machine, available tools as
well as batch size influence the process sequence.
Next step to be followed in process planning is the selection of machine tools on which
16 these operations are made.
Some of the factors which influences the selection of machine tool are as follows : Computer Aided
Process Planning
(i) Attributes related to workpiece, such as desired features, dimensions of
workpiece, dimensional tolerances and raw material form.
(ii) Attributes related to machine tools, e.g. process capability size, mode of
operation, tooling capabilities and automatic tool changing capabilities.
(iii) Attribute related to production volume, e.g. production quantity and order
frequency.
Unit cost of production, manufacture lead time and quality are three basic criteria for
evaluating the suitability of a machine tool to accomplish an operation.
Next step to be followed is the selection of tools work holding devices and inspection
equipments. Features on the workpieces are generated using a combination of machine
tool and cutting tools. Work holding devices are used to locate and hold the workpiece to
generate features. In order to ensure the dimensional accuracy, tolerance and surface
finish on the feature, inspection equipments are required. Part features play a vital role in
the selection of machine tools, fixture and inspection equipment.
Now sixth step which has to be performed is the determination of machining condition
and manufacturing time. The controllable variables of machine condition are cutting
speed (υ), feed (f) and depth of cut (d).
Minimum cost per piece, maximum production rate and manufacture lead time are same
for the model to be optimized for high production and less cost.

9.3 APPROACHES TO PROCESS PLANNING

There are basically two approaches to process planning which are as follows :
(i) Manual experience-based process planning, and
(ii) Computer-aided process planning method.
9.3.1 Manual Experience-based Process Planning
The steps mentioned in the previous section are essentially same for manual process
planning. Following difficulties are associated with manual experienced based process
planning method :
 It is time consuming and over a period of time, plan developed are not
consistent.
 Feasibility of process planning is dependent on many upstream factors
(design and availability of machine tools). Downstream manufacturing
activities such as scheduling and machine tool allocation are also influenced
by such process plan.
Therefore, in order to generate a proper process plan, the process planner must have
sufficient knowledge and experience. Hence, it is very difficult to develop the skill of the
successful process planner and also a time consuming issue.
9.3.2 Computer-Aided Process Planning
Computer-aided process planning (CAPP) helps determine the processing steps required
to make a part after CAP has been used to define what is to be made. CAPP programs
develop a process plan or route sheet by following either a variant or a generative
approach. The variant approach uses a file of standard process plans to retrieve the best
plan in the file after reviewing the design. The plan can then be revised manually if it is
not totally appropriate. The generative approach to CAPP starts with the product design
specifications and can generate a detailed process plan complete with machine settings.
CAPP systems use design algorithms, a file of machine characteristics, and decision
logic to build the plans. Expert systems are based on decision rules and have been used
in some generative CAPP systems.
CAPP has recently emerged as the most critical link to integrated CAD/CAM system
into inter-organizational flow. Main focus is to optimize the system performance in a
17
CIM Modelling and global context. The essentiality of computer can easily be understood by taking an
Operations
example, e.g. if we change the design, we must be able to fall back on a module of CAPP
to generate cost estimates for these design changes. Similarly for the case of the
breakdown of machines on shop floor. In this case, alternative process plan must be in
hand so that the most economical solution for the situation can be adopted. Figure 9.2 is
one such representation, where setting of multitude of interaction among various
functions of an organization and dynamic changes that takes place in these sub
functional areas have been shown. Hence, the use of computer in process planning is
essential.
Product Design and
Organizational Development Request
Planning
System
Part List Connected data
CAD

Geometry
Data
MRP Parts Master Files
Material Resource
Planning CAPP
Capacity Planning Process Plans

Machine, Tool, Fixture

Production Actual Data Bands NC Corrected
Order Data Program Data

CAM Production Control

Figure 9.2 : Framework for Computer Aided Process Planning

CAPP is the application of computer to assist the human process planer in the process
planning function. In its lowest form it will reduce the time and effort required to prepare
process plans and provide more consistent process plan. In its most advanced state, it
will provide the automated interface between CAD and CAM and in the process achieve
the complete integration with in CAD/CAM.
Advantages Over Manual Experience-based Process Planning
The uses of computers in process plan have following advantages over manual
experience-based process planning :
(i) It can systematically produce accurate and consistent process plans.
(ii) It leads to the reduction of cost and lead times of process plan.
(iii) Skill requirement of process planer are reduced to develop feasible process
plan.
(iv) Interfacing of software for cost, manufacturing lead time estimation, and
work standards can easily be done.
(v) Leads to the increased productivity of process planar.
With the emergence of CIM as predominate thrust area in discrete part industries
process planning has received significant attention, because it is the link between
CAD and CAM. Hence, computer aided process planning (CAPP) has become a
18 necessary and vital objective of CIM system.
 Part Family Matrix File Computer Aided
Process Planning
Part Classification
Code
Part Family
Search
Header Data
Formatter

Header Data Header Data Standard

Input Formatting Sequence File

Standard
Editing Sequence
Information Retrieve/Edit Operation Plan File

Operation Plan Process Plan

Editing
Information Retrieve/Edit Application Program

Work Element Processor

Process Plan
Work
Formatter
Element
Processing

Process Plan Formatting Process Plan

Figure 9.3 : Flow Diagram of the CAPP Process Planning System

Steps Involved in CAPP

Now-a-days, rapid progress is being made in the automation of actual production
process and also the product design element. However, the interface between
design and production presents the greatest difficulty in accomplishing integration.
CAPP has the potential to achieve this integration. In general, a complete CAPP
system has following steps :
(i) Design input
(ii) Material selection
(iii) Process selection
(iv) Process sequencing
(v) Machine and tool selection
(vi) Intermediate surface determination
(vii) Fixture selection
(viii) Machining parameter selection
(ix) Cost/time estimation
(x) Plan preparation
(xi) Mc tape image generation.

19
CIM Modelling and
Operations 9.4 APPROACHES TO COMPUTER-AIDED PROCESS
PLANNING
In recent days, several computer-aided process planning systems are available for use for
a variety of manufacturing operation.
These systems can broadly be clarified into two categories :
(i) Variant computer aided process planning method.
(ii) Generative computer aided process planning method.
The details of these are explained in next subsections.
9.4.1 Variant Process Planning, Advantages and Disadvantages
Variant process planning approach is sometimes referred as a data retrieval method. In
this approach, process plan for a new part is generated by recalling, identifying and
retrieving an existing plan for a similar part and making necessary modifications for new
part. As name suggests a set of standard plans is established and maintained for each part
family in a preparatory stage. Such parts are called master part. The similarity in design
attributes and manufacturing methods are exploited for the purpose of formation of part
families. Using coding and classification schemes of group technology (GT), a number
of methods such as coefficient based algorithm and mathematical programming models
have been developed for part family formation and plan retrieval. After identifying a new
part with a family, the task of developing process plan is simple. It involves retrieving
and modifying the process plan of master part of the family.
The general steps for data retrieval modification are as follows :
Establishing the Coding Scheme
A variant system usually begins with building a classification and coding scheme.
Because, classification and coding provide a relatively easy way to identify
similarity among existing and new parts. Today, several classification and coding
systems are commercially available. In some extreme cases, a new coding scheme
may be developed. If variant CAPP is preferred than it is useful for a company to
look into several commercially available coding and classification systems (e.g.
DCLASS, JD-CAPP etc.). Now, it is compared with companies before developing
their own coding and classification system. Because using an existing system can
save tremendous development time and manpower.
(i) Form the Part Families by Grouping Parts
The whole idea of GT lies into group numerous parts into a manageable
number of part families. One of the key issues in forming part families is
that all parts in the same family should have common and easily identifiable
machined features. As a standard process plan are attached with each part
family, thereby reducing the total number of standard process plans.
(ii) Develop Standard Process Plans
After formation of part families, standard process plan is developed for each
part families based on common part features. The standard plan should be
as simple as possible but detailed enough to distinguish it from other.
(iii) Retrieve and Modify the Standard Plans for New Parts
Step1 to step 3 are often referred as preparatory work. Each time when a
new part enters the systems, it is designed and coded based on its feature,
using the coding and classification scheme, and than assigned to a part
family. The part should be similar to its fellow parts in the same family.
Also, family’s standard plan should represent the basic set of processes that
the part has to go through. In order to generate detailed process routes and
operation sheets to this part, the standard plan is retrieved from the data
20
 base and modified. Modification is done by human process planar. After Computer Aided
Process Planning
this stage parts are ready for release to the shop.
The success of aforementioned process planning system is dependent on
selection of coding scheme, the standard process plan and the modification
process, because the system is generally application oriented. It may be
possible that one coding scheme is preferable for one company and same is
not for other company.
Due to use and advancement of computers, the information management
capability of variant process planning is much superior. Otherwise it is quite
similar to manual experience-based planning.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Variant CAPP
Following advantages are associated with variant process planning approach:
(i) Processing and evaluation of complicated activities and managerial issues
are done in an efficient manner. Hence lead to the reduction of time and
labour requirement.
(ii) Structuring manufacturing knowledge of the process plans to company’s
needs through standardized procedures.
(iii) Reduced development and hardware cost and shorter development time.
This is an essential issue for small and medium scale companies, where
product variety is not so high and process planner are interested in
establishing their own process planning research activities.
Disadvantages of Variant Process Planning Approach
Following disadvantages are associated with variant process planning approach
(i) It is difficult to maintain consistency during editing.
(ii) Proper accommodation of various combinations of attributes such as
material, geometry, size, precision, quality, alternate processing sequence
and machine loading among many other factors are difficult.
(iii) The quality of the final process plan largely depends on the knowledge and
experience of process planner. The dependency on process planner is one of
the major shortcomings of variant process planning.
Master Variant File

Process Variant File

Process Selection Logic

Finished Part
Description Material Requirement File
Machine Sequence File
Bill of Materials Machine Tool File
Activity
Variant Process Tool Fixture File
Part No. Planning Mfg. Times File
Process Labour Cost File
Deviation

Text Generator

Process Plan
Activity Text Generation
Activity Report

Figure 9.4 : Framework of Variant Process Planning Activity

21
CIM Modelling and Some of the most widely used process planning method developed by various company
Operations
are mentioned as follows :
(i) Mc Donnell-Douglas automation company under the direction and
sponsorship of Computer Aided Manufacturing International (CAM-I)
developed a system where CAPP can be used to generate process plan for
rotational, prismatic and sheet metal part.
(ii) Organization for Industrial Research (OIR) and General Electric Company
have developed and another process plan named as MIPLAN. It
accommodates both rotational and prismatic part, and is based on
MICLASS coding.
9.4.2 Generative Process Planning, Advantages and Disadvantages
In generative process planning, process plans are generated by means of decision logic,
formulas, technology algorithms, and geometry based data to perform uniquely
processing decisions. Main aim is to convert a part form raw material to finished state.
Hence, generative process plan may be defined as a system that synthesizes process
information in order to create a process plan for a new component automatically.
Generative process plan mainly consists of two major components :
(i) Geometry based coding scheme.
(ii) Proportional knowledge in the form of decision logic and data.
Geometry-based Coding Scheme
All the geometric features for all process such as related surfaces, feature
dimension, locations, on the features are defined by geometry based coding
scheme. The level of detail is much greater in generative system than a variant
system.
For example, various details such as rough and finished state of the part are
provided to transform into desired state.
Proportional Knowledge in the Form of Decision Logic and Data
Process knowledge in the form of decision logic and data are used for matching of
part geometry requirement with the manufacturing capabilities. All the methods
mentioned above is performed automatically.
Operation instruction sets are automatically generated to help the operators to run
the machines in case of manual operation. NC codes are automatically generated,
when numerically controlled machines are used.

Rule 1 Rule 2
Condition Entry Entry ----
: : :
: : :
:

Action Entry Entry ----

. : :
. : :
.

Figure 9.5 : Framework of a Decision Table

22
 Manufacturing knowledge plays a vital role in process planning. The process of Computer Aided
Process Planning
acquisition and documentation of manufacturing knowledge is a recurring
dynamic phenomenon. In addition, there are various sources of manufacturing
knowledge such experience of manufacturing personnel, handbooks, supplier of
machine tools, tools, jigs and fixtures materials, inspection equipment and
customers etc. Hence, in order to understand manufacturing information, ensuring
its clarity and providing a framework for future modification, it is not only
necessary but also inevitable to develop a good knowledge structure from wide
spectrum of knowledge. Flowchart, decision trees, decision tables, algorithms,
concepts of unit machined surfaces, pattern recognition techniques, and artificial
intelligent based tools are used to serve the purpose. A brief discussion on
decision table is given below.
The basic elements of decision tables are condition, action and rules. They are
represented in the form of allocation matrix. Figure 9.4 is one such representation
where condition states the goal that we want to achieve and action states the
operation that we have to perform. On the basis of experience the expert rules are
formed by entry values to establish the relationship between condition and action.
Table 9.1 is one such representation where entry are of Boolean-types (true, false,
don’t care). Similarly, in Table 9.2, continuous value type entries are shown.
Table 9.1 : Boolean Value-Type Entries
Length of bar  8 in. T* F
Diameter of bar  1 in.
Diameter of bar  1 in. T T
- - - -
Extra Support T
* T : True; F : False; blank : don’t care.
Table 9.2 : Continuous Value-type Entries
Length of bar (in) 4 4  16  16

Diameter of bar  0.2 > 0.2 1>diameter>0.2 1

(in.)
Extra support T T T

* T : true; blank : do not care

The decision making process works as follow.

For a particular set of condition entries, look for its corresponding rule from that rule
determine the action.

Advantages of Generative Process Plan

Generative process plans have a number of advantages. Among the major ones are
the following :

(i) They rely less on group technology code numbers since the process, usually
uses decision tree to categorize parts into families.

(ii) Maintenance and updating of stored process plans are largely unnecessary.
Since, any plan may be quickly regenerated by processing through the tree.
Indeed, many argue that with generable systems, process plans should not
be stored since if the process is changed, and out-of-dated process plan
might find its way back into the system.
23
CIM Modelling and (iii) The process logic rules however must be maintained up to dated and ready
Operations
for use. This provides the process planner with an assurance that the
processes generated will reflect state-of-the-art technology.
Description of various generative and variant and generative CAPP systems is
mentioned Table 9.3.
Table 9.3 : Some of the Variant and Generative CAPP Systems
CAPP Part Process Characteristics and Programming Developers
System Shapes Planning Commercial Languages
Approaches Situation Used
CMPP Rotational Generative Uses English like FORTRAN 77 UTRC (USA)
language(COPPL)
GENPLAN All Variant and Interfaced with Lockheed-
Generative CAD\CAM Georgia(USA)
GT-CAPP All Generative Part family code Rockwell Inc
used (USA)
KAPPS Rotational Generative Part family numbers LISP Kobe Univ.
and used (JAPAN)
Prismatic
MIPLAN Rotational Variant Expert system based OIR and GE
and on MICLASS Co.(USA)
Prismatic
RTCAPP Prismatic Generative Generic shell USC (USA)
TURBO- Rotational Generative Knowledge based PROLOG Penn. State Univ
CAPP interfaced with CAD (USA)
XPLAN All Generative Expert system based FORTRAN 77 Tech. Univ. of
on DCLASS DK (Denmark)
XPLAN-R Rotational Generative Expert system based FORTRAN 77 Tech. Univ. of
on DCLASS DK (Denmark)
XPLANE Rotational Generative Knowledge based FORTRAN Twente Univ.
Tech.
(Netherland)
XPS-1 All Variant and COPPL used FORTRAN UTRC and
Generative CAM-I (USA)

(Source : Alting and Jhang (1989))

9.4.3 Knowledge-based Process Planning

The main forces behind to apply knowledge-based (KB) techniques for CAPP is the
requirement of large amount of human expertise in CAPP. Based on the previous
discussion, one realizes that a productive CAPP system must contain tremendous amount
of knowledge – facts about the machine and shop environment as well as rules about
sequencing machining operations must be included. A traditional CAPP program cannot
learn new knowledge without a programmer explicitly rewriting it. The rigidity of
traditional methodology endangers the implementation of CAPP systems. A KB system
stores knowledge in a special manner so that it is possible to add, delete and modify facts
and rules in the knowledge base without rewriting the program, i.e. it learns new things
according to embedded learning procedures.
A complete set of manufacturing knowledge is not equipped by any existing
knowledge-based process planning system. Most of these systems focus on a small
portion of the issues in the domain of automated process planning using an expert
systems approach. Some of them are :
EXCAP Family of Process Planning Systems
EXCAP, EXpert Computer-Aided Process Planning, developed by Davies and
Darbyshire, is a knowledge-based system for rotational part process planning.
24
 EXCAP-A and EXCAP-Y are previous generations of the current member of the Computer Aided
Process Planning
EXCAP family of process planning systems.
GARI
GARI is the first AI-based CAPP program to appear in the literature. It is
implemented in MACLISP and operates on CII-Honeywell Bull HB-68 computer
under the MULTICS operating system. GARI utilizes production rules in its
knowledge representation and generates a process plan from a model of the part. It
emphasizes the “conflict resolution”. The knowledge is rather subjective and
specialized. As a result, in the planning process, “compromises are often
necessary.”
TOM : Technostructure of Manufacturing
TOM is another production rule-based CAPP system written in PASCAL and runs
on VAX computer. TOM was designed to accept input in two ways: (1) directly
entering part desecration by the user, and (2) translating design data from
COMPAC CAD system. TOM can deal with “holes” exclusively.
SIPP : Semi-Intelligent Process Planner
SIPP is an AI-based CAPP system for the creation of metal parts using chip metal
removal operations. It is written in PROLOG and utilizes “frames” as its
knowledge representation scheme instead of using production rules. Frames are
used to represent two types of knowledge: (1) information about the
characteristics of various kinds of machinable surfaces, and (2) the capabilities of
various machining processes.
SIPS
SIPS, another AI-based CAPP system which selects machining operations for the
creation of metal parts, is a successor to SIPP. It is written in LISP and is currently
being integrated into the AMRF (Automated Manufacturing Research Facility)
project, where it is used to select machining operations on a feature by feature
basis.
Like SIPP, SIPS also employs branch and bound search strategy for the least-cost-
first solution in its inference engine. The basic difference between SIPP and SIPS
is that SIPS used a new knowledge representation technique, called hierarchical
knowledge clustering, instead of “flat” frames to represent problem-solving
knowledge.
TOLTEC
TOLTEC is a system equipped with some learning capability. It takes input as
feature-based part description interactively. The features are represented in a
frame structure. It generates output in a form of operations and their sequence.
Turbo-CAPP
Turbo-CAPP is a knowledge-based CAPP system written in PROLOG and capable
of :
 extracting and interpreting surface features from a 2&1/2-D CAD data base.
 performing intelligent reason for process planning.
 learning new process and machining capabilities.
 generating alternative process plans (based on the current status of the
knowledge base).
 creating generic NC part programs for automated.
Turbo-CAPP is designed to handle strictly symmetric rotational parts. It employs a
backward chining inference mechanism for plan generation. In the process of
25
CIM Modelling and creating process plan and NC codes, the system must acquire knowledge from the
Operations
user from time to time.
XPS-2 Family of CAPP Systems
CAM-I started the first structured development of process planning systems. It
then embarked on a form-feature based, generative planning project, XPS and
accomplished with the completion of XPS-2 in 1987. The form feature used to
implement XPS-2 were taken from a “feature taxonomy” developed by CAM-I.
Other Knowledge-Based CAPP Systems
Rather than aforementioned Knowledge-Based CAPP System some other KB
process planning systems are in existence :
(i) CMPP (Austin, 1996) is a planning system for planning cylindrical parts
(also for some non-cylindrical features). It performs dimension, tolerance,
and stock removal analysis based on a sophisticated algorithm with the
objective of optimizing tolerance capabilities of shop equipment.
(ii) Hi-MAPP developed by Brenfi and Khoshnevis.
(iii) Wolfe and Kung in 1984 developed a CAPP system, which reads part
geometry from a PADL model and generates process plans automatically.
9.4.4 Variant or Generative, Which to Use?
What CAPP approach (Variant or Generative) is better? This question has been
constantly asked but, there is no definite answer to it.
Generally speaking, a variant system is better for manufacturing setting where similar
parts are manufactured repetitively. Because parts are similar, Group Technology can
easily be implemented and shows quick and significant return on investment (ROI).
Because similar parts are produced repetitively, process plan can be retrieved, slightly
modified and used, without going through too much trouble. On the other hand,
generative process planning is better suited for a manufacturing environment in which
part does not exhibit too much similarity and new part are introduced on a regular basis.
In this case, benefits cannot be gained from Group Technology due to dissimilarity of
parts. Because, new parts are regularly introduced, historical data does not have too
much value to the process planner. However, aforementioned approach is a rough
guideline for selecting the appropriate CAPP approach.
SAQ 1
(a) What is process planning?
(b) What are the various steps in developing a process plan?
(c) Why the need for CAPP arises?
(d) What are different approaches to CAPP? Describe briefly.
(e) Briefly describe the “Knowledge based Process Planning”.
(f) Write short notes on following :
(i) Manual experience based process plan.
(ii) Computer Aided Process Plan.

26
 Computer Aided
9.5 FEATURE RECOGNITION IN CAPP Process Planning

As we have seen that CAPP system usually serve as link in integrating the CAD and
CAM. However, it is only the partial link due to lack of part feature information
provided by existing CAD/ Drafting system. Part feature information is an essential data
for CAPP. In other words, it is a tedious job for CAPP to understand the three
dimensional geometry of the designed part from CAD system in terms of their
engineering meaning related to assembly and manufacturing. Generally, all CAPP
planning method and systems suffered from such type of problem and is referred as
feature recognition in CAPP.
Hence, objective of feature recognition is to bridge the gap between the database and
automated process planning systems by automatically distinguishing the feature of a part
from the geometry and topological data stored in the CAD system. The essence of
feature recognition can easily be understood by taking an example as shown in
Figure 9.6. This figure is defined by a constructive solid geometry tree that represents a
block primitive and a cylinder primitive combined by the Boolean operator “-”. Shape
and dimension can easily be identified by these schemes but, some higher level
information is not provided by this scheme such as, whether the hole is blind hole or
through hole. Such types of information are called as feature. Hence, features play a vital
role in CAPP. In order to identify features and to solve CAD / CAPP interface problem,
feature recognition is one of the most efficient technique.
Feature recognition transforms a general CAD model into an application specific feature
model. In general, a generic part feature recognition system must be able to resolve
following issues.
(i) Extract design information of a part.
(ii) Identify all surfaces of part.
(iii) Recognize reasons about\and\or interpret these surfaces in terms of Part
features.
Once the features are classified, the automated planning system could develop the
required process plan to make the part and hence, eliminate the need for a human to
translate the CAD data into something that process planning system can understand.
Here, it is pertinent to mention that feature recognition is not only applicable to CAPP
system but it can also be applied to various other engineering applications that require
information about feature of parts classification and automated coding in GT.
Is a blind hole or through hole?

Figure 9.6 : Advance Level Information

9.5.1 Approaches to Part Feature Recognition

The most robust description of any part is provided through solid modelling. Therefore,
these appear to be a logical starting point for developing a feature recognition system.
Henderson and Anderson developed a system called FEATURES to perform automatic
feature recognition using data from solid modelling system. A FEATURE simulates the
human interpretation of part features. The system consists of a feature recognizer,
extractor, and organizer. For objects containing swept features, this system performs
well. This approach is encouraging because, conceptually, it can be applied for more 27
CIM Modelling and complex parts. The FEATURES system uses the boundary representation (BREP) of a
Operations
part, which denotes the faces, edges and vertices (FEV). Thus, features such as holes
must be derived from more primitive data.
Table 9.4 : A Brief Review and Recent Trends in Feature Recognition Research
Author Part Feature-recognition System Recognizable
Features
CAM-1 From feature taxonomy --
Choi CAD/CAM-compatible, toll-oriented process Holes, Slots,
planning system. Pockets
Henderson Extraction of feature information from 3-D CAD data. Holes, Slots,
and Anderson Pockets
Jalubowski Syntactic characterization of machine part shapes. Rotational part
family
Kakazu and Pattern-recognition approaches to GT code Rotational GT
Okino generation. code
Kakino et.al. A method of parts description for computer-aided Grooves,
production planning. steps, flanges
Kung Feature-recognition and expert process planning Holes, Slots,
system Pockets
Kyprianou Shape features in geometric modelling Rotational part
family
Lee Integration of solid modelling and data base --
management for CAD/CAM
Liu Generative process planning using syntactic pattern --
recognition.
Srinrasan, Liu Extraction on manufacturing details from geometric Rotational part
and Fu models family
Woo Computer-aided recognition of volumetric designs --

Representing FEV contained in a BREP graph. As a result a hole may be present as a

collection of faces that must be recognized from the part data.
A number of approaches to part feature recognition for rotational as well as prismatic
parts have been developed. These different approaches are enlisted as follows :
(i) Syntactic Pattern Recognition
(ii) State Transition Diagram and Automata
(iii) Geometry Decomposition Approach
(iv) Expert System Rule Logic
(v) CSG (Set Theoretic) Approach
(vi) Graph Based Approaches
The syntactic pattern recognition and/or expert logic approach are mainly applied for
feature extraction of rotational part feature recognition. The complexity increases in case
for prismatic parts due to lack of rotational property. In this case, the difficulty of both
representation of a generic object and recognition of its feature increases extensively. A
brief review and recent trends in feature recognition research has been enumerated in
Table 9.4.
In next subsection, we have discussed the graph based approach to feature recognition.

28
 Computer Aided
9.5.2 Attributed Adjacency Graph Based Approach for Feature Process Planning
Recognition
Following three steps are involved in Graph based feature recognition
(i) Generating graph based representation of the object to be recognized.
(ii) Defining part features.
(iii) Matching part features in the graph representation.
Generating Graph Based Representation of the Object to be Recognized
During first step graphs are used for representation of the object. This step is
necessary because data extracted from the data base are usually in the form of
boundary representation (BREP) and can not be used for feature recognition.
Information regarding the type of face adjacency and relationship between the sets
of faces should be expressed explicitly to recognize a feature. Here, attribute
adjacency graph (AAG) has been used to demonstrate the recognition process.
Attributed Adjacency Graph
An AAG can be defined as a graph G = (N, A, T), where N is the set of
nodes, A is the set of arcs, T is the set of attributes to arcs in A such that :
 For every face f in F, there exists a unique node n in N.
 For every edge e in E, there exists a unique arc a in A, connecting
nodes ni and nj, corresponding to face fi and face fj, which share the
common edge e.
 “t” is an attribute assigned to every arc a in A, where :
t = 0 if the faces sharing the edge form a concave angle ( or “ inside”
edge)
t = 1 if the faces haring the edge form a convex angle (or “outside”
edge).
The AAG is represented in the form of matrix as follows :
F1 F2 ... ... Fn
F1  E1,1 E1, 2 E1,3 ... E1,n 
 
F2  : : : : : 
:  : : : : : 
 
:  : : : : : 
 
Fn  En,1 En, 2 ... ... En,n 

where 0 if Fi forms a concave angle with Fj

Eij = 1 if Fi forms a convex angle with Fj
 if Fi is not adjacent to Fj

Hence it can easily be understood from above observation that AAG defines
the shape of a part uniquely up to its topology, if and only if the faces are
cut orthogonally.
Definition of Part Feature
First we have to define what actually feature is? In general any shape can be
feature if their manufacturing meanings are defined. There are mainly six features
which are commonly used in manufacturing. These are step, slot, three side
pocket, four side pocket, pocket (or blind hole) and through hole. Figures 9.7(a-f)
represent some of the features and their surfaces are labeled.
Four-side Pocket
F1 is adjacent to F2 and F4 29
CIM Modelling and F3 is adjacent to F2 and F4
Operations
F2 is adjacent to F1, F3, and F4
F4 is adjacent to F1, F3 and F2
F1 forms concave (90o) angles with F2 and F4
F2 forms concave (90o) angles with F3, F1 and F4
F3 forms concave (90o) angles with F2 and F4
F4 forms concave (90o) angles with F1, F2 and F3
Blind Hole (Pocket)
F1 is adjacent to F2, F4 and F5
F2 is adjacent to F1, F3 and F5
F3 is adjacent to F2, F4, and F5
F4 is adjacent to F1, F3, and F5
F5 is adjacent to all other surfaces of the pocket
F1 forms concave (90o) angles with F2, F4 and F5
F2 forms concave (90o) angles with F3, F1 and F5
F3 forms concave (90o) angles with F2 and F4 and F5
F4 forms concave (90o) angles F3, F1 and F5
F5 forms concave angle (90o) with all other surfaces of the pocket
(a)

F1 0
F F
1 2
F2

F3
(b)

F1 0 0
F1 F2 F3
F2

(c) 0
F1 F2
F1
0 0
F2 F3

F3

30
(d) Computer Aided
F2 Process Planning
0
F2 0
F1
F4 F1 0 F3

F3 0 0
F4
(e) F3
F1 0
F1 F2
F4 0

0 0 F5 0 0
0
F2 F4 F3
0

F1 0 F2
(f) F3
F2
F1 0 0

F4 0 F3
F4

Figure 9.7(a-f) : Various Features

Matching the Features
After execution of step 1 and 2, the main task is to recognize AAG subgraph
instead of recognizing machining features in parts. Because, complete AAG graph
represents the part and subgraphs represent the features. It is computationally
complex task to identify subgraphs in a graph. Although, there is no general way
or algorithm to solve the problem.
Joshi and Chang, 1988 used an algorithm to identify the components of the graph
that could form a feature. The algorithm is based on the following observations :
A face that is adjacent to all its neighbouring faces with a convex angle 270 o does
not form part of a feature. This observation is used as a basis for separating the
original graph into subgraphs that could corresponds to features. The separation is
done by deleting some nodes of the graph. The delete node rule follow IF THEN
rule and given as follows. For all nodes :
If (all incident arcs of a node have attribute “1”)
Then (delete this node (and all the incident arcs at the node) from AAG)
Delete node rule actually delete rows and column that represent the nodes in the
matrix. Now feature recognition rule are applied to identify that whether or not a
sub-graph represent a feature. On the basis of feature definition some rules are
written. In order to identify features some rules are given as follows :
For a Given AAG
It is a four side feature if
(The AAG subgraph has four nodes) and (The number of arcs with
attribute “0” is the number of nodes plus one).
It is a pocket feature if
(The AAG subgraphs have five nodes) and (The number of arcs with
attribute”0” is the number of attributes plus three).
31
CIM Modelling and In some of the cases, delete node rule fails. This is due to the intersection of
Operations
features. Delete node rule cannot separate complete AAG graph into subgraphs,
particularly for the case when features intersects. Hence, only for those cases
when features are disjoint, delete node rule can be applied.
Following procedures are used to separate the subgraphs for intersecting features.
 Delete all 1 arcs
 Form the subgraphs that may or may not represent the features.
 If not all the subgraphs, represent features, restore the one arc deleted
within the subgraph.
The main task of this procedure is to separate the graphs into subgraphs. If the
procedure is successful, it greatly reduces the computational effort otherwise
graph remains unchanged.
9.5.3 An Illustrative Example
An example is taken from Li (1992), which is illustrated as follows
Example 9.1
It is easy for human to recognize that the part shown in Figure 5.14(a) has a slot
and a pocket feature. In this example, however, we simulate the computer to apply
the feature recognition algorithm discussed earlier. We, therefore, want to solve
the following problem :
(i) Develop the AAG of the object, (ii) Give the matrix representation of the
AAG, and (iii) Recognize the features in this object.
Solution
(i) First, we have to label each surface of the part. Given that the part is labeled
as shown in Figure 9.8(a), we develop the AAG as shown in
Figure 9.8(b) from the definition of AAG. By the definition of AAG we
mean that each surface of this part is represented by a node and each edge
by an arc with attribute 1 or 0.
(ii) For propose of inputting the AAG graph into the computer, we have to
convert the graph to matrix form. The matrix representation of AAG is
given as follows.
F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 F8 F9 F10 F11 F12 F13 F14 F1 5
F1
F2 9 0 9 0 0 1 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
F3 . 9 F0 9 0 1 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
. 9
1

F4 . 9 0 0 1 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
 
F5 . . . 9 9 1 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
F6 . . . . 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
F7 . . . . . 9 1 9 9 9 9 9 1 1 1
. . . . . . 9 1 9 9 9 9 9 1 1
F8 . . . . . . . 9 1 9 9 9 9 1 1
F9  
F10 . . . . . . . . 9 1 9 9 9 1 1
. . . . . . . . . 9 1 9 9 1 1
F11 s y m m e t r y . . 9 0 9 1 1
F12 . . . . . . . . . . . 9 0 1 1
F13 . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1 1
 
F14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 9
F15  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
32
 (iii) Apply the delete node rule of the algorithm; that is delete the nodes Computer Aided
Process Planning
connected with all “1” attributer arcs. Also delete these “1” arcs. Doing this
on the adjacent matrix, we remove the rows and columns without
0 elements. For example, row 15 and column 15 represent this type of arc
and can be deleted. After all such arcs are deleted, the present matrix will
result into two unrelated sub-matrices. Each sub-matrix represents a sub-
graph. We find that “0” in column 12, which is F12. We find that two disjoint
subgraphs are generated (from Figure 9.8(d)). Figure 9.8(c) gives the same
structure as the one shown in Figure 9.8(b), which corresponds to the slot
feature. Thus the first feature that is recognized is the slot feature. In the
computer this matching is achieved by applying the identifying rules. That
is, if AAG subgroup has three nodes and the number of arcs with attribute
“0” is 2, and then it is a slot. Also, because Figure 9.8(d) has the same
structure as the one shown is Figure 9.7(e), it is a pocket. As there are no
more features to be recognized. We conclude that there are two features in
this part, a slot and a pocket.
15 3

9 10
11 2
12 1 5 6
7
13 4
14
8
Figure 9.8(a)

0
0 1 4
0 0
1 1 1 9
0
7 1 8
2 3 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 0 1 1
0 0 1
6 10
5
14 1
1 1
1 1 1
1
0
13 15 11
0 12 1 1
1

Figure 9.8(b) : AAG for the Example Part

4 0 1

0
0

5 0
0
0 0

3 2
0

(c) AAG for Slot Features

33
CIM Modelling and
Operations 11 0 12 0 13

Figure (d) : AAG for Pocket Feature

9.6 RECENT TRENDS IN CAPP

In the global competitive market, various areas such as design process planning,
manufacturing and inspection plays a vital role in reducing cost and lead time. In the
various areas, different kind of interference mechanism has been developed. A lot of
difficulty arises while integrating the goal in CIM environment. For example, all
functional areas have its own standalone relational database and associated database
management system. One of the main difficulties posed in CIM environment is the
incompatibility of software and hardware incompatibility. Hence, it is not only desirable
but also inevitable to develop a single database technology to address these problems.
The major challenges of and research areas are to make CAPP system affordable to the
medium and small scale manufacturing industries. Hence recent trends in CAPP systems
include :
 Automated translation of the design dimensions.
 Tolerances into manufacturing dimensions.
 Tolerances considering process capabilities.
 Dimensional chains.
 And to make CAPP system affordable for small and medium scale
manufacturing industries.
SAQ 2
(a) What do you mean by Feature Recognition?
(b) What are different steps of Graph based approach?
(c) Mathematically define AAG.
(d) Discuss about future trends in CAPP.
(e) What are the achievements of CIM?

9.7 SUMMARY
In the early 1970s, the function of process planning received very little attention. Today,
manufacturing environment has become more complex and competition has become
more intense. Hence, process planning has been accepted as critical to the success of
many companies. Process planning bridges the gap between design and manufacturing.
In addition, it has been acknowledged to be the link between CAD and CAM. As a result
process planning is recognized as a vital element in CIM environment.
This unit dealt with process planning where more focus was concentrated on CAPP. It
begins with the introduction of process planning and its various components. We
discussed and illustrated with examples the element of process planning, such as analysis
34
of part requirement; selection of the raw workpiece; determining manufacturing Computer Aided
Process Planning
operation and their sequences; selection of machine tools; selection of tools, jigs or
fixtures and inspection equipment; and determining machining condition and
manufacturing times (setup time, processing time and lead time). After that Computer
Aided Process Planning is discussed by explaining the reason why Computer Aided
Process Planning has recently received much attention both in industry and academia. It
follows by an overview of basic approaches for building Computer Aided Process
Planning system : variant and generative. It then discusses the basic component required
in a variant or generative system. A few existing knowledge based Computer Aided
Process Planning systems are reviewed. After that, principles of making decisions for
using either variant or generative approaches are discussed. Feature recognition in
Computer Aided Process Planning has been discussed with a brief review of part feature
recognition approaches. In this unit, we limit our exposition to the graph based approach
to feature recognition. And finally focuses are made on recent trends in Computer Aided
Process Planning.

9.8 KEY WORDS

Process Planning
Computer-Aided Process
Planning
Variant Process Planning
Generative Process Planning
Feature Recognition
: Process planning is a production organization
activity that transforms a product design into a set
of instruction (Machine tool setup etc.) to
manufacture market part or produced
economically and competitively.
: Computer aided process planning has recently
emerged as the most critical link to integrate
CAD/CAM system into inter-organizational flow.
: In this approach, process plan for a new part is
generated by recalling, identifying and retrieving
an existing plan for a similar part and making
necessary modifications for new part.
: In Generative Process Planning, process plans are
generated by means of decision logic, formulas,
technology algorithms, and geometry based data to
perform uniquely processing decisions.
: Objective of feature recognition is to bridge the
gap between the database and automated process
planning systems by automatically distinguishing
the feature of a part from the geometry and
topological data stored in the CAD system.

9.9 ANSWERS TO SAQS

Refer the relevant text in this unit for Answer to SAQs.

35
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UNIT V

SHOP FLOOR CONTROL AND INTRODUCTION OF FMS

Shop Floor Control and FMS: Shop floor control-phases, Factory data collection
system, Automatic identification methods- Bar code technology, Automated data
collection system, FMS-components of FMS - types -FMS workstation, Material
handling and storage systems, FMS layout, Computer control systems-application
and benefits

3. Introduction to Shop Floor Control

Monitoring the progress of the jobs is an integrated part of CIM. Collection of

machine data statistics, estimation of the non-production times and machine
utilization, tracking of flow of materials, determination of job completion times and
realization of schedules, etc., are necessary to evaluate the efficiency of the
functioning of the system. This requires automatic or direct data collection from the
shop floor. The techniques and technologies by which the status of production is
collected are called shop floor data collection. Fig. 24 illustrates various types of
information/data to be collected from the shop floor. These include:

(i) Machine data

(ii) Operator data
(iii) Tooling data
(iv) Data relating to jobs to be done
(v) Materials data
(vi) Materials handling data
(vii) Scheduling data
(viii) Process planning data
(ix) Inspection data
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Fig -24 Components of Shop Floor Information System

Material processing is a typical example of data collection. The various process

planning methods described in Chapter 9 are used to plan the execution of the work
before the actual manufacturing commences. It is necessary to monitor the process
of the work to make sure that the work is performed as planned. This necessitates
collection of shop floor data which includes machine data, actual completion time,
and movement of the materials and the utilization of other resources. There are
several variables affecting the manufacturing productivity. These are shown in Fig.
25. Monitoring of shop floor data helps to identify factors which adversely affect
productivity

Fig. 25 Variables Affecting Manufacturing Productivity

Shop Data Requirements

People - Availability

a: Workstations
b: Idle
c: Absent
Machines -
Status
a: Idle
b: Setup
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c: Production
d: Delay
e: Downtime
a: Raw Stores
b: Transit

c: On-machine
d: Waiting
e: Finished stores
f: Assembly
g: Missing

3.1 Shop Floor Control

Shop floor control deals with managing the work-in-process. This consists of the
release of production orders to the factory, controlling the progress of the orders
through the various work stat ons, and getting the current information of the status of
the orders. This can be shown in the form of a factory information system. (Fig. 26).
The input to the shop floor control system is the collection of production plans. These
can be in the form of master schedule, manufacturing capacity planning and ERP
data. The factory production operations are the processes to be controlled.

A typical shop floor control system consists of three phases. In a

computer integrated manufacturing system these phases are managed by computer
software. These three phases connected with the production management is shown
in Fig. 27. In today’s implementation of shop floor control, these are executed by a
combination of computers and human resources. The following sections describe the
important activities connected with this task
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Fig. 27 Phases in Shop Floor Control

Order Release

The order release in shop floor control provides the documentation needed to
process a production order. The documents in the shop floor order may consists of
the following documents

(i) Route Sheet

(ii) Material requisition to draw necessary materials from the stores

(iii) Job cards or other means to report direct labour time given to the order.

(iv) Instructions to material handling personnel to transport parts between the work
centres in the factory

(v) Parts list for assembly, in the case of assembly operations.

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In a typical factory which works on manual processing of data these documents

move with the production order and are used to track the progress through the shop.
In a CIM factory, more automated methods are used to track the progress of the
production orders. The order release is connected with two inputs. Authorization
proceeds through the various planning functions (MRP, capacity planning). These
provide timing and scheduling information. The engineering and manufacturing
database provides the product structure and process planning information needed to
prepare the various documents that accompany the order through the shop.

Order Scheduling

This module assigns the production orders to various work centres, machine tools,
welding stations, moulding machines etc., in the plant. It follows directly from the
order release module. Order scheduling executes the dispatch function in production
planning and control. The order scheduling module prepares a dispatch list that
indicates which production order should be accomplished at the various work
centres. It provides the information on the relative priorities of the various jobs by
showing the due dates for each job. By following the dispatch list in making work
assignments and allocating resources to different jobs the master schedule can be
best achieved. The order schedule module addresses to two important activities in
shop floor production control.

(i) Machine loading

(ii) Job sequencing.

Allocating the orders to the work centres is termed as machine loading or shop
loading, which refers to the loading of all machines in the plant. In most cases each
work centre will have a queue of orders waiting to be processed. This queue problem
can be solved by job sequencing. This involves determining the order in which the
jobs will be processed through a given work centre. To determine this sequence,
priorities are given to jobs in the queue and the jobs are processed according to the
priorities. Several queuing models are available in operations management to solve
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this problem. This control of priorities is an important input to the order scheduling
module. Rules to establish the priorities are:

(i) Earliest due date: These are given high priority

(ii) Shortest processing time: Shorter processing time orders are given high priority.

(iii) Least slack time: Orders with least slack time are given high priority.

Fluctuations in market demand, equipment breakdown, cancellation of the order by

customer and defective raw material or delay in the receipt of materials affect the
priority. The priority control plan reviews the relative priorities of the orders and
adjusts the dispatch list accordingly.

Order Progress

The order progress module in the shop floor control system monitors the status of
the various orders in the plant work-in-process and other characteristics that indicate
the progress and performance of production. The function of the order progress
module is to provide the information that is useful in managing the factory based on
the data collected from the factory. The order progress report includes:

(i) Work order status reports: These reports indicate the status of the production
orders. Typical information in the report includes the current work centre where each
order is located, processing hours remaining before completion of each order,
whether the job is on-time or behind schedule, and priority level.

(ii) Progress report: A progress report records the performance of the shop during
the period of master schedule and reports the number of operations completed and
not completed during the time period.
(iii) Exception reports: These reports bring out the deviations from the production
schedule (ex. overdue jobs).
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The above reports are useful to production management in making the decisions
about allocation of resources, authorization of the overtime hours, and other capacity
issues, and in identifying areas of problems in the plant that adversely affect the
implementation of the master production schedule.

3.2 Shop Floor Data Collection

There are several of data collection techniques to gather data from the shop floor.
Some of the data are keyed by the employees and the rest are recorded
automatically. Later the data is compiled on a fully automated system that requires
no human intervention. These methods are collectively called as shop floor data
collection systems.

These data collection systems consist of various paper documents, terminals and
automated devices located through the plant in a plant. The shop floor data
collection system serves as an input to the order progress module in shop floor
(Fig.20.4). Examples of the data collection in shop floor are:

(i) To supply data to the order progress module in the shop floor control system.

(ii) To provide up to date information to the production supervisors and production

control personnel.

(iii) To enable the management to monitor implementation of master schedule.

To carry out this, the factory data collection system inputs the data to the computer
system in the plant.

Types of Data Collection Systems

The shop floor data collection systems can be classified into two groups.
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(i) On-line data collection systems

(ii) Off-line data collection systems

On-Line Data Collection Systems

In an on-line system, the data are directly entered to the computer and are available
to the order progress module. The advantage lies in the fact that the data file
representing

the status of the shop is always at the current state. As and when the changes in the
order progress module are reported they can be fed to computer and in turn to the
status file. In this way the production personnel are provided with most up-to-data
information.

Off-Line (Batch) Data Collection Systems

In this the data are collected temporarily in a storage device or a stand-alone

computer system to be entered and processed by plant computer in a batch mode.
In this mode there is delay in the entry and processing of the data. The delay may
vary depending upon the situation. So this system cannot provide real time
information of shop floor status. The advantage of this system is that it is easier to
install and implement.

Data Input Techniques

As stated earlier, the data collection techniques include manual procedures and
computer terminals located on the shop floor. The manual data collection methods
require the production workers to fill out paper forms indicating order progress data.
These forms are compiled using a combination of clerical and computerized
methods.
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The manual data collection methods rely on the co-operation and clerical accuracy of
the employees to record a data property on a proper document. Errors may creep in
this type of method. The common forms of errors that can be checked and rectified
are wrong dates, incorrect order numbers and incorrect operation numbers. These
can be detected and corrected. There are, however, other errors which are difficult to
identify.

Another problem is that there may be a delay in submitting the order progress for
compiling. The reason is that there will be always a time lapse between when
occurrence of events and recording of events.

These problems necessitate the location of the data collection equipment in the
factory itself. The various input techniques include manual input by push-button pads
or keyboards. Error checking routines can be incorporated to detect the syntax errors
in the input. The data entry methods also include more automated technologies,
such as bar code reader, magnetic card readers etc.

An important type of equipment used in shop floor data entry is keyboard based
systems. There are various types of such systems. They are discussed in the
following sections.

Centralized Terminal

A single terminal is located centrally in the shop floor. This requires the employees to
go to the terminal and input the data. So employee’s time will be wasted and in a big
shop, this becomes inconvenient.

Satellite Terminals
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These are multiple data collection centres located throughout the shop floor. In this
arrangement a balance is to be struck between the minimization of the investment
cost and maximization of the convenience of the employees in the plant.

Work Centre Terminals

The most convenient arrangements to the employees are to have a data collection
terminal at each work centre. This reduces the time to go to the central terminal. This
can be applied when the amount of data to be collected is very large.

Automatic Data Collection System

The recent trend in industry towards use of more automation necessitates putting in
human participation is unavoidable in many cases. The advantages of the automatic
data collection methods are:

(i) The accuracy of data collected increases

(ii) The time required by the workers to make the data entry can be
reduced. The basic elements in data collection systems are:

(i) Machine readable media

(ii) Terminal configuration

(iii) Software for data collection.

Machine Readable Media

Typical machine readable media include:

(i) Bar Code Technology

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(ii) Optical Character Recognition (OCR)

(iii) Magnetic Ink Character

(iv) Voice Recognition (VR)

(v) Magnetic Strip Technology

(vi) Smart Cards

Bar Code Technology

Bar code technology is primarily an automatic identification technique. The data is

simply reduced to a printed form, which consists of a symbol made of successive line
segments. A bar code reader is used to illuminate the bar code symbol and examine
successive segments of the symbol. The detected area may be a highly reflected
area (space) or a non-reflective (bar). As the reader moves reader over the bar code
symbol, due to reflectivity and nonreflectivity, alternate transitions from light to dark
and dark to light occur. These are detected and the time it will take will be converted
to digital representations of ones and zeros of the bar code messages. Most
commonly used bar codes are:

(i) Universal Product Code (UPC)

(ii) Interleaved 2 of 5 (ITF)

(iii) Code 39

(i) Fixed Beam Reader

(ii) Moving Beam Reader

Fixed Beam Reader

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Bar code readers are either fixture mounted or hand held. The simplest form of bar
code reader is a light pen. The tip of the light pen is moved in contact with the
symbol and moves the tip from leading zone through trailing zone in a smooth
sweeping motion. The fixed beam light pen nearly or actually touches the symbol. In
fixture mounted

reader the beam reader is fixed and the symbol moves. The reader is mounted on a
conveyor or a transport system, observing a symbol while it passes through a reader
beam. The fixed beam reader reads the symbol only once. In hand-held fixed beam
reader the symbol can be rescanned easily. In the fixture mounted bar code reader
some mechanism which moves the symbol towards the symbol is necessary i.e., an
intervention by operator is needed.

In fixed beam reader the contact with the symbol may erase the symbol and so it is
less readable in subsequent attempts to read the symbol. Contact scanning of the
symbol requires a smooth surface. So it is not suitable to read all the surfaces on
which the symbols are printed. Light pens interpret a narrow section of the symbol
printed on a surface. This may cause the distortion of the image. Fixed beam reader
takes more time to read the symbol. Speed of fixed beam readers is a function of
conveyor speed and height of the bar code symbol. Faster scanners are required for
shorter symbols and slower scanners are required for larger symbols.

Moving Beam Reader

These minimize limitations of the fixed beam reader i.e., intervention problem and
contact with the symbol. Moving beam reader, as the name indicates, scans the
symbol by a line of light emitted from the reader. This is actually a spot which moves
at faster rates appearing as a straight line. A moving beam reader takes less time to
scan the symbol depending on the type of equipment. The light emitted from the
moving beam reader can be drawn through the symbol in both the configurations i.e.,
hand held and conveyor configurations. Multiple viewing of the symbol provides
quick and correct information to convert the image to computer data.
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Elements of Bar Code Readers

The hardware of a bar code reader consists of a detector and a light source.

(i) All fixed, moving beam readers will have a single detector which samples very
small areas of the symbol. The detector used is linear charge coupled device. These
employ a line of detectors which takes a snap shot of the symbol and projects the
image on photo sensitive device. Then the detector is amplified to know whether it
has observed a
space or a bar. This is applied for a bar code of maximum length of 5 cm or less.
This cannot be used for larger bar codes. A matrix charge coupled device has a
matrix of detectors (64 pixels long and 64 pixels high). These can be used either
hand held or moving configurations or eliminates the problems associated with the
voids, spots and edge roughness of the code. These can be used to detect long
narrow bars as well as wide bars.

(ii) The light source employed in a bar code reader to illuminate the symbol may be
a red light or infrared light.

Red light is obtained from Helium-Neon lamp transmitting at 633 nanometres. The
problem associated with this is that red and white colors appear to be same for the
detector. Infrared light source operates at 900 nm and is invisible to the human eye
but can be detected by the photo detector. Limitations of this type are the ink used to
print bar code should have high carbon content. A light source which operates at 800
nm or nearly infra red range will be able to read dye and colour based inks having
high carbon content. The cost of bar code system depends on the manufacturing
facility. If the same manufacturing organization is printing and reading the symbol,
the cost may be less.

Optical Character Recognition

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The optical character recognition (OCR) employs special fonts which can be read by
man and machine. This is more reliable than key entry but less reliable compared to
bar code technology. OCR fonts or characters are ‘read’ by software template
techniques or feature extraction or combination of both. So each character is to be
unique compared to other characters in the set.

When a number of pages of data are to be input to a computer system, optical page
readers are very useful. Optical page readers are similar to the office copiers. In
OCR, entire page is to be scanned before next page is presented to the reader. The
characters in a page are identified by the reader by the specific font styles and sizes.
In OCR, the reading device is to be passed over the OCR character a number of
times. Here, the reader must be precisely positioned over the string which is to be
read. The poses a problem when long strings of information are to be read. OCR is
very sensitive to the motion of the operator’s hand during reading. OCR cannot read
the symbols on

the moving objects. To read the information on the moving objects a strobe light is to
be synchronized with object.

OCR techniques identify the horizontal and vertical strokes, curves and endings
peculiar to each character. The absence of vertical redundancy and repeating
character pattern causes OCR to be prone to errors. These are caused by poor print
quality and those introduced through scanning process.

Magnetic Ink Character Recognition

Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) uses stylized OCR fonts. The fonts are
printed with a magnetic ink to permit readability after being overprinted or even
smudged. MICR is used to read smaller documents of size 7 to 20 cm. Like OCR,
these also require precise orientation and registration.
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Voice Recognition

Speech is the most natural way of communication. This eliminates the need of the
user to understand a computer system. Voice technology is intelligently packaged
and applied in several applications. Moreover the training can be minimized and the
key board entry can be eliminated and hand and eye co-ordination is no longer
needed. Voice recognition (VR) is of two types:

(i) Speaker dependent

(ii) Speaker independent

Most voice recognition systems are speaker independent systems. VR systems

recognize the user’s vocabulary and store a computer image of each utterance and
compare later the input words to the computer stored words. If the input matches the
stored pattern, recognition is achieved. This provides larger vocabulary and accurate
recognition. Commercial VR systems are having around a few hundred words in
active vocabulary and skilful programming can develop application dependent
vocabularies.

Real application of VR systems rests on the fact that user need not be trained to use
the system. Speaker independent system uses recognition template from memories
of the previously recorded images. The templates represent speech patterns of both
male and female speakers. These are now available with limited vocabularies.

Smart Cards

Smart cards are made of plastic. They are of the size of a credit card and are
embedded with one or more microchips. These have an 8-bit or higher level
microprocessors and will have a storage capacity of about 8 kB. Recent cards can
carry up to 256 kB with the contacts removed and integrated with keypads. Personal
identification numbers (PIN) prevent unauthorized use of smart cards.
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Data Acquisition Systems (DAS)

The trend in shop floor data collection is towards the more use of the automated
systems. Some of the bar code reading methods and other automatic identification
methods discussed earlier can be operated in a fully automated mode. Computer
process monitoring system involves a computer which is directly connected with the
manufacturing process for the purpose of collecting the data on the process and the
equipment.

The hardware components of the computer process monitoring system used to input
the data from the process are sensors and transducers, analog-to-digital converters,
limit switches and photo detectors, pulse generators etc. A data acquisition system is
a computer system used to collect the data from a process or piece of equipment.
These perform an analysis of data or transmit the data to another computer for
processing and analysis. A microprocessor is used as the controller/processor in a
DAS. Other controllers use minicomputers or single board computers. The function
of the controller/processor is to synchronize the data sampling and storage and
tabulate data for presentation and statistical and other analysis. Components of DAS
include analog transducers, Analog-to-digital converters, digital transducers, and
digital input interfaces. Separate data acquisition modules are often attached with
FMS elements to enable operation to send status information to the control
computer.

4. Introduction to FMS

Intense competition in the global market for mechanical parts manufactured on

machine tools and other metal working equipment has compelled manufacturers to
reduce delivery times and quote competitive prices even for relatively small orders.
In many situations, manufacturers have to deliver customized products to the
consumers. The batch size is ever-decreasing, and the need to meet specific
customer needs calls for considerable flexibility in the working of the manufacturing
system. In this situation, the requirements that a modern manufacturing facility has to
meet can be detailed as follows:
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• High productivity for all batch sizes, large or small

• Shorter throughput times

• Lower storage costs

• Reduced labour if not altogether avoiding labour

• Reduced handling

• Flexible production system to incorporate product changes at short notice to meet

customer’s specific requirements

• Sensing and taking care of such eventualities like tool breakage.

Conventional high volume production facilities such as automatic equipment and

transfer lines do not fulfill these requirements. This provided sufficient reason for
manufacturing engineers to turn attention to alternative approaches to
manufacturing.

Flexible manufacturing cells and flexible manufacturing systems have been evolved
to meet the requirements listed above.

The functions of many manufacturing equipment have already been automated

through the use of CNC and PLC. The next stage is to automate the wider
manufacturing environment comprising the following activities:

• Management of resources

• Storage, preparation and transport of raw workpieces and finished components

• Acquisition, processing and evaluation of production data

• Inspection of workpieces and continuously monitoring the performance of

production equipment

• Testing of products
• Developing software to control all the above operations.
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In such a process of integrated automation it is necessary to combine a number of

machines, both mechanically and in terms of data processing into a closely linked
manufacturing unit. In this way, highly automated manufacturing units (cells) are
created which are capable of handling a number of different workpieces without
interruptions due to operations like setting up workpieces, tool change, inspection
etc.

Monitoring and process correction facilities through appropriate sensors are also part
of the system so that operator intervention is kept to a bare minimum. Manufacturing
cells normally contain 1 to 4 production machines. In addition to various “service
machines” such as measuring machines and washing machines) and transport
systems like automated guided vehicles, rail guided vehicles and conveyors for the
workpieces and for the tools. The cell computer simultaneously controls the
manufacturing operations within the manufacturing cell.

4.1 Subsystems of FMS

There are three major subsystems in FMS:

(i) Computer-controlled manufacturing equipment (e.g. numerically controlled

machine tools, robots, gantry loaders, palletizing systems, washing stations, tool pre-
setters, in-process inspection systems etc.)

(ii) Automated materials storage, retrieval, transport and transfer system

(iii) Manufacturing control system (including both machine tool, tool and logistics
control)

Some FMS’s have additional subsystems. For example, in a machining application

there may also be systems for presetting tools, storing and retrieving tools, disposing
of chips and cutting fluids, washing and inspection workpieces. These subsystems
must be linked together to achieve integrated manufacturing operation.
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4.2 Scope of FMS

Although this was initially developed for machining applications, the concept of FMS
has subsequently been used in a variety of other manufacturing applications, such
as:

• Assembly of equipments

• Semiconductor component manufacturing

• Plastic injection moulding

• Sheet metal fabrication

• Welding

• Textile machinery manufacture

Such systems have proved to be practical and economical for applications with the
following characteristics:

• Families of parts with similar geometric features that require similar types of
equipment and processes

• A moderate number of tools and process steps

• Low to medium quantities of parts

• Moderate precision requirements

4.3 FMS Compared to other types of Manufacturing Approaches

One-off and low volumes of production are normally carried out by conventional
general purpose machine tools. When the number of parts in a production run is
more it is called batch production. A batch production shop is best suited for small
quantities of many different types of parts. The very nature of production makes the
operation of a job shop less efficient than an automated production line.
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Since the job shop must be provided the greatest degree of flexibility, most of its
operations are manual. They are normally equipped with general purpose CNC
machine tools. Hard automation with dedicated equipment is best suited for the
production of very large quantities of identical parts. Production of automobile
components in a transfer line falls under this category. A large portion of the
manufacturing industry involves the intermediate level of batch operations that lend
themselves to the FMS approach. In this case volume is less but varieties are more.

FMS thus basically attempts to efficiently automate batch manufacturing operations.

They are an alternative that fits in between the manual job shop and hard
automation. FMS is best suited for applications that involve an intermediate level of
flexibility and low or medium quantities. Fig. 28 shows the different types of
production systems and it can be seen from the figure that FMS fits into the
intermediate range of production.

Fig. 28 Types of Production Systems

General purpose machines can accommodate a large variety of parts. They are
manually operated and therefore production volumes are low. CNC machines can
accommodate variety but the production volume is less as the machines are not
optimized for the highest productivity for a specified type of job. It can be seen that
FMC and FMS satisfy both variety and volume equally well. If we take special
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purpose machines, variety is much restricted. Transfer lines are dedicated usually to
manufacture a component and hence can be said to have the minimum variety.

4.4 Types of FMS

FMS has been classified in several ways. Some of these classifications are still valid
but the discussion in this book is restricted to three basic types:

Flexible Manufacturing Cells (FMC)

The simplest, hence most flexible type of FMS is a flexible manufacturing cell. It
consists of one or more CNC machine tools, general purpose or of special design
interfaced with automated material handling and tool changers. FMC’s are capable
of automatically machining a wide range of different workpieces. They are usually

employed in one off and small batch production as independent machining centres,
but are frequently the starting point for FMS.

A turning centre fitted with a gantry loading and unloading system and pallets for
storing work pieces and finished parts is a typical flexible turning cell. If the turning
centre is incorporated with either in-process or post process metrology equipment
like Renishaw probes or inductive measuring equipment for automatic offset
correction, the productivity of the system improves and wastage due to rejection is
reduced. Automatic tool changers, tool magazines, block tooling, automatic tool
offset measurement, and automatic chuck change and chuck jaw change etc. help to
make the cell to be more productive.

One or two horizontal machining centres with modular fixturing, multiple pallets,
advanced tool management system, automatic tool changer, automatic head
changer or automatic magazine changer, robots or other material handling systems
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to facilitate access of the jobs to the machine also constitute a flexible machining
cell.

An FMC can also comprise a turning centre, machining centre and pick and place
robots or other materials handling systems. Fig. 29 shows the block diagram of a
flexible manufacturing cell. This consists of a CNC lathe, a machining centre, a small
automatic storage and retrieval system, two robots for loading and unloading the
machines and a small rail guided vehicle to carry the component from one machine
tool to another. The system is controlled by a PLC and a couple of personal
computer.

Fig. 29 Flexible Manufacturing Cell

Flexible Turning Cells

One of the most important advantages of CNC machines is their flexibility. The
flexibility in this particular context means that these work centres enable the
production of components in short batches. The production can be planned to meet
immediate requirements because the change over time is short. In order to enable
the production set up to change over from one component to another component in
the shortest possible time, several technological features have to be added to the
turning machines. This section describes some of these important features.

There are several ways to cut down idle time and component change over time and
improve the productivity and flexibility of CNC turning centres. Flexible turning cells
generally employ turning centres instead of CNC lathes. The availability of C-axis
and the live tools in the turret enable the process designer to complete not only
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turning but also operations like milling, off-centre drilling, tapping, and helical groove
cutting etc in one set up. This means that all operations required to completely
machine a component can be carried out in one set up itself.

The relatively high cost of CNC machines means that the machine hour rate is
several times that of conventional machines. This necessitates not only increasing
the utilization by cutting down idle time but also working on all the three shifts of the
day as well as during holidays. This calls for a high degree of automation. By using
automatic part changer, automatic tool changer and adopting process automation
through sensing and feedback devices like tool breakage sensors, automatic tool
length offset compensation, in-process or post-process gauging and program
correction, automatic chuck changing and chuck jaw changing, it will be possible to
achieve fully automatic unmanned machining.

Flexible Transfer Lines (FTL)

Flexible transfer lines are intended for high volume production. A part in a high
volume production may have to undergo large number of operations. Each operation
is assigned to and performed on only one machine. This results in a fixed route for
each part through the system. The material handling system is usually a pallet or
carousel or conveyor. In addition to general purpose machines, it can consist of
SPM’s, robots and

some dedicated equipment. Scheduling to balance the machine loads is easier.

Unlike conventional transfer lines, a number of different workpieces can be
manufactured on the FTL. The resetting procedure is largely automatic.

Flexible Machining Systems

Flexible Machining Systems consists of several flexible automated machine tools of

the universal or special type which are flexibly interlinked by an automatic workpiece
flow system so that different workpieces can be machined with the same machine
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configuration. The characteristic feature is the external interlinkage of the machines,

unrestricted by cycle time considerations. Different machining times at the individual
stations are compensated for by central or decentralized workpiece buffer stores.
Flexibility is applied to machines because of CNC control and flow of products from
one machine to another which is possible through flexible transport system.
Flexibility is characterized by the system’s ability to adapt to changes in the volumes
in the product mix and of the machining processes and sequences. This means that
a FMS will be able to respond quickly to changing market and customer demands.

4.5 Benefits of FMS

FMS’s are designed to provide a number of advantages over alternative approaches

(Fig. 30). These are listed below:

Fig. 30 Benefits of FMS

Reduced cycle times

• Lower work-in-process (WIP) inventory

• Low direct labour costs

• Ability to change over to different parts quickly

• Improved quality of product (due to consistency)

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• Higher utilization of equipment and resources (Utilization better than

standalone CNC machines)

• Quicker response to market changes

• Reduced space requirements

• Ability to optimize loading and throughput of machines

• Expandability for additional processes or added capacity

• Reduced number of tools and machines required

• Motivation for designers to add variations and features to meet customer

requirements.

• Compatible with CIM

Some of these advantages can lead to significant cost savings. Direct labour can be
eliminated almost entirely. Cycle time and WIP can be reduced to a fraction of what
is normally experienced in a manual operation. An FMS is designed to have the
production machines working most of the time rather than standing idle.

This can be explained with the help of Fig. 31. On any manually controlled work
centre, the total time available for production per year is 8760 hours. Out of which
the company loses 14.3 % of the time on account of Sunday being a weekly holiday.
Paid holidays result in production loss of roughly 1.5%. An employee may also be
eligible for paid leave (casual leave, earned leave etc.) and this may reduce the
available working hours by 8%. The efficiency of production in the third shift is
usually less and the production loss due to it is about 14% (assuming only 50% of
the normal efficiency in the third shift). In India, a major cause for loss of production
is employee absenteeism due to medical or other reasons. A factory employee is
eligible to avail unto 90 days leave a year, enjoying the benefits from Employee’s
State Insurance. The average absenteeism in many industries varies. If we assume
that the loss of production due to absenteeism

is approximately 7%, the net available production time is only 55%. Assuming an
efficiency of production of 80%, the work centre time utilized comes down to 44%.
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Fig. 31 Loss of Production Time

In the case of conventional manually operated metal cutting machines, the actual
time utilized for removal of material is about 30-35% of the working time. The rest of
the time is spent on non-productive operations like setting up of work and tools,
inspection or procuring tools etc.

In the case of efficient operation of CNC machines this percentage increased to 80

to 85%. In FMS, one can achieve as high as 90-95% efficiency. Another important
feature of FMS is that an FMS can produce parts even if the employee is absent or
even if it is a holiday. The significance of FMS must be apparent from this fact. An
automated material handling system and a computer-based production scheduling
system are needed to keep the machines fed with parts. FMS uses computer
automation techniques to lower the overall cost of production operations.

Buffer Storing of Parts

In an FMS, parts move from one work cell to another where the various processing
tasks are performed. Because of the almost random production facilities of FMS, the
destination cell might not always ready to accept the incoming part and the part has
to wait in a buffer store. These and other bottlenecks in the materials handling
problems can be successfully detected by simulation. Buffer stores for parts will
always be desirable. Figure 19.8 shows a typical FMC cell layout where buffer stores
are used as an integral part of the cell as well as the overall materials handling
system.
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Fig. 32 Typical FMC Layout

Operational Elements of a typical Flexible Manufacturing Cell

Figure 33 shows a flexible manufacturing cell. The various functional elements of the

FMC are discussed below:

Fig. 33 Flexible Manufacturing Cell

Job Scheduling

Manufacturing orders are entered into the cell computer by the operator interactively.

In the input routine, the operator enters the job number, the parts number, the
production quantities and deadlines. Manufacturing orders can be completed on a
batch basis or may involve a parts mix. Figure 35 shows the various FMC functions.

By setting appropriate identifiers it is possible to link manufacturing orders in such a

way that parts are finished in the correct order for assembly. The fundamental
planning method used is such that with as few workpiece carriers as possible in the
cell the machines can be well utilized and throughput times can be kept to a
minimum.
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System Configuration

Several flexible manufacturing cells can be combined to form a system under the
control of a supervisory computer. In such a system, tasks are distributed among the
individual cell computers and the supervisory computer. A typical arrangement is
shown in Fig. 40. Machine related functions such as CNC program supply and the
machine tool programs, any material flow control within the cell and the associated
data storage facilities remain at cell level.
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Fig.40

Execution of the higher functions of job scheduling, tool requirement management,

material flow control and palletizing etc., are the responsibility of the co-ordination
computer.

• Each of the cells is a self-contained functional unit

• The cells can be put into operation at different times

• The cells have a standardized interface to the supervisory computer

• The cells can be supplied by different machine manufacturers

• Incorporation of autonomous cells into the system can be done as and when
needed.

Typical FMS Layout

Figure 41 shows the layout of a typical FMS. For the sake of clarity only a few
representative component units are shown in the figure. The following major
subsystems and components can be seen in the illustration:

(i) Automatic storage and retrieval system

(ii) CNC machines

(iii) Workpiece carriers (AGV’s)

(iv) Palletizing station

(v) Washing station

(vi) Tool presetting station

Computer control system

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Fig. 41 A Typical FMS

Conventional Approaches to Manufacturing

Conventional approaches to manufacturing have generally centered on machines

laid out in logical arrangements in a manufacturing facility. These machine layouts
are classified by:

a. Function - Machines organized by function will typically perform the same function,
and the location of these departments relative to each other is normally arranged so
as to minimize interdepartmental material handling.Workpiece produced in functional
layout departments and factories are generally manufactured in small batches up to
fifty pieces (a great variety of parts).

b. Line or flow layout - the arrangement of machines in the part processing order or
sequence required. A transfer line is an example of a line layout. Parts progressively
move from one machine to another in a line or flow layout by means of a roller
conveyor or through manual material handling. Typically, one or very few different
parts are produced on a line or flow type of layout, as all parts processed require the
same processing sequence of operations. All machining is performed in one
department, thereby minimizing interdepartmental material handling.
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Fig. 45
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Fig. 48 Control Loop of a Manufacturing System